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OUTLINES 

or 

ANCIENT AND MODERN 
HISTORY, 

ON A NEW PLAN. 

EMBRACING 

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF ILLUSTRIOUS PERSONS, 

AND 

GENERAL VIEWS 

OP THE GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, POLITICS, RELIGION. MILITARY 

AND NAVAL AFFAIRS, ARTS, LITERATURE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, 

AND SOCIETY, OF ANCIENT AND MODERN NATIONS. 



BY REV. ROYAL ROBBINS. 



ACCOMPANIED BY A SERIES OF QUESTIONS, 

AND ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS. 
TWO VOLUMES IN ONE. 

VOL. I. 
ANCIENT BISTORT. 

EIGHTH REVISED EDITION. 

HARTFORD: 
BELKNAP AND HAMERSLEY. 

1839. 



JJ2I 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1835, 

By Edward Hopkins, 
In the Clerk's office of the District Court of Connecticut 



int Law Book Oft* 
Jan. 22, 1887 



Ml 

Kent Law Book Co., 
Jan. 22. 19B7 









PREFACE. 



Thk increasing interest which of late years has been felt in regard to educa- 
tion, amorg a.l classes of the community, has given rise to new, and it is be- 
lieved in many instances, improved methods of advancing this great object. 
Books have been written with a special view of imparting instruction to 
youthful minds, as well as of directing the inquiries and gratifying the curiosity 
of riper understandings. In these works, so far as they have been elementary, 
the principle of comparison and classification has extensively prevailed ; par- 
ticular attention has been paid to the selection and arrangement of topics ; 
things differing in kind have been kept separate as much as possible ; and, in 
general, there has been a marked effort to observe the methods of science, and 
the laws oy which the mind is usually governed in the acquisition of know- 
ledge. In this way, ideas correctly arranged, and happily associated, have 
been communicated to learners and readers, on the various subjects presented 
to their consideration.* 

" Ancient History," to which the reader is here introduced, " may be 
treated either ethnographical! y, that is, according to the different nations and 
states, or synchronicaLy, that is, according to certain general periods of time. 
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages ; both may, however, to 
a certain extent, be united." This is a remark of Heeren,t and the last was 
the arrangement which he adopted in his admirable History of the States of 
Antiquity, as well as in that which bears the title of the Political System of 
Europe. In the present volume, the subject has been treated under an ar 
rangement somewhat similar, both methods being combined, as far as could be 
done with convenience. The synchronical method, however, predominates, 
and that almost necessarily, in consequence of the very distinct eras which 
have been observed in the work. If, therefore, the general reader should ex- 
perience any inconvenience, or diminution of interest, from the temporary sus- 
pension of the history of any single nation, he still can pursue the account 
of such nation in continuity, provided he will take it up in the successive 
periods, and omit, at the same time, the history of other nations. But it is 
believed, that the interest arising from the history of individual states, is very 
little less on this plan, than on the ethnographical, and even that, should it be 
considerably less, the clearer and more comprehensive views thence derived, 
would be an ample indemnification for the loss. 

But it is time that the plan of the present work should be more particularly 
explained. It is briefly as follows. In the first place, political history, or the 

* As subservient to the improvements above alluded to, we must acknowledge the agency of 
numerous contrivances by means of maps, charts, engravings, and copious statistical tables, 
and also of a distinction of type between what is more and what is less essential in the subject 
matter of a treatise. Several of these contrivances, as well as of the more general improvements, 
have been extended to historical productions, as books designed for education ; and especially 
great help has been derived from the last named particular— the use of different sizes of type. 
This auxiliary was suggested bv the success which attended the Rev. David Blair's celebrated 
works for education, by "whom u has been extensively employed. Accordingly, early use of it 
was made in this country, in a series of historical productions, of which the present was one, 
announced as developed on the plan of that gentleman, with the avowal, however, that they 
were wholly original, and with the reasons of the common name which they bore. These 
reasons have now ceased to operate in regard to the present work. 

t Professor of History in Gottingen. 



4 PREFACE. 

hiatory of states, is given, and the subject is divided into ten periods, each 
being distinguished by some characteristic trait. The periods are then 
carried on separately. The important facts of each are stated in large type, 
and explanations, observations, anecdotes, adventures, and interesting par- 
ticulars, illustrative of the events, manners, feelings, and opinions of the age, 
added in the smaller type. The matter in the smaller type is properly aii 
expansion of that in the larger, or carries on the history merely by tracing 
its minuter features. At the close of the period, the lives of the illustrious 
persons who flourished during the same, are introduced, inasmuch as the* 
constitute, in some instances, a portion of the world's political history. 

Having in this way gone through the ten periods, then the reader, undet 
tb.3 General Views, is instructed in the geography, politics, religion, milita- 
ry and naval affairs, arts, literature, manners, &c. of ancient nations. By 
this means he is brought into a close and intimate acquaintance with those 
communities whose political history he has read, anil can picture to himself 
their manner of living, thinking, feeling, and acting. This latter part of the 
book includes nearly such a subdivision of the general history of the human 
race, as Heeren calls " the history of culture, or of humanity, which investi- 
gates the history of men as men, without further reference to political rela- 
tions." A portion, however, of the first part of the work, particularly the 
biographical details, would be included, perhaps, in the professor's definition 
of the history of culture. 

A plan of this kind, it is thought, if faithfully executed, must render his- 
tory clear and intelligible ; give vividness and interest to its various topics ; 
enable the student to surmount the difficulties arising from dates ; present a 
general view of the subject that may be easily comprehended and permanent 
ly established in the memory ; and thus lay a strong and lasting foundation 
for a knowledge of history. The subject is so arranged, that the whole body 
of ancient history may be reviewed in its progress, embracing under one con- 
tinuous aspect, the principal nations of the earth. And also, as already men- 
tioned, the history of any particular nation may be taken up, and contempla 
ted by itself. The student or reader having once mastered this outline, (if 
the plan have been executed in any measure answerable to the author's 
wishes, and to the importance of the subject,) will be qualified to enter upon 
the perusal of more extended and elaborate works of ancient history. Having 
the grand features of the subject distinctly arranged in his mind, he will 
readily class whatever additional facts he may obtain. He may thus accumu- 
late knowledge without danger of confusion, and increase his power of recol- 
lection by multiplied associations. 

Though the work here presented to the public is especially designed for the 
purposes of education, it also contemplates the benefit of those individuals to 
whom the topics of history are not unknown, by refreshing their memory 
with scenes and incidents, from which they have before experienced pleasure. 
It is hoped, moreover, that the work has been constructed with such a regard 
to truth and moral consistency, as to be auxiliary to that purity of manners, 
refinement of taste, and love of knowledge, of which every family ought to 
be ihe cherished abode. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction. 
Benefits to be expected from history, 
Sources of history, .... 

General Division 
Ten periods, ..... 

Period L 
Antediluvian World, . 
Distinguished Characters, . . 

Period II. 
Deluge, .... 

History of Assyria, 

China, . . • 



Disu 



nguislicd Chi 



haracters, 



History of the Hebrews, 
Cariaanites, 
Greece, 



Egypt, continued, 
Chin 



[una, continued, 
Distinguished Characters, $ 



Period UI. 



Period IV. 



History of the Israelites, . 

Canaan ites, continued, . 

Phoenicians, 
Greece, continued, 
Egypt, continued, 
Lydia, 
Italy, 
Distinguished Characters, 

Period 
History of the Israelites, continued, 

Greece, continued, 

Macedpn, 

Assyria, continued, 

Egypt, continued, 

Phoenicians, continued, 

Carthage, 

Italy, continued, . 

Distinguished Characters, . . 

Period 
History of the Romans, 

Greece, continued, . 

Israelites, continued, 

Jews, . , 

Nineveh, . . 

Babylon, . . 

Medes, 

Persia, . . 

Lydians, continued, 

Egypt, continued, 
Distinguished Characters) 



VL 



CONTENTS. 



Hiilory of Greece, continued, . 
Romans, continued, 
Egypt, continued, 
Persia, continued, 
Macedon, continued, 

Distinguished Characters, 

History of Greece, continued, , 
Rome, continued, 
Sicily, 

Syria, . , 

Jews, continued, 
Egypt, continued, 
Parthia, 
China, continued, 

Distinguished Characters, 



History of Rome, continued, 
Syria, continued, 
Jews, continued, 
Egypt, continued, 
Parthia, continued, 

Distinguished Characters, 

History of Rome, continued, 
Judea, continued, 
Egypt, continued, 
Parthia, continued, 

Distinguished Characters, 



Period VtL 



Period VOL 



Period IX. 



Period X. 



General Vie 



Antediluvian World. — Surface of the Earth, Seasons, Population and Longevity, 

Religion, Arts and Sciences, Government, Commerce, : : : 

Assyria, (including Babylonia) — Government and Laws, Religion, Customs, 

Learning, Arts, :::::::: 

China. — Geography, Government, Religion, Sciences and Arts, : : 

Egypt. — Situation, Name and Division, Cities, Monuments and Works of Art, 

Government and Laws, Mythology, Education, Domestic Habits, Manners and 

Customs, Literature and Arts, Trade, Language, : : : : 

Hebrews. — Remains of Ancient Works, Cities, Religion, Government, Manners 

and Customs, Learning, Arts, Commerce, : : : : 

Canaanites. — Customs, Manners, Arts and Sciences, Religion, : : 

Greece. — Appearance and Face of the Country, Situation, Extent and Division, 
Names, Interesting Localities, Cities, Government, Military Affairs, Naval 
Affairs, Religion, Literature, Arts, Private and Domestic Life, : 

Phcenicians— Country, Cities and Remains, Navigation and Colonies, Sciences, 

Arts and Manufactures, Religion, : : : : : 

Lydians. — Country, Cities, Character, Customs, : : : : 

Romans. — Country, its Name, Situation and Division, Interesting Localities, 
Capital of Italy, and Seat of the Roman Empire, Political State, Religion, 
Military Affairs, Fleets, Agriculture, Amusements and Public Spectacles, 
Education, Literature, Arts, Domestic Life and Manners, Foreign Commerce, 
Syria.— Situation and Cities, Character of the Ancient Sjrians, Language, : 
Carthage.— Extent, Government and Character, : : : : 

Parthia. — Situation, &c :::::.: 

Persia.— Extent and Situation, Education, Punishments, Military Art, I 

Mythology of Ancient Nations, ::::?' 

Discoveries. Inventions, and Improvements of Early Ages, • 



195 
216 
217 
217 
217 
219 
223 



INTRODUCTION. 



1. The term History comprehends a record of all the remarkable 
transactions which have taken place among the human family. It 
is the collected result of individual experience in every age and na- 
tion ; and is, consequently, a source of practical wisdom to legislators 
and rulers, and of profitable reflection to private persons. 

The benefits to be expected from history deserve a few remarks in detail. 
When it is written with a proper spirit, and in strict agreement with facts, there 
is scarcely any branch of letters so well calculated to furnish an agreeable re- 
laxation to the student ; to improve his understanding- and enlarge his stores 
of useful knowledge ; or, in general, to subserve the cause of morality and re- 
ligion in human society. 

From the infinite variety of aspects in which history presents the dealings 
of Providence, and from the immense number, of characters and incidents 
which it brings into view, it becomes a source of perpetual interest and enjoy 
ment. The novelist, with all the license he possesses to imagine such physi- 
cal and moral combinations as he pleases, cannot clothe his subject with hall 
the attractions which a reflecting mind attaches to true narrative. 

The view of past ages fills the mind with a sublime and pleasing melancholy. 
We dwell with deep and tender emotion on the actions, sufferings, and changes 
of those who were "bone of our bones, and flesh of our flesh" — we regret that 
some of them should ever have lived to disorder the world with their crimes, 
and that others should have died, to leave it without the benefit of their con- 
tinued active labours. 

History improves our understanding, and enlarges our stores of useful 
knowledge, by bringing to our assistance the experience of ethers — the expe- 
lienoe of all time ; by making us acquainted with human nature ; by delivering 
the mind from bigotry and prejudice — from narrow and sectional feelings ; by 
opening to us the spring's of human affairs, and the causes of the rise, great- 
ness, decline, and fall of empires. 

There is something in the picture of the generations before us, of their 
achievements and projects ; of their manners, pursuits, and attainments ; of 
their mode of thinking and acting ; of their religion, government, and litera- 
ture ; which, going beyond the gratification of curiosity, or storing the mind 
with mere ideas, teaches us wisdom, by the comparison of their situation with 
our own, and by a great variety of interesting reflections naturally suggested 
to our thoughts. 

From the whole that history presents us, we deduce conclusions that have 
an important bearing on human happiness and virtue. This we consider as 
the most signal benefit derivable from the record of past ages. It gives us, 
in connexion with revelation, which furnishes a most interesting portion of 
the world's history, a correct estimate of life and of human nature in all its va- 
riety. It shows us how man has acted according to his own pleasure, whether 
uprightly or wickedly, and, at the same time, how God has conducted the 
train of events to bring about the purposes of His wisdom and grace. 

Speaking in the way of aphorism, history is a record of what God has done, 
and of what he haa cither enabled or suffered man to do, on the stage of the 
world. Even, therefore, without the direct comments of the writer, which 
nevertheless are due, we can derive important instruction from, it ; and can 
hardly help being impressed with the grandeur or solemnity of the movements 
of Providence, in the deotiny of nations. 



B INTRODUCTION. 

In short, it is here that we are supplied with the most rational entertainment, 
and our faculties of imagination, memory, reason, and judgment, are put to a 
most agreeable and salutary exercise. It is here we learn political science and 
philosophy; we ascertain the necessity of government, the blessings of civili- 
zation, the progress of reason and society ; and especially it is here we see 
" a God emploj'ed 
In all the good and ill that chequer life," 

and in all the events that have a bearing on the interests of true religion. 

2. History is derived to us from various sources, differing in de- 
grees of authenticity, but in general illustrating and confirming one 
another. The principal sources are the narratives of writers, whose 
knowledge of the events they describe may have been acquired by 
personal observation; inspection of public documents; poetic le- 
gends; and oral tradition. In addition to these, there are several 
other sources that are highly valuable, supplying the want of direct 
and regular narrative, such as monuments, ruins, coins, &c. 

Monuments on the surface of the ground, such as pillars and heaps of stone 
or earth, since they are intended to perpetuate the knowledge of important 
events, throw some light on the proper subjects of history. 

Ruins indicate the existence of arts and wisdom in ancient times, which arc 
Btill astonishing to the civilized wot Id. They afford a knowledge of antiquity, 
which description, in many cases, could never supply. Such are the ruins that 
exist in Egypt, the Holy Land, Greece, and Italy, in their cities, temples, aque 
ducTa, columns, &c. 

Coins and medals offer very valuable means of historical information. 
They have often been examined and studied for that purpose, are abundant, 
and "some of them possess considerable antiquity. The oldest known, belong 
.0 the 5th century B. C. 

Inscriptions on marble may be mentioned as another source of history. 
The Arundelian marbles, so called from the earl of Arundel who brought 
them from Greece into England, are the most celebrated collection of marbles 
bearing inscriptions, and thus communicating knowledge of antiquity. The 
Chronicle of Paros is the most important of these inscriptions, as it containa 
the chronology of Athens, from the time of Cecrops 1582, commonly put 1556 
B.C, to 264 B. C. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



GENERAL DIVISION. 

History may be divided into two great parts, viz. An 
cient and Modern. Ancient History includes a period of 
4004 years, and extends from the Creation of the World to the 
Nativity of Jesus Christ. Modern History includes a period 
of 1829 years, and extends from the Nativity of Jesus Christ, 
to the present time. 

Observations. Ancient History, which is the subject of this vo- 
lume, comprehending an account of the Creation, and the grand 
events connected with it ; of the fall of man ; of the deluge ; of the 
origin of nations ; and of the principles, achievements, manners, 
habits, religion, learning, &c. of the early race of mortals, is equally 
curious and instructive. 

Period I. will extend from the Creation of the World, 
4004 years, B. C, to the Deluge, 2348 years B. C. This is 
the Antediluvian Period. 

Period II. will extend from the Deluge, 2348 years B. C, 
to the Calling of Abraham, 1921 years B. C. This is the 
period of the Confusion of Languages. 

Period III. will extend from the Calling of Abraham, 
1921 years B. C, to the Departure of the Israelites from 
Egypt, 1491 years B. C. This is the period of Egyptian 
Bondage. 

Period IV. will extend from the Departure of the Israel- 
ites from Egypt, 1491 years B. C, to the Dedication of Solo- 
mon's Temple, 1004 years B. C. This is the period of the 
Trojan War. 

Period V. will extend from the Dedication of Solomon's 
Temple, 1004 years B. C, to the Founding of Rome, 752 
years B. C. This is the period of Homer. 

Period VI. will extend from the Founding of Rome, 752 
years B. C, to the Battle of Marathon, 490 years B. C. This 
is the period of Roman Kings. 



10 GENERAL DIVISION. 

Period VII. will extend from the Battle cf Marathon, 490 
years B. C, to the Birth of Alexander, 356 years B. C. This 
is the period of Grecian Glory. 

Period VIII. will extend from the Birth of Alexander, 356 
years B. C, to the Destruction of Carthage, 146 years B. C. 
This is the period of Roman Military Renown. 

Period IX. will extend from the Destruction of Carthage 
146 years B. C, to the First Campaign of Julius Casar, 8C 
years B. C. This is the period of the Civil War between 
Marius and Sylla. 

Period X. will extend from the First Campaign of Julius 
Caesar, 80 years B. C, to the Nativity of Jesus Christ, and 
the Commencement of the Christian Era. This is the pe- 
riod of Roman Literature. 

Observations. The characteristic, or title of each of these pe- 
riods, is derived from some prominent event, or striking peculiarity 
by which it is marked. Thus, for instance, during the last period 
but one, Rome, which was beginning to be mistress of the world, 
was for a long time disturbed by the contentions of rival chiefs. 
The period, therefore, is denominated that of the Civil War be- 
tween Marius and Sylla, as marking the most important event in 
the history of the world during that time. Thus, also, during the 
last, or 10th period, literatui>; greatly flourished among the Romans, 
under the auspices of Augustus. It is, therefore, designated as the 
period of Roman literature, as being the most striking peculiarity 
of that era, among the nations. In the same manner, also, the cha 
racteristics of all the others are derived. 



PERIOD 1. 



The Antediluvian Period, extending from the Creation 
of the World, 4004 years B. C. to the deluge, 2348 
years B. C. 

The Bible affords the only authentic history of the first ages of 
the world. The events which it relates of those ages, are confirmed 
by the appearances of nature, and by legendary tradition. 

Section 1. All human records agree that men and em- 
pires first appeared in the East. There, those demigods 
and heroes, who are the subjects of heathen fable, are repre- 
sented as having lived and acted. When, therefore, the 
Bible points to that quarter of the globe, as the cradle of na- 
tions and of the aits, and as the theatre of the most wonder 
fill events, it only coincides with the general belief of man- 
kind on this subject. 

The account contained in that sacred book respecting the 
creation of the world, or the beginning of time, is equally 
worthy of credit. This, of course, is the first grand event 
which history presents to us. The cosmogonies of nations, 
that is, the schemes they have adopted respecting the forma- 
tion of the world, vary very much from one another, and 
most of them are manifestly absurd and incredible. That 
of the Hebrews, which constitutes the scriptural account, is the 
only one that deserves implicit belief. 

2. According to this account, it appears that about 5829 
years ago, God called the visible universe into being, by 
the word of his power ; that a determinate length of time 
was occupied in the work, the various portions of the world 
being produced on six successive days ; that man was cre- 
ated on the last day of those six, and constituted the head of 
all the animal tribes ; that his happiness and increase were 
provided for by the institution of marriage, which was soon 
announced ; that God saw that all hi* work was good ; and 
that he rested on the seventh day, hallowing it, as a day to 
be devoted to religious solemnittes. 



12 ANCIENT HlSTOftV PERIOD J 






§ The earth, immediately subsequent to its creation, was a fluid, 
:iark, and shapeless mass of .matter. The first thing done to bring 
it into a perfect state, was the creation of light. Then the firma 
ment expanded, to divide the upper from the lower waters. 

Succeeding this, the assembled waters retired to their destined 
oed ; and, at length, the dry land was seen, crowned with a rich 
prolusion of herbage, fruits, and flowers. These great occurrences 
occupied the first three days. 

The following day was devoted to an illumination of the earth. 
The heavens were accordingly adorned with myriads of stars ; and 
the greater luminaries were so disposed, as to distinguish between 
day and night, and to divide the seasons of the year. 

On the fifth and sixth days, the waters were replenished with fish, 
the air was filled with birds, the meadows were stocked with cattle, 
and every part of the earth's surface was inhabited by its appropriate 
tribes. 

The last work of the sixth day was the creation of man. This 
was the crowning work of the whole. God formed him of the dust 
of the ground, breathed into his body the breath of life, or immor- 
tality, and hence man became a living soul. Woman was also 
formed, out of the side of the man, who was cast into a deep sleep 
for that purpose. 

After the creation of this helper for man, she was given to the lat 
ter, and the sacred institution of marriage was ordained by the Creatoi 
himself. From this pair sprang all the various nations of mankind. 
, As a matter of curiosity, and forming a perfect contrast to the ra- 
tional account of the Scriptures, we will mention a few theories ol 
philosophers and others, on the formation of the universe. 

It was the opinion of Zenophanes, Strabo, and others, that the 
earth, and the whole system of the universe, was the Deity himself 
Pythagoras inculcated the famous numerical system of the monad, 
dyad, and triad ; and, by means of his sacred quaternary, eluci- 
dated the formation of the world, and the secrets of nature. 

Other philosophers adhered to the mathematical system of squares 
and triangles; the cube, the pyramid, and the sphere, &c. While 
others maintained the great elementary theory, which refers the 
construction of our globe, and all it contains, to the combinations of 
the four material elements, air, earth, fire, and water, with the as- 
sistance of a fifth, an immaterial and vivifying principle. 

It is recorded by the Brahmins, in the pages of their inspired 
Shastah, that the angel Bistnoo, transforming himself into a great 
boar, plunged into the watery abyss, and brought up the earth on 
his tusks. Then issued from him a mighty tortoise and snake; and 
Bistnoo placed the snake erect upon the back of the tortoise, and he 
placed the eartli upon the head of the snake. 

The negroes of Congo affirm that the world was made by the hands 
of angels, excepting their own country, which the Supreme Being 
constructed himself; that he took great pains with the inhabitants, 
and made them very black and beautiful ; and when he had finished 
tho first man. he was well pleased with him, and smoothed him over 



4004—2348 b. c. IS 

the face; and hence his nose, and the noses of all his descendants, 
Decame flat. 

Burfon, a modern infidel philosopher, conjectures that this earth 
was originally a globe of liquid fire, struck from the body of the 
sun, by means of a comet, as a spark is produced by the collision 
of flint and steel ; that at first it was surrounded by gross vapory 
which, cooling and condensing in process of time, constituted, ac- 
cording to their densities, earth, water, and air ; which gradually 
arranged themselves according to their respective gravities, round 
the burning mass that formed their centre. 

Darwin, an infidel also, in accounting for the origin of the world, 
supposes that the mass of chaos suddenly exploded, like a barrel of 
gunpowdei, and in that act exploded the sun, which, in its flight, by 
a similar convulsion, exploded the earth, which in like manner ex- 
ploded the moon ; and thus, by a chain of explosions, the whole so- 
lar system was produced, and set in regular motion. 

3. Adam and Eve. the names of the first human pair, 
were placed by the Deity, immediately subsequent to their 
creation, in the garden of Eden, with instructions to keep and 
dress it. They were allowed the free use of all the fruit of 
the garden, with a single reservation, which was designed as 
a trial of their obedience. The penalty of death was threat- 
ened if they should transgress the command of their Maker. 
Created pure and innocent, and placed in a state of unalloyed 
happiness, they had every inducement to do well. 

§ Adam and Eve seem to have been created without the garden, 
and immediately afterwards brought into it. It is evident that Eden 
was east of Canaan, or of the wilderness where Moses wrote the sa- 
cred history. But the precise spot cannot now be ascertained. 

The most extravagant opinions have been entertained on this stuV 
ject ; and not only the four quarters of the globe, but even the air 
and the moon, have been conjectured to include this delightful 
abode. Following the Bible as nearly as we are able, and judg- 
ing from the well known names of the Hiddekel, or Tigris, and the 
Euphrates, we may determine, with some probability, that the Gar- 
den of Eden was situated in or near Mesopotamia, probably Diarbec^ 
a part of that country. 

It is clear that Moses intended to give an intelligible description 
of the situation of Eden to his countrymen, who might know it ex 
actly, though we cannot ; and it is clear, also, that, though the face 
of the country may have been greatly changed by means of the de 
luge, the Tigris and Euphrates continued nearly the same coursr- 
after that event as before. 

The tree, the fruit of which Adam was forbidden to eat, is called 
the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, which intimates that, 
by abstaining from this fruit, the knowledge of good would be en 
joyed, but, by eating it, the knowledge of evil would be fatally in 
froduced. 



14 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD 1. 

4. The innocence and felicity of the first pair were of vert 
short duration. They violated, with daring impiety, the sole 
command of their Maker. The precise time of this transac- 
tion cannot he determined ; but it was probably only a few 
days after their creation. 

The woman, being deceive^ by the subtlety of Satan, in 
the form of a serpent, was the first in transgression ; and, by 
her means, Adam also sinned. A sense of guiit and misery 
unknown before, then pervaded their bosoms ; though they 
were preserved from despair by the promise of a Saviour. 

§ The greatness of the sin of our first parents is no less evident than 
the subtlety of the Tempter. In their sin was involved almost every 
crime— ingratitude, sensuality, ambition, unbelief, distrust, malignity, 
pride, insubordination. 

The effect was decisive. The face ot creation was altered. " Na- 
ture gave signs that all was lost." Death was introduced 

into the system, and our first parents, from that moment, became 
iiaole to dissolution, with all their posterity. The seeds of death 
were then planted in their frame, and the moral qualities of their 
souls became wholly corrupt and sinful. 

The disclosure of their crime was in the highest degree distress- 
ing to the guilty pair. God called them to acocunt, and his awful 
frown and displeasure, chilled and penetrated their souls. The 
ground was cursed for their sakes, and a great variety of evils was 
entailed upon them. 

The serpent, who was the instrument of the crime, received his 
doom, in connexion with the promise of a deliverer on the part oi 
man, who had been so fatally beset and overcome. The seed of the 
woman was eventually to bruise the Serpent's head — a declaration 
referable, in its full extent, only to Jesus Christ, the Savioui oi 
mankind. The immediate expulsion of Adam and Eve from para- 
dise, was the natural conclusion of this dreadful and calamitous 
scene, after their Maker had first mercifully provided them with 
coats of skin, to cover their nakedness. Cherubims, and a flaming 
sword, which turned every way, placed at the east of the garden, 
prevented all access to the once happy abode, particularly to the 
tree of life. 

5. In the first year of the world, 4004 years B. C. was 
born Cain, the firsi begotten of the human family. The suc- 
ceeding year. Abel was born. These brothers not only fol- 
lowed different occupations, but possessed very different cha- 
racters. The bitter frui's of the apostacy appeared at length 
ii» !i , murder of the one by the other. 

'\\ an occasion of presenting an offering unto God, Cain, 
who was a husbandman, brought of the fruit of the ground ; 
Abei, who was a shepherd, brought of the firstlings of his 



4004—2348 b. C 15 

flock. The offerers, being dissimilar in character, and their 
offerings having a dissimilar signiiicancy, were not alike ac- 
cepted of Jehovah. Cain and his offering were rejected. 
This circumstance excited the indignation of Cain, who, 
taking his opportunity when they were alone in the field, rose 
up against his brother and slew him. 

On account of his crime, Cain was forthwith punished by 
Jehovah. He was called to a solemn reckoning, and, hear 
big with anguish his doom pronounced, " a fugitive and a 
vagabond shall thou be in the earth," he went out from the 
presence of the Lord, and dwelt in the land of Nod, on the 
east of Eden. 

He, however, built a city, at length, and his family and de- 
scendants became famous as inventors of useful and ingenious 
arts, though it does not appear that any of them were pious, 
and enjoyed the divine favour. 

§ The murder of Abel occurred, it is generally supposed, but a 
short time before the birth of Seth, or about 130 years after the cre- 
ation. As Adam and Eve, in the mean time, must have had other 
children, the human family was no doubt considerably multiplied 
during 130 years. Hence the events that are recorded by Moses, 
in connexion with the murrW f Abel, are easily accounted for, with- 
out supposing more than one numan pair, from whom all the inha. 
bitants then on the earth were descended. 

After the death of Abel, Adam and Eve had many other children, 
the eldest of the sons was named Seth, and his descendants, from 
their piety, were styled " the children of God," in opposition to the 
descendants of Cain, who were styled "the children of men/' 
These at length mingled together, and thus prepared the way for the 
universal wickedness that afterwards prevailed. 

6. After a short account of Cain and his family, the sa- 
cred historian informs us respecting " the generations of 
Adam;" and recording the births of Enos, Cainan, Mahalaleel, 
and Jared, he presents us with a brief but interesting history 
of Enoch. Being eminently pious, he is said to have walked 
with God, for the space of 300 years, and at the expiration 
of that time, to have been taken up to heaven, without pass- 
ing through the scene of death. 

The sacred genealogy is carried on to the time of Noah 
and his sons, and the date of the life of each one of the pa- 
triarchs is minutely given. 

§ As Adam lived 930 years, he must have beheld a numerous pos- 
terity, and been conversant with many who survived till near the 
time of the deluge. Doubtless he must have been greatly affected, 



10 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD t. 

in view of the wickedness which so soon began to spread over the 
earth, and which he had been the instrument of introducing. 

The place of his sepulchre is not mentioned in scripture; yet va- 
rious conjectures (and they are mere conjectures) have been formed 
m the subject. St. Jerome stations his remains in the cave of Mach- 
pelah ; and the generality of the primitive fathers suppose him to 
have been buried on Mount Calvary, in the very spot whereon Christ, 
i he second Adam, shed his blood for mankind. 

The descendants of Seth, at first continuing pure and uncorrnpted, 
at length., by intermarriages with the family of Cain, became, with 
the rest of mankind, exceedingly degenerate. From these inter- 
marriages sprang the giants of those times, men of extraordinary 
strength and stature, and, perhaps, of more extraordinary wick- 
edness. These became " men of renown," heroes, conquerors, and 
ihiettains. 

7. The Deity, justly provoked by the enormous degeneracy 
■ »f his creatures, determined to destroy, by a universal deluge, 
the race of man. together with the whole animal creation, ex- 
cept a very small remnant who were to restock the earth af- 
ter that catastrophe, 

One hundred and twenty years, however, did he merci 
fully afford to the children of men, as a space for repentance, 
during which time, Noah, " a preacher of righteousness/' 
endeavoured to reclaim them from their wickedness, and warn- 
ed them of then - doom. His zeal and labours seem to have 
produced no effect. The earth became at length filled witl 
violence. 

From the tremendous sentence which God had pronounced 
Noah and his family were excepted, he having "found grace 
in the eyes of the Lord." Connected with the intimatior 
which Noah had received concerning the approaching deluge 
were several particular instructions, relative to his deliver- 
ance. 

This was to be accomplished by means of a large vessel 
called the ark, which he built during the intervening period, 
agreeably to the divine directions. 

§ The ark was built of gopher wood, which some suppose to be 
the cypress tree. Its form was that of an oblong square, with a 
fiat bottom and a sloping roof, elevated one cubit in the middle. 
It consisted of three stories, each of which, excluding the thick- 
ness of the floors, might be eighteen feet high, and was divided 
into separate apartments. It was pitched within and without, to 
Keen it tight, and lighted from the upper part. It was, probably. 
well supplied with air ; and, though it had neither sails nor rudder 
it was well contrived for lying steadily on the surface of the water 



4004—2348 b. e If 

With this means of safety, Noah awaited the destruction whicb 
was fast coming upon the world. 

Distinguished characters in Period I. 

1. Adam, the first of the human race. 

2. Eve, the first woman. 

3. Cain, the earliest born of mankind, and first murderer. 

4. .Tubal, the first musician. 

5. Tubal-caio, the earliest instructer in the mechanic arts 

6. Enoch, translated to heaven on account of his piety. 

7. Methuselah, the oldest man that has ever lived, being 
969 years old w T hen he died. 

§ 1. Adam was created by the Almighty from the dust of the earth, 
on the 6th day of the creation. His Maker, it is said in Scripture, 
" breathed into his nostrils the breath of life ; and man became 
a living soul." He was thus endued with an immortal principle, 
and being placed in a probationary state, not only his own cha- 
racter, but the character of his posterity, was to be affected by his 
conduct. 

As he came from the hands of his Maker, he was pure, holy, and 
happy ; and he had every motive to persuade him to continued rec- 
titude of conduct. His outward circumstances also were favourable 
for this end. He was placed in a delightful garden, the easy tillage 
of which constituted his employment. God imposed upon him but 
one test of obedience, and that was abstinence in regard to eating 
the fruit of a certain tree in the garden. 

Persuaded by Eve, who, having been tempted by Satan, had pre- 
viously transgressed, he partook of the forbidden food, and thus 
death entered into the world, and u all our wo." His conduct in- 
volved the greatest impiety, and the consequences have been dread- 
ful in time, and will be so throughout eternity, in regard to multi- 
tudes of his offspring, who have imitated him in his disobedience, and 
repented not. 

It is highly probable that he, together with the woman, embraced 
an offered Saviour, immediately made known, both having repented 
of their sin. He lived many years afterwards, having begot sons 
and daughters, and died at the advanced age of 930 years. For fur- 
ther particulars, see Genesis, 2d, 3d, and 4th chapters. 

2. Eve was created " an help meet" for Adam, having been 
formed, by the Creator, from one of the ribs of Adam, which was 
taken from him in a deep sleep. Thus she became " bone of his 
bones, and flesh of his flesh," and was given to him as his wife. 

She proved to be first " in the transgression." Satan, a fallen spi- 
rit, assuming the form of a serpent, and, through the organs of that 
animal, exerting the powers of speech, accosted her when alone, and 
interrogated her respecting the forbidden tree. Taking her by sur- 
prise, and securing her attention and good will, he at length persuaded 
her to disobey the express command of God. 

BS 



*8 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD t. 

She partook of the fruit; "and gave also unto her husband with 
her and he did eat." This event, in regard to the first human pair, 
is supposed to have taken place very soon, if not immediately after 
they were placed in the garden. Eve, as a particular punishment to 
be inflicted upon her, was doomed in sorrow to bring forth children, 
and to be subject to her husband. 

3. Cain rendered himself famous by his wickedness. In an unpro- 
voked manner he murdered his brother Abel, and thus was the first 
who committed a crime which has ever been considered as the most 
atrocious that man commits. 

God directly punished him by an awful malediction ; and b„y causing 
him to become a fugitive and a vagabond in the earth. Going out 
" from the presence of t>e Lord," he dwelt in the land of Nod, on the 
east of Eden. He at length built a city, and called it Enoch, after 
the name of his son. 

Nothing is recorded of the time and manner of his death. He was 
most probably a person of great energy and enterprise, as has oflen 
been the fact with the wicked ones of the earth. 

4. Jubal is spoken of in Scripture as " the father of all such w* 
handle the harp and organ," as his brother Jabal is mentioned as : 
* the father of such as dwell in tents." From all accounts, both sa 
cred and profane, music must have been early known among man 
kind, and its performers must have been among the earliest civilizes 
of the world. 

5. Tubal-Cain is called u an insfructer of every artificer in brasr 
and iron." Probably he was so called from his having discovered 
the art of working in these metals ; the most useful of the mechanic 
arts, and lying at the foundation of all of them. 

6. Enoch lived 65 years before he begat Methuselah. He " walk- 
ed with God after he begat Methuselah 300 years, and begat sons and 
daughters. And all the days of Enoch were 365 years. And Enoch 
walked with God, and he was not, for God took him." Such is the 
simple and sublime record of scripture respecting a good man. It 
is an infinitely more precious memorial than the splendid marble 
monument, or the ever-during pyramid. 

7. Methuselah is not known to have been remarkable for any 
thing except his age. He must have lived to the very year of the 
flood. The circumstance of the longevity of the antediluvians, was ex- 
tremely favourable to the communication of knowledge, by tradition. 



PERIOD II. 

The Period of the Confusion of Languages ', extending 
from the Deluge, 2348 years B. C. to the calling of 
Abraham, 1921 years B. C. 

§ It may be observed here, that this period, in profane history, and 
even two or three others succeeding it, are what is termed fabulous. 
The events recorded are to be admitted with a great degree of eau- 



2343—1921 *. c. 19 

lion, except so far as Scripture incidentally throws its light upon 
them. And it is well known, also, that there is a portion of the 
early history of almost every nation, which is but little entitled to 
credit. We shall adduce the common accounts, and when neces- 
sary, shall endeavour to distinguish between the probable and impro- 
bable events. 

Section 1 . At the appointed time, God brought the wa- 
ters of the flood upon all the earth. For this purpose, he 
oroke up the fountains of the great deep, and opened the win- 
dows of heaven. During forty days and forty nights, with- 
out intermission, the waters were thus poured upon the surface 
of the globe. , 

As the ark was completed, Noah, being 600 years old, went 
into it, together with his wife, his three sons, and their wives, 
taking with him all kinds of beasts, birds, and reptiles, by pairs, 
and by sevens, agreeably to the divine direction. 

According to the antediluvian computation, Noah remained 
in the ark one year and ten days ; and on coming out, he 
built an altar, and offered a sacrifice to the Lord, who blessed 
Noah and his sons. They settled in the vicinity of mount 
Ararat, in Armenia. 

§ The waters increased gradually during the space of five months, 
when they rose to the elevation of 27 feet above the summits of the 
highest mountains. Men, beasts, birds, and reptiles, thus being de- 
prived of the means of safety, all perished. 

The purpose of God being effected, he caused a wind to pass over 
the earth, in consequence of which the waters began to subside. The 
ark rested on the mountains of Ararat, on the 17th day of the 7th 
month, or the 6th of May. 

The waters continuing several months afterwards, it was not 
until the 27th of the 2d month, or the 18th of December, that the 
inmates of the ark came forth in pursuance of the divine com 
mand. 

2. The truth of the Bible respecting the deluge, is strikingly 
confirmed by the general voice of mankind, and by the phy- 
sical structure and appearance of the earth's surface. 

§ The Chaldeans, Egyptians, Syrians, Indians, Chinese, Greeks, and 
other nations, all had some traditions respecting the deluge. Not to 
mention any that have been yet published, the author of this outline 
would state a fact once delivered to him by an intelligent adventurer, 
his countryman. 

Residing some time among the natives of the North West Coast of 
America, he fell into conversation with one of them around the fire 
of his wigwam, on various topics. Among other things, the Indian 
Inquired of him, whether his people knew any thing concerning a 
great flood that had once taken place. 



20 ANCIENT HISTORY. — PERIOD II. 

The stranger resident affecting surprise, with a view to learn what 
notion the natives had on the subject, asked his inquirer, how long 
ago it happened. The Indian immediately scooping up a handful of 
ashes that lay before him, promptly replied, "as many moons as 
there are ashes here." 

In agreement with the universal voice of tradition, the surface of 
the earth, in various respects, indicates the occurrence of such a ca- 
tastrophe. Its broken state, the disposition of its strata, and the re- 
mains of marine productions on the tops of the highest mountains, 
are no doubtful evidence on this subject, 

3. After the deliverance of Noah and his family from the 
flood, God established a gracious covenant with him, which is 
recorded at length in the 9th chapter of Genesis. Among 
other things, he made a grant of flesh as food for mankind, 
and he engaged no more to destroy the earth with a flood, in 
confirmation of which he set his bow in the cloud. 

4. Not long after this period. Noah, who had engaged in 
the pursuits of husbandry, -having been intoxicated by the 
juice of the grape, was discovered in this disgraceful situa- 
tion by his youngest son Ham, who, with indecent levity, in- 
formed his brethren of the circumstance. The latter, however, 
treated their father with the highest degree of filial decorum. 

This conduct procured for them the blessing of Noah, 
while that of Ham subjected him, in his son Canaan, to a 
dreadful curse. 

§ Noah, we are informed by the sacred historian, lived 350 years aftei 
the deluge, so that his entire age was 950 years. The Orientals have 
a tradition that he was buried in Mesopotamia, where they show his 
sepulchre, in a castle near Dair Abunah, or the " monastery of our 
father." 

5. The three sons of Noah were, of course, the first foun 
ders of nations. They peopled the several quarters of the 
globe, Shem, the east and south of Asia ; Ham, Syria, Ara- 
bia, and Africa ; Japheth, the north and west of Asia, and 
also Europe. 

§ From the immediate descendants of Shem were derived the Ela- 
mites or Persians, the Assyrians, and the Lydians. By Joktan, the 
fourth in descent from Shem, the uttermost parts of the east were 
peopled, and perhaps America also, where, it is said, some traces of 
his name yet remain. 

Joktan had 13 sons, and scripture says that the dwelling of Jok- 
tan's posterity " was from Mesha, as thou goest up to Sephar, a mount 
in the East." 

From the sons of Ham, who is supposed to be the Chronos of the 
Greeks, were descended the Ethiopians, the Babylonians, the Egyp- 



2348— 1921 b. c. 21 

tians, the Coichians, the Philistines, the Lybians, the Canaanites, the 
Sidonians, and the Phoenicians. 

From the sons of Japheth were descended the Cimbri, the Gauls, 
the Germans, the Scythians, the Tartars, the Medes, the Ionians, 
the Iberians, the Muscovites, and the Thracians. From their sons 
w ere derived other particular tribes, whose names need not here be 
rehearsed. 

6. During 101 years after the flood, i. e. till the year 2247 
B. C. all the descendants of Noah spoke but one language 
The occasion of a diversity of tongues in the world, and of 
the origin of distinct communities, was the following. 

At the time above referred to, the human family, in jour- 
neying from the vicinity of mount Ararat, arrived at length 
at a plain in the land of Shinar. On this spot they began to 
erect a city and a tower, whose top might aspire to heaven, for 
the purpose of avoiding the dispersion of their households, and 
of acquiring a name. 

Such a purpose, and perhaps others still worse, being of- 
fensive to the Deity, he confounded their language, and thus 
the workmen, not being able to understand one another, de- 
sisted from their undertaking. The consequence was the 
dispersion of mankind into different nations. 

The name given to the city was Babel, which signifies 
confusion. 

§ In erecting the tower they made use of brick instead of stone, and 
the want of mortar was supplied by slime, or bitumen, of which the 
region afforded an abundance. The identical materials of this fa- 
bric have been supposed, at different times, to have been discovered ; 
but this is uncertain. 

7. Mankind having become separated into different com- 
munities or nations, their history must thenceforth be given 
accordingly. We shall commence with the Assyrian nation, 
and briefly trace the outline of its history, as also the history 
of other sovereignties that existed during this period. 

ASSYRIA. 

8. Assyria, considered as afterwards including Babylonia, 
is the oldest of nations, and founded on the spot where the 
tower of Babel was erected. We may date the commence- 
ment of this empire not many years after the dispersion took 
place, or about 2229 years B. C. Its founder was Ashur, the 
sou of Shem, who built Nineveh, its capital. It continued 
alone about 120 years, and then being united to Babylonia, 
became a mighty empire, 



22 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD If. 

§ In the order of lime, there were two empires of the Assyrians. 
The first is here spoken of, which lasted till the year 767 B. C. 

It is supposed by some that Babylon, which was built by Nimrod ; 
the grandson of Ham, the Belus of profane history, was, from the 
beginning, the capital of Assyria. But we rather follow those autho- 
rities that suppose Babylonia and Assyria to have been originally 
two distinct kingdoms, both founded about the same time, the former 
by Nimrod, the latter by Ashur. 

The Babylonians became, at length, tributary ; and Ninus, king of 
Assyria, having deposed Nabonius, united the iwo states into one. 
\fter his death, Semiramis, his widow, transferred the seat of govern- 
nent from Nineveh to Babylon. 

9. Under Semiramis the Assyrian empire was greatly en- 
larged. She assumed the government during the nonage of 
Ninias, son of her husband, Ninus. She signalized her name 
by enlarging and embellishing Babylon, and by her nume- 
rous military exploits. 

§ It is said, that, in completing Babylon, she employed the labours 
of 2,000,000 men. This woman, after having enlarged her dominions, 
conquered a great part of Ethiopia, and invaded India, though with- 
out success, was murdered, as is supposed, at the instigation of 
Ninias. 

10. Ninias, her successor, was a very insignificant sove 
reign ; and the history of his successors, for more than 30 ge- 
nerations, is unknown. They must have been an indolent 
and effeminate race. 

§ Ninias, unlike his predecessors, being wholly intent on his plea 
sures, kept himself secluded in his palace, and seldom appeared 
before 'his people. But, to retain them in their duty, he kept a cer- 
tain number of regular troops, whom he renewed every year, com- 
manded by an officer on whose fidelity he could depend. This 
method he seems to have adopted, that the officers might have no 
time to gain the affections of the soldiers, or to form conspiracies 
against him. 

Not only are his successors unknown, as to their conduct or ex- 
ploits, but even their names, till the time of Sardanapalus, the last of 
them, (who will be noticed in the proper place,) are a matter of con- 
troversy among historians. 

During this unrecorded period of the Assyrian history, Sesostris, 
King of Egypt, if his name may be here anticipated, who carried on 
his conquests into the East, must have overrun Assyria ; but, as his 
power was not supported by his successors, the Assyrians must have 
soon regained their former state. 

CHINA 

11. China, it is not to be doubted, is amoncr the most 
ancient empires of the world. Its records extend to mon/ 
than 2200 vears B. C. 4ccording to the most current ojr< 



2348—1921 b. c. 2S 

filori, it was founded by one of the colonies formed at the 
dispersion of Noah's posterity, under the conduct of Yao, who 
took for his colleague Chun, afterwards his successor. 

Other accounts state Fo-hi to have been the founder of this 
monarchy, and many writers consider Fo-hi to have been Noah 
himself. The Chinese pretend a much higher antiquity than 
is here assigned to them, but their pretensions are merely the 
effect of national vanity. 

§ The sovereigns of China, from Chun to the present time, are di- 
vided into 22 dynasties, the first of which, that of Hia, began 2207 
years B. C. Four, and a part of the fifth, of these dynasties, preceded 
the Christian era. 

The first dynasty was founded by Yu, surnamed Ta, or the Great, 
whom Chun ado; >ed in preference to his own children. It lasted 
441 years, under 17 emperors. 

Yu-ta was a great proficient in agriculture, astronomy, and the 
kindred studies. On the subject of the first, he wrote an excellent 
treatise. He died much regretted, after a reign of 17 years. 

Kya, the last monarch of this dynasty, was greatly detested by his 
subjects. He was driven from the throne, and died after an igno- 
minious exile of three years. 

EGYPT. 

1 2. Egypt claims, and certainly possesses, a high anti- 
quity. Its early annals, however, are so obscure, that scarcely 
any thing can be ascertained respecting its first kings, after 
Menes.* 

Menes is generally acknowledged as the founder of the 
Egyptian empire, and is supposed to" be the same as Misraim. 
mentioned in scripture among Ham's sons, 2188 years B. C. 
His children divided th e land; whence arose four kingdoms, 
which subsisted separately during several centuries, and were 
successively united under one yoke. 

These four kingdoms are known by the names of Thebes, 
Thin, Memphis, and Tanais. The people had attained to 
considerable civilization, but a period of barbarism soon after- 

* Some late writers, adopting- the Samaritan text of the Bible, which places 
the deluge several hundred years beyond the common era, compute the reign 
of Menes at about 2800 years B. C. With this they cause the other events ol 
the early period of the world to correspond. We mention this circumstance, 
because the computation which is thus made may possibly be correct, and it 
seems to derive some little confirmation from the history of the Egyptians, 
both as touched upon in the Bible, and as gathered from their hieroglyphic 
records. Still, however, we incline to the common accounts. 



24 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD II. 

wards succeeded, supposed about. 20S4 years B. C, under the 
shepherd kings,* which lasted more than two centuries. 

§ In the time of Menes, the greatest part of the country was a rr> 
rass, till he diverted the course of the Nile, and founded the city ot 
Memphis within the ancient bed of that river. He instructed the 
Egyptians in theology, introduced domestic luxury, and instituted 
magnificent feasts. 

It was under Timaus, one of his successors, that the government 
was subverted, and the country subdued by a multitude of ignoble 
persons, who came from the East, and treated in the most inhuman 
maimer the ancient inhabitants. 

These invaders were called Hycsos, or shepherd kings, and, ac- 
cording to Manetho, held all Lower Egypt 259 years. 

In the kingdom of Thebes, a king by the name of Athothes I. is 
said to have reigned at a very early period. He wjs the same as was 
worshipped under the name of Mercury. After h's death his two 
sons divided the kingdom; but nothing is known of their successors 
for a long period. In the kingdom of Thin, Venephes is said to have 
built some pyramids, and to have had his reign distinguished by a 
great famine, as that also of one of his successors was distinguished 
by a dreadful plague. 

In the kingdom of Memphis, Tosorthros reigned, not long after 
Menes. From the knowledge he had of physic, 1;^ is styled Escnla- 
pius. He is said to have invented the arts of building and writing. 

Of the last kingdom of Egypt, during this period, there seem to 
be no records, or none worth naming. Indeed, in regard to those 
of the others that have come down to us, there is extreme uncer- 
tainty. 

Distinguished characters in Period II. 

1. Noah, from whom the earth was a second time peopled. 

2. Ashur, who built Nineveh. 

3. Nimrod, a warrior, and supposed to be the first king. 

4. Menes, first king of Egypt, and civilizer of the East. 

5. Ninus, an Assyrian monarch, who conquered a large 
portion of Asia. 

6. Semiramis, a female conqueror, and able sovereign. 

§ 1. Noah is by some considered the Chronos of the Greeks, and is 
properly the second father of mankind. Little needs to be said of 
him, besides what has already appeared. His eminent piety pro- 
cured for him and his family an honourable exemption from the aw- 
fully destructive effects of the deluge. 

* These kings, who were detested by the Egyptians, held the g-ovcmment 
when Abraham visited it; but were expelled before the time of Joseph. This 
circumstance explains the remarkable fact, that Abraham, a shepherd, wag 
very kindly entertained in Egypt; while, in a subsequent age, Joseph's bre- 
thren, because they were shepherds, were held in abhorrence by the inhabi- 
tants. We have here a pleasing- confirmation of the truth of the scriptural 
narrative. 



3348— 1921 b. c. 25 

Waving built the ark agreeably to the divine direction, he entered it 
at the age of 600 years, taking with him seven members of his family, 
together with the animals that were intended to restock the earth. 
Under the special care of God, he, and the various inmates of the 
ark, survived the desolations of a world, and leaving the ark in safety, 
at a little more than the expiration of a year, he built an altar,- and 
offered sacrifice unto the Lord. 

Noah lived 350 years after the flood, was engaged in the tillage oi 
the earth, and saw his descendants increasing around him. For an 
important incident in his life, which has already been mentioned, we 
refer to Gen. ix. 20—28. 

2. Ashur was one of the sons of Shem, and supposed to be the 
founder of the Assyrians. Scarcely any thing is recorded of him. 
The scripture asserts that he went out of the land of Shinar, and 
builded Nineveh, and the city of Rehoboth, and Calah. 

3. Nimrod " seems at first to have exceedingly distinguished himself 
by hunting, which was then not so much a diversion, as a useful 
method of preventing the hurtful increase of wild beasts. This em- 
ployment required great courage and address, and thus afforded a 
field for ambition to aspire after pre-eminence, and gradually attached 
a number of valiant men to one leader." 

a From such a beginning, Nimrod began to claim authority, and 
enforce subjection ; and, in fact, is the first king we read of in au- 
thentic history; and afterwards he took occasion to wage war, to 
extend his conquests, and to enlarge his acquisitions by violence and 
blood. Thus, casting off the fear of God, and acting in defiance of 
the divine prohibition of shedding human blood, he rendered himsc if 
notorious, and his name became a proverb." 

"The beginning of his kingdom," says scripture, "was Babel, and 
Erech, and Accad, and Calnen, in the land of Shinar." 

4. Menes, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy, was worshipped 
as a god after death. He appears to have been deservedly popular, 
by his abilities and wisdom. He built the town of Memphis, as is 
generally supposed. If he was the same as Misraim, mentioned in 
scriptuie, as some assert, he was one of the sons of Ham. He is sai ! 
to have reigned 62 year° over Upper Egypt, and 35 over Lower 
Egypt. 

5. Ninus was a son of Belus. He was very warlike, and extended 
his conquests from Egypt to the extremities of India and Bac 
triana. He became enamoured of Semiramis, the wife of one of his 
officers, and married her, after her husband had destroyed himseli, 
through fear of his powerful rival, or from jealousy. He reigned 52 
years, and at his death, left his kingdom to the care of his wife, Se- 
miramis. 

6. Semiramis possessed exquisite beauty, and an heroic soul It 
was on these accounts that the Assyrian monarch fell in love witli her. 
In ner infancy, it is fabulously said, she was exposed in a desert, but 
her life was preserved by doves one whole year. She was at length 
found by one of the shepherds of Ninus, and brought up by him as 
one of his own children. 

c; 



26 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. 

Slie was so tenderly beloved by her husband, Menones, that he 
could not survive his expected loss of her, and the knowledge that 
she was demanded by his sovereign. After the death of Ninus, whom 
she had married, assuming the reins of government in her hands, she 
immortalized her name by enriching Babylon with new works and 
embellishments. 

Of these, the principal were the walls of the city, the quays and 
the bridge; the lake, banks, and canals, made for draining the 
river ; the palace, the hanging gardens, and the temple of Belus 
She also enlarged her dominions by the conquest of a large part ol 
Ethiopia. 

Her greatest and last expedition was directed against India 
She advanced towards the river Indus, and having prepared boats, 
attempted to pass it with her army. The passage was for a long 
time disputed, but, after a bloody battle, she put her enemies to 
flight. Upon this she advanced directly into the country, leaving 
60,000 men to guard the bridge of boats built over the river. 

As soon as the Indian king thought her far enough advanced, he 
faced about ; a second engagement ensued, more bloody than the 
first. The Assyrians were routed, and Semiramis, after being twice 
wounded, was obliged to fly, and return to her country with scarcely 
one third of her army. 

Some time after, discovering that her son was plotting against her, 
she voluntarily abdicated the throne, put the government into his 
hand6, and withdrew from public life. She lived 62 years, of which 
she re gned 42. Her character, in respect to those qualities that 
adorn a woman, seems not to have been highly esteemed. 



PERIOD m. 

The Period of Egyptian Bondage, extending from the 
calling of Abraham, 1921 years B. C. to the departure 
of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 years B. C. 

HEBREWS. 

Section 1. The Hebrews or Israelites, commonly 
called the People of God, are derived from Abraham, the ninth 
in lineal descent from Shem. His calling of God is a re- 
markable event in history, and was designed for purposes al 
together religious. This took place 1921 years B. C. 

The nation of which he was the founder, though neithei 
powerful nor refined, is one of the most interesting that evei 
existed. Their history instructs us in a way different from 
that of all others, because it brings directly into view the Di- 
vine dealings with them. 



921—1491 b. c. 27 

Abraham's family increased very slowly at first ; but Ja- 
cob, his grandson, left a numerous offspring. Twelve sons 
became the heads of as many separate tribes in the nation. 

§ Abraham, according to the Lord's command, left the land of 
the Chaldees, his native country, and dwelt with his father Terah, 
in Haran. By the same command, after Terah's death, he wem 
into the land of Canaan, which God promised to his posterity. 
They were at length to be included within the boundaries of thai 
country. 

The divine design in thus setting apart one family from the rest in 
mankind, was to preserve the true religion in the world, and to pre- 
pare the way for the great work of redemption by Jesus Christ. The 
earth had now begun to be overrun with idolatry. 

Abraham having acquired a name by his wealth and piety, and 
having passed through various trials, died at an advanced age, leaving 
behind him several sons, of whom only Isaac was the child of pro- 
mise. Ishmael, by the maid of Abraham's wife, became the proge- 
nitor of a distinct tribe or nation. 

Two sons were the progeny of Isaac, viz. Esau and Jacob, the 
former of whom sold his birthright to Jacob, who also by artifice 
obtained his father's blessing. In the line of Jacob, whose name was 
afterwards changed to Israel, were the Israelites descended. His 
twelve sons gave the names to the several tribes of which the nation 
was composed. 

Esau Avas the father of the Edomites, or Idumeans. 

2. Jacob closed an eventful life, 1689 years B. C, in mak- 
ing a prophetic declaration of the future state of his descend- 
ants, and the period of the coming of the Messiah. He had 
previously been brought out of Canaan, into Egypt, by means 
of his son Joseph, whom his brethren, through envy and ma- 
lice, sold into that country. 

The different occurrences by which Joseph became minis- 
ter to the king of Egypt, speak the immediate interposition 
of Divine Providence, which was preparing for the accoin 
plishment of the promises made to the patriarch Abraham. . 

The history of Joseph, as recorded in Scripture, is unparalleled in 
beauty and interest. Some of the principal incidents are the fol- 
lowing. 

Joseph, who was much loved by his father and hated by his bre- 
thren, upon a certain occasion which was presented, fell into the 
power of the latter, who sought to slay him. This horrid design, 
however, being providentially prevented, they availed themselves ol 
the opportunity of selling him to some Ishmaelite slave merchants 
who carried him into Egypt, where he was bought by Potiphar, an 
officer of the court. 

Here, at length, he was wrongfully thrown into prison, by a false 
accusation of Potiphar's wife •, but, being proved to be an interprete? 



28 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. 

of dreams, he was introduced to the notice of Pharaoh, who, on a cer 
tain occasion, wanted his services in this capacity. 

His success in interpreting the king's dreams, and his subsequent 
conduct, procured for him the highest distinction; and he became 
the administrator of the government. During the famine, which he 
predicted, and which reached the land of Canaan, all his brethren, ex- 
cept Benjamin, came to him to buy corn. 

Joseph knew them, although they did not know him ; and by an 
innocent contrivance, having brought them into Egypt the second 
time, with their brother Benjamin, he declared to them that he was 
Joseph whom they had persecuted and sold. 

Their surprise, mortification, and terror, were at first overwhelming ; 
but their distressing apprehensions were at length alleviated by his 
assurances of pardon and kindness; and inviting his father and fa- 
mily into Egypt, he allotted them a portion of the territory. Here 
they grew and multiplied exceedingly. 

3. Joseph continued to rule over Egypt, after the death of 
Jacob. His own decease, which occurred 1635 years B. C. 
left the Israelites without a protector. In less than 40 years 
from this event, they found a cruel tyrant and oppressor in 
another king, who knew not Joseph. 

This king, whose name was Pharaoh,* seeing the He- 
brews to be too numerous and mighty, resolved to enfeeble 
them ; and, therefore, condemned them to slavery, and or- 
dered his people to cast every new-born son among them into 
the river. 

The object in view was defeated : for the people increased 
in an unexampled manner. God was with them, and, in 
the wonderful preservation of Moses, and his education in the 
court of Pharaoh, was preparing for them a deliverer from 
their cruel bondage. 

§ For the particulars of this persecution of God's people, we refer to 
the beginning of the book of Exodus. 

CANAANITES. 

Section 4. The (Janaanites were an ancient people. 
The country which they inhabited was called the land of 
Canaan, the name of Ham's youngest son, who settled it im- 
mediately after the dispersion at Babel. He divided it among 
his eleven sons. The general denomination of Canaanites 
included seven nations, which are frequently mentioned in 
scripture. 

§ The Canaanites seem to have laboured, in a particular manner, 
under the evil influence of the curse denounced against their proge- 

* A name common to the kings of Egypt. 



1921—1491 b. c. 29 

mior; being doomed, in the end, to subjection, expulsion, or extirpa- 
tion, and being subdivided into so many little kingdoms. 

The beginning of their history is extremely dark. They are sup- 
posed, however, upon the increase of their families, to have possess- 
ed themselves of the Arabian side of Egypt, and there to have erected 
a kingdom coeval with that of Misraim. But they seem at length to 
have been expelled from that region. 

5. The first authentic account of this people applies to the 
inhabitants of the vale of Siddim, who, 1912 years B. C, were 
invaded by Chedorlaomer. king of Elam, and obliged to pay 
an annual tribute. When they afterwards revolted, they 
were punished with great severity. 

Fifteen years after this, a most terrific judgment was in- 
flicted on the inhabitants of Siddim, in consequence of their 
gross wickedness. Four cities in this delightful vale, Sodom, 
Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboim, were at once destroyed by 
fire from heaven. The whole tract of country in their vicinity 
became a sea, called the Dead Sea. 

§ The 18th and 19th chapters of Genesis contain an account of this 
catastrophe, and of its causes ; to these we refer the reader. 

At the present time, from the accounts of travellers, it appears that 
the sea and adjacent region are marked by several peculiarities wor- 
thy of notice. 

In a journal of one of our American missionaries in Palestine, 
of recent date, we find the following account. " The water looks 
remarkably clear and pure ; but, on taking it into my mouth, I 
found it nauseous and bitter, I think beyond any thing I ever 
tasted. 

" It has been said, that these waters are so heavy, that the most 
impetuous winds can scarcely ruffle their surface. Nothing could 
be more entirely without foundation. The waves ran so high, that 
I found difficulty in filling some bottles with water. My clothes 
were wet by the waves, and, as they dried, I found them covered 
with salt." 

Quantities of bitumen are gathered in the vicinity, which, in ap- 
pearance, resembles pitch, but may be distinguished from it by its 
sulphureous smell and taste. Pebbles are also found here which burn 
when held in a blaze, producing a very disagreeable scent, but they 
lose nothing of their size. 

6. During this period, nothing more of much importance 
is recorded concerning the Canaanites. The compact of the 
Hittites with Abraham, respecting the cave of Machpelah, 
the selling of a piece of ground to Jacob, by Hamor, king of 
Shechem, and the massacre of his subjects by some of the 
sons of Jacob, on account of an insult which the patriarch's 
family had received, are the only events transmitted to us. 




30 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD III. 

GREECE. 

7. The Greeks are an ancient people, whose origin is 
clouded with fable. All that we know, during the present or 
preceding period, of the descendants of Japhet, who peopled 
Europe, is comprised in the history of this nation. 

We date the commencement of the Greeks, as a commu- 
nity, from the founding of Argos by Inachus, who arrived in 
Greece, from Phoenicia, 1856 years B. C. Sicyon is by some 
thought to have been founded before ; but we incline to the 
opinion that Egialtes, a son of Inachus, was the founder of 
Sicyon. 

. § As much has been written concerning the fabulous times in the 
history of Greece, we will here present a very brief account of that 
portion of its history. These fables, however, are supposed to be 
founded on facts, and the greater part of the deities worshipped by 
the Greeks, were princes by whom their progenitors had been go- 
verned. 

Uranus, afterwards worshipped as the heavens, appears to have 
been one of the earliest of their princes. He married his sister Ti- 
thea, and migrated from Asia into Greece, where he founded a king- 
dom. He had many children, called Titans, who rebelled against 
their father and dethroned him. 

Saturn, or Chronos, succeeded his father Uranus, whom, with the 
help of his brethren, he dethroned ; and dreading lest he should be 
treated in the same manner by his own children, he ordered them to 
be shut up, or put to death, immediately after their birth ; but Jupi- 
ter was concealed by his mother, and sent to Crete, where he was 
educated. 

Jupiter began to reign in Thessaly, after having dethroned Saturn. 
The Titans, jealous of him, declared war against him, but were van- 
quished, and expelled Greece. He soon divided his dominions with 
his two brothers, Pluto and Neptune. 

The countries which he reserved to himself, he governed with great 
wisdom ; he had his palace, and held his court, en Mount Olympus, 
whence the poets gave this name to heaven, when Jupiter was wor- 
shipped as a god. 

S. The ancient inhabitants of Greece were extremely 
rude and savage, scarcely one degree superior to brutes. 
They lived on herbs and roots, and lay either in the open 
fields, or, at best, sheltered themselves in dens, clefts, and hol- 
low trees. 

An improvement of their condition occasionally took place ; 
out Greece, for some ages, was in a continual state of fluctu- 
ation. They were unacquainted with letters till the time of 
Cadmus, who is hereafter to be mentioned. 



1921—1491 b. c. 31 

I The general names by which the natives of Greece were known 
to old historians, were Graioi, Hellenists, Achaei, Pelasgi. But the 
most ancient name of all applied to this country, is generally admitted 
to be that of Ionia, which the Greeks derive from Ion ; but Josephus 
derives it from Javan, son of Japheth. 

9, The several states, except Argos and Sicyon, which at 
length constituted Greece, had, at this time, no separate ex- 
istence. They sprang up afterwards, during the latter part 
of the present period, as there will now be occasion to men- 
tion. 

In Argos, the descendants of Inachus, having retained pos- 
session of the throne for more than 300 years, were deposed, 
1511 years B. C, by Danaus, an Egyptian fugitive, who be- 
came the founder of a second dynasty, denominated Belidse. 
from his father, Belus. \ 

§ At a much later period, Perseus, a sovereign of Argos, having built 
Mycenae, transferred the kingdom thither. It was at length conquer 
ed by the Heraclidae, and united to Lacedaemon. 

It may be here noticed, that only two of the Grecian states, viz. 
Lacedaemon and Messenia, appear to have been founded by native 
Greeks ; the rest were established by the various branches of the 
Celtic family of Uranus, with the exception of Athens, which owed 
its origin to an Egyptian. 

Prior to these establishments, and even long after them, almost 
every village had its petty tyrant, who bore the title of king. A name 
has occasionally escaped oblivion. Laws we do not find among 
them, before the times of the Athenian archons. 

Until that period, all depended on the will of the sovereigns ; onlj 
in perplexed cases, they consulted some oracle, of which the two 
most celebrated, were that of Jupiter at Dodona, and that of Apollo 
at Delphi. 

10. Cecrops, a native of Egypt, is universally allowed to 
have founded Athens, 1556 years B. C. At this time he 
arrived in Attica, with a colony of his countrymen, and 
built twelve small villages or cities, of which Athens was one. 

He gave laws to the wild inhabitants, whom he divided 
into twelve tribes, and instituted marriage among them. The 
first altar in Greece was raised by him to Jupiter. 

§The history of Greece is carried on for a time in this event. 
Athens became the most illustrious of the Grecian states. The 
province of Attica having been destroyed by the deluge of Ogyges, 
remained desolate for more than two centuries, previous to the time 
of Cecrops. 

Athens, from its founder, first received the name of Cecropia, but 
afterwards that of Athenae, in honour of Minerva, its tutelary deity. 
The Arundelian marbles, which were brought from Greece by mt 



32 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. 

Earl of Arundel, and are now kept in England, begin their chrono. 
logy with the founding of Athens, but place that event 26 years 
earlier, viz. 1582 B. C. 

11. The successor of Cecrops was Cranaus. In his time 
happened the famous deluge of Deucalion, in Thessaly. The 
third king of Athens was Amphictyon, who founded the cele- 
brated Amphictyonic council.* 

§ The deluge of Deucalion owed much of its importance to the 
imaginations of the poets. It was probably only a partial inun- 
dation. 

In the reign of Amphictyon, a famine occurred, during which 
Ericthonius, said to be the son of Vulcan, arrived from Egypt 
with a supply of corn, and taught the natives the art of Agri- 
culture, for which he was raised to the throne in the room of Am- 
phictyon. 

12. Corinth, another of the Grecian states, was founded 
1520 years B. C, but did not receive the name of Corinth till 
it was rebuilt, 1410 years B. C. It originally formed a part 
of the kingdom of Sicyon, and was afterwards included in 
that of Argos, till Sysyphus, some time in the following period, 
seized it for his possession. 

13. Thebes, a state of Greece also, was founded by Cad- 
mus. The city, though begun by him, w T as finished by 
Amphion and Zethus. He introduced letters into Greece, 
1519 years B. C. Thebes he built a few years afterwards.. 

§ Gadmus is supposed to have been of Phoenician extraction. To 
him are ascribed 16 letters of the Greek alphabet. He thus essen- 
tially contributed to the literary distinction which Greece afterwards 
attained. 

14. Lacedaemon, or Sparta, another distinguished state of 
Greece, was founded by Lelex, 1516 years B. C, but received 
its name from Lacedsemon, its fourth king. The govern- 
ment continued in the family of Lelex till the return of the 
Heraclidae to the Peloponnesus, an event to be noticed in 
the coming period. 

§ Sparta was called after the name of the wife of Lacedaemon, the 
great grand-daughter of Lelex. Sparta properly belongs to the 
metropolis— Lacedaemon to the kingdom at large. The Pelopon- 
nesus, in which Lacedaemon was situated, was the southern part of 
Greece. 

EGYPT. 

15. The events in Egyptian history, during the present 
epoch, refer chiefly to Nitocris and Sesostris, the one a fe- 

* See General Views. 



1921—1491 b. c. 33 

male, the other a male sovereign. Nitocris began to reign 
over Egypt, 1678 years B. C, at Memphis. She afterwards 
linked some other sovereignties to her dominions. 

The period when Sesostris began to reign cannot be easily 
fixed ; some place it before that of Nitocris, but others place it 
after her reign. 

The names of a few other kings appear, but little is known 
concerning their reigns. The successor of Sesostris is said to 
have been Pberon. and some think that Rameses-Tubaete was 
the king whose dreams Joseph interpreted. 

Nitocris succeeded her brother, an Ethiopian, who was murdered' 
by the Egyptians, and meditating revenge for his untimely fate, 
put many of her subjects to death privately, and afterwards con- 
trived a building under ground whither she deluded the chief ob- 
jects of her vengeance to a feast, and, in the midst of their mirth r 
overwhelmed them with destruction, by turning a river upon them 
through a secret passage. She then eluded the rage of the popu- 
lace by taking refuge in a place well fortified with ashes. Her person 
is said to have been extremely beautiful, but her disposition was cruel. 

Sesostris was the most distinguished of all the Egyptian kings, 
nnd almost the only conqueror among them. Historians relate that 
his father was warned by Vulcan, in a dream, concerning the future 
conquests of his son, and that, in consequence of this dream, he got 
together all the males born in Egypt on the same day with the prince, 
and had them nursed and brought up with him, upon the presumption 
that, being the companions of his youth, they would prove the most 
devoted warriors and faithful counsellors. 

Sesostris forming the design of conquering the world, set out with 
an army of 600,000 foot, 24,000 horse, and 27,000 armed chariots. 
His conquests were extensive, and he returned home laden with the 
spoils of various subjugated nations, and followed by a surprising- 
number of captives. He rendered his power highly advantageous to 
his subjects, by enriching their country with useful works, and mag- 
nificent edifices. 

His behaviour, however, was grossly insolent to the kings and 
chiefs of the conquered nations, who waited upon him to present 
their tribute. He is said to have caused those princes, four abreast, 
to be harnessed to his car, instead of horses, that they might draw 
him to the temple. 

In his old age he lost his sight, and then was so weak and wicked 
as to lay violent hands on himself. 

CHINA. 

16. The second dymasty of the Chinese emperors com- 
menced during this period, 1766 years B. C. It lasted 656 
vears, under 30 emperors. Like the first dynasty, it was ter- 
minated by the vices of the last of them. 



84 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III. 

§ Ching-tang was the founder of this dynasty. He is said to have 
had the most excellent qualities. His modesty was almost unparal- 
leled : he was the only person in the empire who thought he was 
unfit for so important a trust. He was often on the point of resign- 
ing his crown, but his nobles would not consent to it. 

Tayvre, one of his successors, being once terrified by a prodigy, 
which made him apprehensive of a revolution, received the following 
impressive lesson from his minister. " Virtue has the power of tri- 
umphing over presages. If you govern your subjects with equity, 
you will be beyond the reach of misfortune." 

Vuthing, another prince of this dynasty, after having for three years 
implored heaven to bless him with such virtues as were suitable to 
his station, is said to have seen, in a dream, a man represented by 
heaven to be his prime minister, whose features he well recollected 
when he awoke. 

Causing the man to be sought for, such a person was found in the 
condition of an obscure mason, working in a village, whence he was 
brought to court. Being questioned on a variety of points concern- 
ing government, he returned answers marked with so much wisdom 
as excited the highest surprise. 

The king, addressing him in a very proper manner, immedi- 
ately appointed him his prime minister, and received the great- 
est benefit from his prudent and skilful administration of govern- 
ment. 

Distinguished characters in Period III. 

1 . Abraham, the immediate progenitor of the Hebrew na- 
tion. 

2. Melchisedec, king of Salem, and " priest of the Most 
High God." 

3. Sesostris, an Egyptian hero and conqueror. 

4. Joseph, the chief ruler of Egypt under Pharaoh. 

5. Cecrops, the founder of Athens. 

6. Cadmus, a Phoenician, who built Thebes, and introduced 
letters into Greece. 

1. Abraham was the son of Terah, and born in Chaldea. He 
was 75 years of age when his father died. After this event he was 
commanded by God to enter upon the land of Canaan, which God 
promised to give unto his posterity. In the year following, a fa- 
mine in the land of Canaan forced. Abraham with his family to go 
into Egypt. 

In the same year, Abraham, with his nephew Lot, returned unto 
Canaan. They however parted at length, because the land was in- 
sufficient for both of their flocks. Lot went to Sodom— Abraham 
removed to Hebron. God blessed Abraham, and the promise of a 
posterity was confirmed to him again and again. 

In the 100th year of his age, Isaac, his son, was born to him, after 
expectation had been long delayed. Passing through various 



1921—1491 b. c. 35 

scenes of life, he was at length called to the severe trial of offering 
up his son Isaac at the command of the Deity. All his lofty hopes 
were reposed in that son, yet he hesitated not to execute the divine 
behest. 

Just at the moment, however, in which he stretched forth his hand, 
to take the life of his son, God interposed, and satisfied with Abra- 
ham's intention, accepted that in room of the deed, rescuing Isaac 
and commending the faith of the patriarch. Abraham died at the 
age of 175 years. 

2. Little is known of Melchisedec. When Abraham was return- 
ing from the destruction of Chedorlaomer and his confederates, 
Melchisedec met and blessed him. The scriptural account is the 
following : " And Melchisedec, king of Salem, brought forth bread 
and wine ; and he was the priest of the Most High God. And he 
blessed him, and said, Blessed be Abram of the Most High God, pos- 
sessor of heaven and earth. And he (Abraham) gave him tithes 
of all." 

The apostle says, in his epistle to the Hebrews, " Now consider 
how great this man was, unto whom even the patriarch Abraham 
gave the tenth of the spoils." 

3. Sesostris was a king of Egypt. His age is so remote from every 
authentic record, that many ha /e supposed that the actions and con- 
quests ascribed to this monarch are wholly uncertain and fabulous. 
The amount of what has come down respecting him, as has al- 
ready appeared in part, is the following. When he ascended the 
throne, he became ambitious of military fame, and accordingly, at 
the head of a numerous army, he proceeded to make the conquest of 
the world. 

He subdued the most of Asia, and even invaded Europe, bringing 
the Thracians into subjection ; and, that the fame of his conquests 
might long survive him, he placed columns in the subjugated provinces; 
and, many ages after, this pompous inscription was read in several 
parts of Asia: "Sesostris, the king of kings, has conquered this terri- 
tory by his arms." 

At his return home, the monarch employed his time in encouraging 
the fine arts, improving the revenues of his kingdom, erecting tem- 
ples, building cities, and digging canals. He committed suicide when 
he had become old and infirm, after reigning 44 years. His era was 
1722 years B. C. 

4. Joseph is celebrated in sacred history, and rto one's life was 
more eventful in itself, or has been described with greater felicity 
than his has been, in scripture. It is unnecessary to say over 
again what has been said respecting this eminent person, espe- 
cially since the reference to scripture is so easy, and the reader who 
once begins the story of Joseph, can seldom feel disposed to leave 
it until it be finished. The triumph of innocence, and the suc- 
cess of piety, in this instance, show the care of God over good men, 
and may well lead them to put their confidence more and moie in 
him. 

5. Cecrops was a native of Egypt. He led a colony to At- 



36 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV 

tica, and reigned over part of the country. He married the 
daughter of a Grecian prince, and was deemed the first founder of 
Athens. He taught his subjects to cultivate the olive, <md was the 
first who raised an altar to Jupiter, in Greece, and offered him sa- 
crifices. 

After a reign of 50 years, spent in regulating his newly formed 
Jlingdom, and in polishing the minds of his subjects, Cecrops died, and 
was succeeded by Cranaus, a native of the country. 

6. Cadmus was a Phoenician. He laid the foundation of Thebes. 
This fact is very much invested witli fable, which needs not to be de- 
tailed. If Thebes, according to some, sprang up at the sound of 
Amphion's lyre, i. e. by encouraging the workmen, still Cadmus 
built a citadel which he called Cadmea, and thus formed the com 
mencement of a city. 

Cadmus was the first who introduced the use of letters into 
Greece, though some maintain that the same alphabet was in ex- 
istence among the native inhabitants. This alphabet consisted 
only of 16 letters, to which 8 were afterwards added. The wor- 
ship of several of the Egyptian and Phoenician deities was also 
introduced by Cadmus. His era is reckoned to be 1519 years B. C. 



PERIOD IV. 

The Period of the Trojan War, extending from the de 
parture of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 years B. C. 
to the dedication of Solomon's temple, 1004 years B. C. 

ISRAELITES, 

Section 1. The history of the Israelites at this era 
assumes a very marked character. Oppressed by the Egyp- 
tian monarch, they cried unto God for deliverance, and a di- 
vine deliverance they experienced. 

Moses, selected as the instrument of saving his countrymen, 
was in due time called to his work ; and, after a series of mi- 
racles, which he performed by the divine assistance, he led the 
people out from before Pharaoh, into the borders of the pro- 
mised land. 

The consequence to many of the Egyptians was their de- 
struction ; for Pharaoh and his arrry pursuing the Israelites 
through the Red Sea, were overwhelmed with its waters. 

After wandering in the wilderness 40 years, and frequently 
rebelling against God, the Israelites were conducted by the 
hand of Moses in sight of Canaan, when lie died, without en- 
tering it himself, 1447 years B. C 



1491—1004 b. g. m 

§ The story of Moses, and of his agency m delivering the Israelites, 
ts verj^ interesting and instructive ; but we have no room for its par- 
ticulars. We will, however, mention some incidents, subsequent tQ 
the retreat of the Israelites from Egypt. 

The Israelites were no sooner delivered from the Egyptians, than 
they murmured against Moses, on account of the want of food ; to 
satisfy them, God sent first a great quantity of quails, and the next 
morning manna, which fell regularly every day, except on sabbath- 1 
days, during the 40 years they remained in the wilderness. 

Again the people murmured for water, and Moses, by the Lord's 
command, made a supply to issue from a rock. At this juncr 
ture, the Amalekites attacked Israel, and were defeated by Jo- 
shua. The people soon after arriving at Mount Sinai, God gave 
them his law. During, however, the absence of Moses in the mount ? 
they fell into idolatry, in consequence of which 3000 of them were 
put to death. 

In the course of the second year after the retreat from Egypt, 
Moses numbered the children of Israel from 20 years old and upr 
wards, and there were found 603,550 men able to go to war, besides 
the Levites. 

About this time, 12 men were sent to spy the land of Canaan, 
who, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, reported unfavourably 
which caused the people to murmur. Upon this offence, God con- 
demned all those who were twenty years old and upwards when 
they came out of Egypt, to die in the wilderness, except Joshua and 
Caleb. 

As a punishment for their murmurs, the Israelites began to trave r 
in the wilderness 1489 years B. C. At this time Korah, Dathan, and 
Abiram, revolting against Moses, were swallowed by the earth, with 
250 of their associates. In 1452 years B. C, the Israelites began 
their conquests, by the defeat of the kings of the Amorites, Basham 
Moab, &c. 

At the age of 120 years Moses died on Mount Nebo, in the land pjf 
Moab, having first taken a view of the promised land. 

2. The successor of Moses was Joshua, who conducted 
the people into the promised land, having, by the divine 
command, mostly destroyed the wicked nations that inha? 
bited it. 

After this event, the Israelites, with some intermission, 
were directed by leaders, called Judges, for the space of 356 
yeai*3. They paid a high respect to these officers, and also 
to the priests, but they acknowledged no other king than God. 

As the people at length became weary with this state of 
things, and desired a king, so as to be like the nations around 
them, a king was, in the divine displeasure, granted to them, 

§ Joshua having led the Israelites to the banks of the Jordan, whose 
Waters divided to afford them a passage, conducted them safely oyer 



38 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IV. 

it. He conquered 31 cities in the course of six years. He died 1426 
years B. C. 

The people were perpetually inclined to forsake the worship of 
Jehovah, and to pollute themselves with the abominations of the hea- 
then. For this they were repeatedly brought into bondage, and con- 
sequent distress. Their Judges were the instruments of delivering 
them on these occasions. 

One occasion was as follows. The Israelites, being brought into 
the power of the Midianites, after seven years of suffering, they cried 
unto the Lord, who sent an angel to Gideon to announce to him that 
he was chosen to deliver Israel from their oppressors. 

By divine direction, Gideon retained of 32,000 men whom he had 
collected, only 300 men, and with them, each carrying a lamp con- 
cealed in an earthen vessel, to be broken at a proper opportunity, he 
so terrified the Midianites, that they fled in confusion, and turned 
their swords against one another. 

Samson also, on another occasion, delivered his countrymen by a 
series of extraordinary efforts of strength and courage which we 
cannot particularly recount. It may be only mentioned, that, at the 
conclusion of his course, having been betrayed by his wife, and 
deprived of his strength— upon its return, he pulled down, by a sin- 
gle exertion of his muscular energy, the temple of Dagon on the 
heads of his enemies, the Philistines, with whom he perished in the 
general ruin. 

Samuel, the last and most eminent of these leaders, and a prophet 
also, rendered signal service to his countrymen, especially by the 
moral influence which he exercised over them. When old, however, 
he took for his assistants in the government, his two sons, whose 
mismanagement occasioned murmurs among the people, and a de- 
sire to have a king. 

3. Saul, the son of Kish, was the first king of Israel. Hav- 
ing been privately anointed by Samuel, he was afterwards 
publicly proclaimed, 1079 years B. C. His reign was prospe- 
rous at first, but at length was characterized by crime and ill 
success. He perished miserably. 

He was succeeded by David, who, though he erred in seve- 
ral instances, was a man of distinguished talents, bravery, and 
piety ; he raised his people to the highest pitch of national 
prosperity and happiness. The wise and rich Solomon was 
his son and successor. He laid the foundation of a magnifi- 
cent temple, 1011 years B. C. 

§ Saul, having spent an unhappy life, and being at war with the Phi- 
listines, had his army routed, and three of his sons slain, and he him- 
self, having received a wound, and fearing to fall into the hands of 
his enemies, took a sword and fell upon it. 

David had been previously anointed king, but he at first reigned 
only over the tribe of Judah. But after the death of ishbosheth, a 



1491—1004 b. c. 39 

son of Saul, who had assumed the government of the tribes, he reign- 
ed over the whole of Israel. 

He spent a very active and perilous life, and among the conqueste 
he made were the Philistines, the Moabites, the Ammonites, and 
the Syrians. He had at length some domestic troubles, and was 
in danger from an insurrection of his subjects, but he lived to see 
his enemies destroyed, and he left a rich and flourishing realm to hi* 
son. 

CANAANITES. 

4. The history of the Canaanites, and some of the neigh- 
bouring nations or tribes, is involved in that of the Jews dur- 
ing this period. They were mostly subdued by Joshua, but 
seemed to revive at different times, to the great annoyance of 
the Israelites. From the time of Solomon, they can scarcely 
be said to have had a national existence. The remnants of 
them, except the Canaanites, properly so called, who after- 
wards went under the appellation of Phoenicians, were swal- 
lowed up in the great monarchies that successively existed in 
Asia. 

PHOENICIANS. 

5. The Phoenicians are known in history principally as 
a navigating and commercial people, among whom the arts 
were early cultivated. Their country was divided into seve- 
ral small kingdoms ; but the most considerable of their sove 
reignties were the cities of Sidon and Tyre. We know no- 
thing of the kings of Sidon till the present and succeeding pe- 
riods. Hiram was king of Tyre, and contemporaneous with 
David and Solomon. 

§ Sidon, according to Josephus, was built by Sidon, the eldest son of 
Canaan. Tyre was founded by the posterity of Sidon. Herodotus 
gives to the older Tyre a great antiquity. The new city, reared op- 
posite to the ancient, on an island, is said, by Josephus, to have been 
built in the year B. C. 1255. 

The Phoenicians are regarded as the earliest navigators, merchants, 
and workmen, of the world. We learn from ancient records, that 
they carried on trade, not only over all the coasts of the Medi- 
terranean, but even over the ocean, as far as England, whence they 
exported tin. 

The early kings are not known, except those who had some com- 
merce with the Jews. To Hiram, king of Tyre, both David and So- 
lomon applied when proposing to build a temple to the Lord. He 
helped them by furnishing, not only precious materials, but also a 
great number of workmen. After a glorious reign, Baleazar, his son, 
succeeded him. 



40 ANCIENT HISTORY— PERIOD IV. 

GREECE. 

6. The history of Greece during this period is pursued 
first in a few details, respecting some of its different sovereign- 
ties. 

The kings already named, who had governed Athens, had 
raised it to a considerable degree of civilization. But the king 
Who laid the principal foundation of Athenian greatness, was 
Theseus. He united the 12 cities of Attica into one confede- 
racy. 

§ Theseus is said to have founded a more perfect equality among 
the citizens, in consequence of which, the state rather resembled 
a republic than a monarchy. Owing to the inconstancy of the 
people, he was banished from the country, notwithstanding his many 
virtues. 

7. Codrus, the last Athenian king, devoted himself to the 
good of his subjects. With him royalty was abolished, since 
the people thought no man worthy of succeeding him. This 
change occurred towards the close of the present period, viz. 
1069 years B. C. 

§ Codrus being engaged in a war with the Heraclidae, was told by 
she oracle that the army would be victorious whose chief should 
perish. He, therefore, with a chosen band, threw himself into the 
hottest of the battle, and turned the fortune of the day in favour of his 
countrymen, at the expense of his own life. 

A dispute for the succession arose between two of his sons, and be- 
fore they could accommodate their difference, the Athenians abolish- 
ed royalty altogether, but placed Medon, one of the claimants, at the 
head of the state, with the title of Archon. This office was for life 
during more than 3 centuries j afterwards it was reduced to 10 years, 
And finally to one year. 

8. Corinth, having been seized by Sysyphus, was governed 
in his family 250 years. The last king of this race was de- 
posed by the Heraclidse, 1099 years B. C. 

9. The first great enterprise of the Greeks was the Argo- 
riautic expedition, 1263 years B. C. It was led by Jason, and 
is supposed to have been both a military and a mercantile ad- 
venture. Its destination was to Colchis, the modern Mingre- 
lia, in Asia Minor. 

§ According to some, the object was to open the commerce of the 
Euxine sea, and to secure some establishment on its coast. Ac- 
cording to others, Jason wished to avenge the death of his kins- 
man Phryxus, and to recover his treasures, which had been seized 
by the king of Colchis. Hence, in the language of fiction or 
figure, it was the " Golden Fleece" that was the object to be re- 
covered. 



Argonautic Expedition. P. 31. 




Combat between the Horatii and Curiatii. p. 60. 



1491—1004 b. c. 41 

This expedition was thought to be of so much importance, that all 
the heroes of the age were anxious to engage in it. Among the 54 
renowned captains who were in the single ship of Argo alone, in 
which Jason embarked, were Hercules, Theseus, Castor and Pollux, 
Pirithous, Laertes, Peleus, Oileus, &c. 

In the course of their voyage, they attempted to land for refresh- 
ment in a part of Phrygia, but were prevented by Laomedon, king 
of Troy, for which they took ample revenge on their return, by pil- 
laging that city. 

On their arrival in Colchis, Medea, the daughter of the king, fell 
in love with Jason, and, through her assistance, the Argonauts ef- 
fected the object of their voyage. On their arrival in Greece, Her- 
cules celebrated or instituted the Olympic Games. 

10. A dispute for the divided sovereignty of Thebes, be- 
tween the brothers Eteocles and Polynices, gave rise to a war 
that was terminated by single combat, in which both were 
killed. This is called the war of the seven captains, and oc- 
curred 1225 years B. C. 

The sons' of the commanders slain in this war renewed the 
quarrel of their fathers, about ten years afterwards. This is 
called the war of the Epigonoi, a subject celebrated by Homer 
in a poem now lost. 

11. But the most celebrated event of this period, in the an- 
nals of Greece, is the Trojan war. It commenced 1193 
years B. C, and terminated in ten years. Troy was taken 
and burnt to the ground. This war was undertaken by the 
princes of Greece to avenge the wrongs sustained by Mene- 
Iaus,king of Lacedeemon, whose wife, Helen, had been seduced 
away by Paris, a Trojan prince. The details of this war are 
derived from Homer ; but he is reasonably supposed to have 
related facts, for the most part. 

§ Troy, the capital of Phrygia Minor, was founded 1546 years B. C. 
by Scamander, who led thither a colony from Crete. Troas, the 
fifth in succession from Scamander, either built a new city, or en- 
larged the old one, and named it after himself, Troy. The Trojans 
were a brave and warlike people. 

The number of the Grecian warriors is supposed to have been 
about 100,000. Nearly all Asia Minor was leagued with Priam, 
king of Troy. The Greeks, on landing at Troas, were warmly op- 
posed, and they spent the first 8 or 9 years in reducing such cities 
and islands as favoured the cause of Troy. At length the siege of 
that capital began, and the most heroic deeds were performed on both 
sides. At this juncture, the camp of the Greeks was visited by a pes- 
tilence, and a quarrel ensued between Agamemnon and Achilles, the 
Grecian leaders. 

The death of Patroclus, slain by Hector, impelled Achilles to 

D2 



42 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV, 

teturn into the Grecian camp. Hector was killed by Achilles, 
and Achilles fell by the hand of Paris, who was himself slain by 
an arrow At last the Greeks gained possession of the city by 
stratagem, and utterly destroyed it. No vestige of its ruins now 
remains. 

Such of the Trojans as survived sought new settlements in distant 
regions. Antenor established himself in Italy, where he founded 
the nation of the Heneti. iEneas settled also in Italy, where he 
founded the kingdom of Alba. 

12. The war of the Heraclidas, among the Greeks, began 
about 80 years after the destruction of Troy. Hercules, th 
son of Amphitryon, sovereign of Mycenee, was banished fro: 
his country, with all his family, while the crown was pos 
sessed by an usurper. After a period of a century, his de- 
scendants, called Heraclidse, returned to Peloponnesus, an 
subduing all their enemies, took possession of the states of My • 
Cense, Argos, and Lacedasmon. This return of the Heraclid 
is an event often spoken of in history. 

13. A long period of civil war succeeded, and Greece, di- 
vided among a number of petty tyrants, became a prey to o; 
pression or anarchy. The difficulties of the times drove man 
of the Greeks from home, who founded important colonies, » 
1ve shall hereafter learn. 

EGYPT. 

14. Concerning the Egyptians, during this period, very 
little is known with certainty. Apophis is thought to have 
been the Pharaoh who, together with his army, was drowned 
in the Red Sea. Amosis, Amenophis II., and one or two 
Others, were warriors and conquerors. 

§ A few things may be subjoined respecting some of the Egyptian 
kings during this period. Mcfcris caused the celebrated lake, called 
by his name, to be dug, to receive the waters of the Nile, when the 
inundation was too abundant, and to Water the country when it 
proved deficient. 

Hermes Trismegistes is celebrated for his philosophical writings. 
Me added 5 days to the year, which before consisted only of 360. 
Amosis abolished the practice of human sacrifices, and conquered 
Heliopolis, the ancient capital of Lower Egypt. 

Actisanes, king of Ethiopia, united Egypt and Ethiopia under 
bis government. He bore his prosperity with great prudence, 
and behaved himself in a most affectionate manner towards his new 
Subjects. 

Having caused a general search to be made after the Egyptian 
fobbers who infested the country, he commanded their noses to be 
*'"t offj and then banished them to the remotest part of the desert^ 



1491— 1004 b c 43 

between Syria and Egypt, where he built them a town, which, from 
the mutilation of its inhabitants, was called Rhinocolura. 

A Memphite of ignoble extraction was exalted to the throne. The 
priests characterised him as a magician, and pretended that he could 
assume whatever form he pleased. His Egyptian name was Cetes, 
which the Greeks rendered Proteus. 

It was during his reign, that Paris and Helen were driven on 
the coasts of Egypt, in their passage to Troy, but when the Egyp- 
tian monarch understood the shameful breach of hospitality which 
the young stranger had committed, he ordered him to quit his do- 
minions. 

LYDIA. 

15. The history of the kings of Lydia is very obscure. 
They were divided into three dynasties. 1. The Atydae. 
2. The Heraclidffi. 3. The Mermnadae. The history of 
Atydee is altogether fabulous. Argon was the first of the He- 
raclidae, and Candaules the last. Argon reigned about 1223 
years B. C. The Lydians are celebrated as merchants and 
traffickers. 

§ Lydia is supposed to have been founded by Lud, son of Shem. It 
was, however, called Lydia, from Lydus, one of its kings. It was 
previously called Maeonia, from Mseon, also one of its kings. It was 
conquered at length by the descendants of Hercules. 

Lydia Proper was, strictly speaking, at first only that part of 
Maeonia which was seated on the iEgean Sea ; but when the Greeks 
or Ionians settled there, the ancient inhabitants were driven to the 
interior. The invaders named the sea coasts where they settled 
Ionia, after the country whence they had emigrated, or rather, 
whence they had been driven by the Heraclidee ; while the Lydians 
gave their name to the new countries in which they settled. 

Long before the invasion of the Ionians, the natives of Lydia were 
devoted to commerce. The earliest instance on record of a gold and 
silver coinage is found in their history. They were also the first 
people who exhibited public sports. 

ITALY. 

16. Italy appears to have been inhabited at a remote 
era. So early as 1289 years B. C. we read of a king named 
Janus, who, having arrived from Thessaly, planted a colony 
on the river Tiber. Four sovereigns succeeded him in La- 
tium ; during the reign of the last of w T hom, viz. Latinus^ 
arrived iEneaSj the Trojan prince, in Italy. iEneas married 
Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus, and succeeded him in the 
sovereignty. After iEneas there was a succession of kings to 
the time of Numitor, the grandfather of Romulus and Remu?, 
the founders of Rome* 



44 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV 

The history of these kings is, however, very obscure and 
confused, and very little dependence can be placed upon it. 
Of the numerous petty kingdoms of which Italy was com- 
posed, those of Etruria and Latium alone deserve attention. 
The Etruscans are thought to have been a very polished peo- 
ple. The inhabitants of Latium were the immediate ances- 
tors of the Romans. A considerable part of Italy was doubt- 
less peopled by the Greeks. 

§ Italy, afterwards the seat of the Roman power, was peopled at 
an early era, though we cannot determine the particular point 01 
time, with certainty as to the country at large. The colony on the 
Tiber, as we have seen, was settled nearly 13 centuries before Christ. 
There is every reason to believe that a part of Italy was inhabited 
by a refined and cultivated nation, many ages before the Roman 
name was known. 

The Etruscans are justly considered as such a nation ; a fact 
which is indicated by the monuments in the fine arts which they 
have left, and some of which exist to this day. Their alphabet, re- 
sembling the Phoenician, disposes us to believe them to have been of 
eastern origin. 

Though many of the inhabitants of Italy originated from Greece 
and the east, yet a portion of them, it is believed, must have origi- 
nated from the Celtic or Gomerian tribes of the north, who entered 
Italy from that quarter.* 

The story of Latinus and ./Eneas is briefly as follows. At the 
time of the arrival of the latter in Italy, Latinus was engaged in a 
war with the Rutuli ; and, on hearing of this arrival, he immedi- 
ately marched towards the strangers, expecting to find an unprinci 
pled banditti. 

But iEneas, though commanding a body of hardy veterans, held 
out the olive of peace. Latinus listened to his melancholy tale, and 
pitying the misfortunes of the Trojan exiles, assigned them a portion 
of land, on condition of their joining against the Rutuli. 

iEneas eagerly embraced the offer, and performed such essential 
service in the cause of the Latins, that this monarch bestowed on 
him his only daughter, Lavinia, in marriage, with the right of suc- 
cession to the crown. 

Distinguished characters in Period IV. 

1. Moses, the first Hebrew lawgiver and leader. 

2. Joshua, a conqueror of Canaan, and pious military 
chieftain. 

3. Orpheus, the father of poetry. 

4. Museeus, a Greek poet. 

5. Samson, a judge of Israel, and endowed with extraor 
dinary strength. 

* See Edin. Rev. No. 80. Art. V. 



1491—1004 b. c. 45 

6. Sanconiathon, a Phoenician, one of the earliest writers 
of history. 

7. David, a king of Israel, a warrior and poet. 

§ 1. Moses, when an infant, having been exposed on the brink of 
the river Nile, in an ark of bulrushes, the daughter of Pharaoh found 
the ark, saved the child, and had him educated as her own son. At 
forty years of age, having renounced the honours of Pharaoh's court, 
he endeavoured to join his oppressed countrymen, but they would 
not receive him. After this, circumstances induced him to flee to 
the land of Midian, where he married, and enjoyed a retirement of 
40 years. 

At the end of this period, God appeared to him in the mount of 
Horeb, and ordered him to return to Egypt, with a commission to 
Pharaoh, respecting his release of the Israelites from bondage. He 
accomplished this object only after the infliction of ten severe and 
awful plagues upon that monarch and his people. At length God 
saw fit, through Moses, to destroy Pharaoh and the flower of his 
military force in the Red Sea. 

From this period, Moses was employed in receiving the moral 
law from mount Sinai, in prescribing the form of the ceremonial 
worship of the Hebrews, in regulating their civil polity, in con- 
ducting their military operations, and in leading them through the 
wilderness of Sinai, in which they were doomed to wander during 
40 years. 

At the age of 120 he died on mount Nebo, in the land of Moab, 
having first taken a view of the promised land. This occurred 1451 
years B. C. Moses was a man of eminent piety and wisdom. 

2. Joshua was the successor of Moses, and led the Israelites into 
the promised land, over the river Jordan, whose waters divided to 
afford them a passage. The first city which he conquered was Jeri- 
cho ; this was followed by the speedy reduction of 30 others. 

Having divided the land of Canaan among the ten tribes, Joshua 
died, aged 110, 1426 years B. C. 

3. Orpheus was the son of (Eager, or, as some say, of Apollo, by 
Calliope. The fictions of poetry have put into his hands a lyre, 
whose entrancing sounds stayed the courses of rivers, moved moun- 
tains, and subdued the ferocity of wild beasts. Doubtless the effects 
of his song, though not of such a nature, were considerable, in that 
rude and early age, on the minds of untutored barbarians. 

By the power of his music, as fiction reports, he regained his 
wife, Eurydice, from the infernal regions, but lost her again in con- 
sequence of failing to comply with a certain condition, on which 
she was restored. The condition was, that he should not look be- 
hind to see her till he had come to the extremest borders of hell. 
Contrary to promise he did this, through the impatience of love, 
or by reason of forgetfulness, and she vanished from before his eyes. 

Orpheus, according to story, was one of the Argonauts ; of which 
celebrated expedition he wrote a poetical account. This, however, 
is doubted j and the poems that pass under his name, are, with rea- 



46 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IV. 






son, ascribed to other and later writers. There is little cause to 
doubt that such a person as Orpheus existed, and that he was a 
great poet and musician. The period assigned for him is 1284 
years B. C. 

4. Musseus is supposed to have been a son or disciple of Linus or 
Orpheus, and to have lived about 1253 years before the christian era. 
None of his poems remain. A Musseus, who flourished in 'the 4th 
century, according to the judgment of most critics, wrote " The loves 
of Leander and Hero." 

5. Samson was the son of Manoah, of the tribe of Dan. As he was 
raised up to avenge the Israelites of their oppressors, he was endow- 
ed with extraordinary strength. On one occasion, he slew 1000 Phi- 
listines with the jaw-bone of an ass. At various other times, he se- 
verely molested and distressed them. 

At length he was, through stratagem, betrayed by Delilah, and de 
prived of his strength. It, however, soon returned ; and he pulled 
down the temple of Dagon on the heads of his enemies, the Philistines, 
with whom he perished in the general ruin. Some parts of his cha- 
racter are very far from deserving imitation. His various exploits 
and follies are recorded, Judges xiv. xv. xvi. 

6. Sanconiathon was born at Berytus, or, according to others, at 
Tyre. He flourished about 1040 years B. C. He wrote, in the lan- 
guage of his country, a history, in 9 books, in which he amply treat- 
ed of the theology and antiquities of Phoenicia and the neighbouring 
places. 

This history was translated into Greek by Philo, a native of Byb • 
lus, who lived in the reign of the emperor Adrian. Some few frag- 
ments of this Greek translation are extant. Some, however, suppose 
them to be spurious, while others maintain their authenticity. 

7. David was the son of Jesse, and anointed king of Israel, while 
keeping his father's flocks, by Samuel, the prophet. He was a 
valiant, prosperous, and warlike prince, and raised himself and 
people to great eminence and renown. His name began to be 
known and celebrated, from the time that he slew Goliath, the giant. 
His military operations were planned with wisdom, and executed 
with vigour. 

He was distinguished as a sacred poet and writer of psalms ; no 
one in this department has ever equalled him. These inspired pro- 
ductions are marked by loftiness, vigour, and felicity of expression 
— abounding in the sublimest strains of devotion, and conveying the 
most important truths and instructions to the mind. 

This pious prince was left to fall into scandalous sins, in a few in- 
stances, particularly in the seduction of Bathsheba, and the murder 
of Uriah, her husband ; but he bitterly repented of them, and was 
restored to the divine favour. He died, 1015 years B. C, after a 
reign of 40 years. 



I 



1004—752 b. c. « 



PERIOD V. 

The Period of Homer, extending from the dedication of Solo- 
mon's temple, 1004 years B. C, to the founding of Rome, 
752 years B. C. 

ISRAELITES. 

Section 1. From the accession of Solomon to the throne 
of the Israelites, a period of profound peace and prosperity 
was enjoyed by that people throughout his reign. The 
most important undertaking of this monarch, was the build- 
ing and dedication of the temple of the Lord at Jerusalem. 

This magnificent structure was completed in seven years. 
The dedication was performed by the king, with the most 
solemn religious rites, in presence of all the elders of Israel, 
and the heads of the various tribes. 

This prince exceeded in wisdom all who went before him ; 
but, in his old age, he took many wives and concubines out 
of the idolatrous nations around him, who corrupted his 
heart. The Lord therefore declared, by the prophet Abijah, 
that he would divide the kingdom after his death, and give 
ten tribes to Jeroboam ; which accordingly took place. 

§ The temple at Jerusalem was a most sumptuous and costly edifice. 
The value of the materials, and the perfection of the workmanship, 
rank it among the most celebrated structures of antiquity. It was 
not very large, being little more than 90 feet in length, 30 in breadth, 
and 45 in height ; but was finely proportioned, and, together with a 
grand porch, was splendidly ornamented. 

Towards the close of his reign, as a punishment of his effeminacy 
and idolatry, the Lord stirred up certain adversaries against him ; 
and, though the principal evil threatened against Israel, was not to 
occur during his day, yet he had the mortification of knowing that 
it would be inflicted under the administration of his son ; and that 
his own conduct would be the procuring cause. 

We cannot help believing that he repented of his awful defection 
from duty, though nothing in the Bible is recorded concerning this 
point ; and all ought to be profited by the memorials which he has 
left of his wisdom, and general piety. 

2. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, began to reign over the 
Israelites 975 years B. C. Having refused to lighten the 
yoke his father had imposed on his subjects, ten tribes revolt- 
ed, and followed Jeroboam, an enterprising domestic of the 
king. The tribes of Judah and Benjamin alone remained 



48 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V. 

faithful to Rehoboam. From this time Judah and Israel are 
separate kingdoms. 

3. The kingdom of the Ten Tribes, or the Israelites, dur 
ing this period, was governed by a succession of vicious and 
idolatrous monarchs; and wars and feuds, treachery and mur- 
der, mark their history in a shocking manner. Jeroboam was 
their first king. 

§A few incidents in the lives of these kings may be noticed. 
Jeroboam, to prevent his subjects from going to Jerusalem to sacri 
fice, made two golden calves, which the people worshipped ; for 
which conduct, God declared that his whole house should be cut off. 

Zimri, the fourth after Jeroboam, enjoyed the crown only seven 
days. The city Tirzah, in which he was besieged by Omri, being 
taken, he burnt himself to death in his palace. 

Ahab, the sixth after Jeroboam, was the most impious king who 
reigned over Israel. He married Jezebel, a daughter of a king of 
the Sidonians, who excited him to commit all manner of wickedness. 
Among other things, he wantonly murdered Naboth, for refusing to 
give up his vineyard to Ahab. 

Jehu, a captain under Jehoram, was anointed king by the prophet 
Elisha ; and, though a wicked man, was the instrument of executing 
the Lord's vengeance upon his impious contemporaries. He killed 
Jehoram, and the 70 sons of Ahab ; and after having slain all the 
priests of Baal, he destroyed the images, and the house of their god. 

Jehoash was successful as a warrior. He defeated Benhadad, 
king of Syria, in three battles. In a war against Amaziah, king of 
Judah, he took him prisoner, broke down the wall of Jerusalem, and 
plundered the temple and the king's palace. 

Pekah, the last king during this period, made war against Judah, 
with Rezin, king of Syria. Under his reign, part of the ten tribes 
were carried captive to Assyria, by Tiglath Pileser. 

4. Several of the kings of Judah. during the present peri- 
od, were pious men, and adhered to the worship of God. 
Others of them imitated the profligate kings of Israel. The 
people whom they governed, and who have survived to the 
present time, are called Jews, in distinction from Israelites, 
the name once applied to the whole twelve tribes. 

§ We will notice some of the transactions of their reigns. During 
the reign of Rehoboam, Sesac, king of Egypt, took Jerusalem, and 
carried off the treasures of the temple, and of the palace. 

Jehoshaphat carefully enforced the worship of God. The Mo- 
abites and Ammonites declared war against him ; but the Lord threw 
them into confusion in such a manner, that they destroyed one 
another. 

Ahaziah, directed by the councils of Athaliah, his mother, acted 
wickedly. He went, with the vicious Jehoram, king of Israel, to 
>yar against Hazael, king of Syria. When Jehu destroyed the 



1004—752 b, c. 49 

house of Ahab, he sought Ahaziah, who was hid in Samaria, and 
slew him. 

Joash reigned with justice as long as Jehoiada, the high priest, lived. 
After his death, having fallen into idolatry, Zechariah, the son oi 
Jehoiada, reproved him for this sin, and was stoned by the king's 
order. God then raised against him the king of Syria, who plun- 
dered Jerusalem. His own servants also conspired against him, 
and stew him in his bed. 

Uzziah made successful wars against the Philistines and Arabians 
Intoxicated with prosperity, he went into the temple to burn incens 
upon the altar, and the Lord struck him with leprosy for his pre- 
sumption. 

Jotham, a pious prince, fought and overcame the Ammonites, and 
rendered them tributary. 

GREECE. 

5. Greece, at the commencement of the present period, 
was in an unsettled state. By the emigration of many of 
its inhabitants, colonies had been formed, particularly in Lesser 
Asia. Afterwards colonies were sent to Italy and Sicily. 
These, owing to the freedom of their governments, soon ri- 
valled their parent states ; a circumstance which induced the 
latter to put an end to despotism, and to adopt popular consti- 
tutions. In this work of reformation, Lycurgus, the legislator 
of Sparta, was distinguished. 

6. It may be mentioned, in connexion with this subject 
and previously to an account of the reformation of Sparta, 
that the poems of Homer were introduced from Asia into 
Greece by Lycurgus. He met with them in his travels in 
that region, carefully preserved them, and brought them 
home on his return, 886 years B. C. Their effect on the na- 
tional spirit and literature of the Greeks, was at length highly 
propitious. 

§ Homer flourished about 900 years B. C. He was a poor blind 
man, and used to travel from place to place, singing his verses. 
But his genius was transcend ant. All succeeding ages have boweu 
to it ; and his poems have been taken as the model of all epic pro- 
ductions of any note written since his day. 

The present form of his poems is supposed not to have been the 
ancient form. They were probably produced in separate pieces and 
qallads ; and were united into continuous poems, it is said, by cer- 
tain learned men, under the direction of Pisistratus, king of Athens. 

The era of Grecian splendour was several centuries after the time 
of Homer; but by the preservation of his poems, the progress of the 
Greeks in arts and literature was effectually secured. 

7. Lycurgus, by his peculiar institutions, raised Sparta 



50 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IV 

from a weak and distracted state, to superiority in arms ovei 
the other republics of Greece. Sparta became tiuly republican 
in its government, though the form of royalty was retained. 
Its kings weie merely the first citizens in the state, and ac- 
knowledged the superior authority of the Ephori and the 
people, to whom they were accountable. Their privileges, 
however, sufficiently distinguished them from the mass of the 
citizens. 

With many things in his institutions that were commend- 
able, there was much that was pernicious. His sole object 
seems to have been, to render the Spartans fit only for war. 
The chronological date of the commencement of this refor- 
mation, is 884 years B. C. 

§ After the return of the Heraclidae, Sparta was divided between 
the two sons of Aristodemus, Eurysthenes and Procles, who reigned 
jointly. The occasion of this was, that Aristodemus having been 
killed while his children were infants, their mother was unable to 
tell which of them was the first born, since they were twins. The 
Spartans consequently agreed that they should be joint kings. 

This double monarchy continued in the one line under 30 kings, 
and in the other line under 27 kings, during a period of about 880 
years. Polydectes and Lycurgus were the sons of one of these 
kings. Upon the death of his brother, the crown devolved on Ly- 
curgus ; but his sister-in-law being with child, he resigned it. 

She however intimated to Lycurgus that if he would marry her, 
the child should be destroyed immediately upon its birth. Lycur- 
gus, with a view to save it, desired that she would send it to him, and 
he would dispose of it. Accordingly, the boy, as soon as he was born, 
was sent to his uncle. 

Lycurgus was at supper with a large party when the royal infant 
arrived, but he instantly took it into his arms, and holding it to the 
view of the company, exclaimed, " Spartans ! behold your king." 
The people were delighted, and the boy was called Charilaus. 

Lycurgus, with a view to suppress the calumnies published against 
him by the faction of the queen, determined upon a voluntary exile. 
fn his travels, he made it an object to acquire knowledge, and espe- 
cially to ascertain the best means of government. It was during 
this journey that he discovered the poems of Homer, as above men- 
ioned. 

Upon his recall to Sparta, he found things in so bad a condition, 
that he set about a reformation of the manners of the people. He be- 
gan his labours by instituting a senate to make laws, and see that they 
were executed ; this senate was composed of 30 members, the kings 
being of the number 

He next made an equal division of the lands, so that all the Spar- 
tans shared it fairly between them. When he endeavoured to do the 
same with the furniture, clothes, &c. he found the rich very averse to 



1921—1491 b. c. 51 

his proposals. He therefore took another course. He substituted 
iron for gold and silver, as the medium of exchange. 

As this iron money was of no account among the neighbouring 
countries, the Spartans could no longer indulge in luxury, by pur- 
chasing foreign costly articles. The necessary arts of life he allowed 
to be practised only by slaves. 

He then commanded that all persons, even the kings themselves, 
should eat at public tables, and that these tables should be served 
only with plain food. This regulation, more than any other, offended 
the rich citizens. They rose in a body and assaulted Lycurgus ; and 
one of them, pursuing him to a sanctuary, struck out his eye with a 
stick. 

Lycurgus no otherwise punished this offender, than by making 
him his page and attendant. In time, these dinners, at which they 
served up a kind of soup, called black broth, came to be much re- 
lished, and very pleasant discourse often enlivened them. 

An admirable part of the ceremony at these public meals was the 
following. When the company were assembled, the oldest man 
present, pointing to the door, said, " Not one word spoken here, goes 
out there." This wise rule produced mutual confidence, and prevent- 
ed all scandal and misrepresentation. 

The children were taught in large public schools, and were made 
brave and hardy. All the people were accustomed to speak in short 
pithy sentences, so that this style of speaking is even now called af- 
ter them, laconic ; Laconia being one of the names of Lacedaemon. 
7 "When Lycurgus had firmly established his new laws, he ensured 
their observance by the following contrivance. He left Sparta, after 
having made the people swear, that they would abide by his laws, 
until he should return. As he intended not to return at all, this was 
to swear that they would keep his laws for ever. 

Lycurgus died in a foreign I«and. By some it is asserted, that he 
starved himself to death. His laws continued in force 500 years, 
during which time the Spartans became a powerful and conquering 
people. 

The institutions of this legislator were impaired by many blemishes. 
The manners of the Lacedaemonian women were suffered to be 
shamefully loose. The youth were taught to subdue the feelings of 
humanity. The slaves were treated with the greatest barbarity. Even 
theft was a part of Spartan education. 

The object of this was to prepare their minds for the stratagems of 
war. Detection exposed them to punishment. Plutarch tells us of 
a boy, who had stolen a fox and hidden it under his coat, and who 
rather chose to let the animal tear out his bowels, than to discover 
the theft. 

Sect. 8, The first of the Olympiads, an era by which 
the events in Grecian history are reckoned, occurred 776 
vears B. 0. The Olympic games were first instituted about 
1 150 years B. C, but having fallen into disuse, were restored 



52 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V. 

at different times, and from the period above mentioned, form 
a certain epoch in history. 

§ The nature of these games will be described under the " Gene- 
ral Views," at the close of this work. 

MACEDON. 

Sect. 9. Macedon, a kingdom in Greece, and sometimes 
considered distinct from it in its history, was founded by Ca- 
ranus, an Arrive and descendant of Hercules, about 795 
years B. C. The government continued in his line 647 
years, i. e. till the death of Alexander iEgus, the posthumous 
son of Alexander the Great. 

§ The history of Macedon under its first kings is obscure, and pre- 
sents only some wars with the Illyrians, Thracians, and other neigh- 
bouring nations. It became, as we shall hereafter learn, very power- 
ful, and under Philip overturned the liberties of the other states ot 
Greece. 

ASSYRIA. 

Sect. 10. After a chasm of 800 years in the history of 
the first kingdom of Assyria, we find a few particulars re- 
specting one or two of its last sovereigns. Pul, who is men- 
tioned in scripture, subdued Israel in the reign of Menahem, 
who became his tributary. This Pul is supposed to be the 
king of Nineveh, who, with his people, repented at the preach- 
ing of Jonah. If this be the fact, he flourished about 800 
years B. C* 

§ The object of Jonah's preaching was to denounce the divine 
judgements against this people on account of their wickedness. The 
prophet after great reluctance to obey the command of God, and a 
signal chastisement for his disobedience, repaired at length to Nine- 
veh, and executed his commission. 

The Ninevites took the alarm, and humbled themselves before 
Jehovah, in consequence of which they were delivered at that time 
from destruction. The Assyrian empire, of which Nineveh was the 
capital, ended, however, soon afterwards, as we shall now learn. 

Sect. 11. Sardanapalus was the last and the most vicious 
of the Assyrian monarchs. In his reign a conspiracy broke 
out, by which the kingdom was destroyed, 767 years B. C. 
Three monarchies rose from its ruins, viz. Nineveh, which 

* We have here followed Usher, and not the authors of the Universal Hig' 
tory. Usher, as we think, more consistently, supposes Pul to be the father oi 
Sardanapalua. 



1004—752 b. c. 53 

preserved the name of Assyria, Babylon, and the kingdom 
of the Medes. 

§ Sardanapalus was the most effeminate of mankind. He never left 
his palace, but spent all his time with his women and his eunuchs. 
He imitated them in dress and painting, and spun with them at the 
distaff. Being besieged in his city, by Arbaces, governor of the Medes, 
he at length set fire to his palace, and consumed himself, with his wo- 
men, eunuchs, and treasures. 

EGYPT. 

Sect. 12. Egypt continued to be governed by a race of 
kings, concerning whom the common accounts seem not to 
be very satisfactory. The most considerable or the best known 
of them were Shishak, Rhamses, Amenophis IV. and Thuo- 
ris. Shishak is mentioned in scripture, and he is by some 
authors considered the same as Sesostris. But we are dispo- 
sed to consider Sesostris as much more ancient, and have ac- 
cordingly spoken of him in a former period. 

§ Concerning Shishak, it appears that he built many temples and 
cities, dug canals, and among other conquests, took Jerusalem and 
spoilt the temple. 

Rhamses possessed a very avaricious disposition. Diodorus in- 
forms us, that he was never at any expense either for the honour of 
the gods, or the welfare of his people ; but that his sole delight was 
in the augmentation of his private treasure, which, at his decease, 
amounted to no less than 400,000 talents. 

Amenophis IV. is thought to be the same with Memnon, whose 
famous statue was said to utter a sound at the rising of the sun. The 
monument in which he was buried, is much celebrated for its mag- 
nificence. He acquired great renown by his expedition against the 
Bactrians. 

Thuoris lost the Egyptian possessions in the East ; and after his 
death, Egypt, reduced within its natural boundaries, was divided 
among several little kingdoms for about 44 years. 

PHOENICIANS. 

Sect. 13. The Phoenicians, during this period, were go- 
verned by the successors of Hiram, of whom the first was 
Baleazar, his son ; and the seventh from him was Pygma- 
lion, the brother of the celebrated Dido. The cruelties of 
Pygmalion obliged her to flee to Africa, where she founded a 
mighty sovereignty, as will now be mentioned. 

CARTHAGE. 

Sect. 14. According to the most probable accounts, it was 
869 years B. C. when Dido arrived at Africa. The history 

E2 



54 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD V. 

of the Carthaginians is dated from this event. She fixed her 
habitation at the bottom of a gulf, on a peninsula, near the 
spot where Tunis now stands. • 

From this, Carthage arose, a city which afterwards became 
famous for its wealth and power, and from its connexion with 
the Roman wars. The early history of the people, who were 
called after the name of their principal city, is but little 
known. Its later history is involved in that of Rome. 

It is probable Dido might have found a few inhabitants in 
this place, whom its local advantages had induced to settle 
there ; but to her and her attendants, Carthage is doubtless 
indebted for a regular foundation. 

The colony had the same language, and national charac- 
ter, and nearly the same laws, with the parent state. In the 
height of its splendour, it possessed a population of 700,000 
inhabitants, and had under its dominion 300 small cities, bor- 
dering on the Mediterranean sea. 

§ Pygmalion, wishing to possess himself of the immense riches of 
Sichaeus, the husband of Dido, took an opportunity, while they were 
engaged in a chase, to run him through the body with a spear. The 
suspicion of his sister was awakened ; but, concealing her design, 
she requested Pygmalion to furnish her with men and ships, to con- 
vey her effects to a small city between Tyre and Sidon, that she might 
live there with her brother Barca. 

The king granted her request ; but Dido had no sooner embarked 
her property on board, than her brother and others, who favoured 
her real design, set sail for Cyprus, whence they carried off a great 
number of young women, and then steered their course to Africa. 

The Tyrian monarch, thus defeated in his schemes, was about to 
send a fleet after the fugitives ; but the tears of his mother, and the 
threatening predictions of the oracle, prevented his intended revenge. 

ITALY. 

Sect. 15. In Italy, at the time of Numitor, about 775 
B. C, there was a turn in events deserving our notice. Arnu- 
lius, the brother of Numitor, being ambitious of the throne, 
usurped the government, and connected this act with the 
murder of the king's only son, and with compelling Rhea 
Sylvia, his only daughter, to become a vestal. He thus 
meant to prevent any from becoming claimants to the throne. 

The event, however, frustrated the hopes of Amulius ; for 
from Sylvia sprung Remus and Romulus, twin brothers, who, 
at length overcoming Amulius, replaced their grandfather, 
Numitor. on the throne. 



1004—752 b. c. 55 

§ Amulius, healing of the birth of Remus and Romulus, so contrary 
to his expectations, ordered the mother to be buried alive, the pun- 
ishment of incontinent vestals, and the children to be thrown into the 
river Tiber. The latter sentence was executed, but the former was 
prevented by the intercession of a daughter of Amulius. 

The infants, though put into the Tiber, were saved, since the bas- 
ket in which they were covered, floated on the surface. It was borne 
to the foot of the Aventine mount, and there stranded. According 
to some accounts, a she-wolf suckled them, which is incredible. 

According to other accounts, the woman who preserved and nursed 
them, was called Lupa, and as Lupa is the Latin word for she-wolf, 
this circumstance caused the mistake. 

The two brothers became shepherds, were fond of hunting wild 
beasts, and at length turned their arms against the robbers that in- 
fested the country. Having been informed of their high birth, they 
collected their friends, and fought against Amulius, their uncle, and 
killed him. 

Numitor, after an exile of 42 years, was then called to the throne 
again, and was happy to owe his restoration to the bravery of his 
grandsons. Such were the youths who were destined by Provi- 
dence to lay the foundation of a city, which became the mistress of 
the world, 

Distinguished characters in Period V. 

1. Solomon, endowed with extraordinary wisdom. 

2. Homer, the greatest of the Grecian poets. 

3. Hesiod, an eminent Greek poet. 

4. Lycurgus, a reformer of the Spartan republic, and wise 
legislator. 

5. Dido, a Tyrian princess, who founded Carthage. 

6. Isaiah, the greatest of the prophetical writers. 

§ 1. Solomon was the son of David by Bathsheba. He succeeded 
David in the kingdom of Israel. He was the wisest of mankind. In 
early life he appeared to be exemplary in piety, but was afterwards 
guilty of great defection from the strictness of religion. It is be- 
lieved, however, that he did not die an apostate. The temple which 
he erected at Jerusalem in honour of the God of Israel, has also ren- 
dered his name immortal. 

He wrote the books of Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, and the Canti- 
cles, all inspired by the Spirit of God. He died 975 years B. C. aged 
58 years, and having reigned 40 years. 

2. Homer was not only the greatest of the Greek poets, but the 
earliest whose works have survived the devastations of time. On 
these accounts he is styled the father of poetry, and indeed, so far as 
we can know with certainty, he is the most ancient of all profane 
classical writers. 

The place of his nativity is unknown. Seven illustrious cities 
contended for the honour of having given him birth. His parentage 



5© ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V. 

and the circumstances of his life are also unknown, except in regar<? 
to the latter, it was agreed that he was a wandering poet, and that 
he was blind. 

His greatest poems, (and they are among the greatest of uninspi- 
red books,) are the Iliad and Odyssey. Other works have been as- 
cribed to him, but without having been sufficiently substantiated. His 
poetry is characterized by sublimity, fire, sweetness, elegance, and 
universal knowledge. 

The poems of Homer are the compositions of a man, who travel- 
led and examined, with the most critical accuracy, whatever he met in 
his way. Modern travellers are astonished to see the different scenes 
which his pen described, almost 3000 years ago, still appearing the 
same ; and the sailor who steers his course along the iEgean, beholds 
all the promontories and rocks which presented themselves to Nestor 
and Menelaus, when they returned victorious from the Trojan war. 

The first appearance of Homer's poems in Greece, was about 200 
years after the supposed time of the bard. Pisistratus, tyrant of 
Athens, was the first who arranged the Iliad and Odyssey in the form 
in which they now appear to us. The Arundelian marbles fix the 
period in which he flourished, at 907 years B. C. 

3. Hesiod is generally considered as having been a contemporary 
of Homer. He was born at Ascra in Bceotia. His greatest production 
was a poem on Agriculture, which contains refined moral reflections, 
mingled with instructions for cultivating fields. 

His Theogony, another poem, gives a faithful account of the gods 
of antiquity. Hesiod is admired for elegance and sweetness. Cicero 
highly commends him, and the Greeks were so partial to his moral 
poetical instructions, that they required their children to learn them 
all by heart. 

4. Lycurgus flourished about 884 years B. C. He was regent ol 
Sparta, until Charilaus, his nephew, had attained to mature years. 
Then leaving Sparta, he travelled in Asia and Egypt, for the purpose 
of improving his mind, and observing the manners, customs, and po- 
litical institutions of different nations. 

Upon his return, he reformed the abuses of the state, banished lux- 
ury, and produced a system which gave rise to all the magnanimity, 
fortitude, and intrepidity which distinguished the Lacedaemonians. 

Having established his laws, and engaged the citizens not to alter 
them until his return, he left his country, and, by a voluntary death, 
rendered that event impossible ; Hius securing, as far as in his power, 
he perpetuity of his institutions. 

5. Dido, also called Elissa, was a daughter of Belus, king of 
Tyre, and married her uncle Sichacus. Her husband having been 
murdered by Pygmalion, the successor of Belus, the disconsolate 
princess, with a number of Tyrians, set sail in quest of a settlement. 
A storm drove her fleet on the African coast, and there she founded, 
or enlarged a city, that became much celebrated in the annals of 
history. 

Her beauty, as well as the fame of her enterprise, gained her 
many admirers ; and her subjects wished to compel her to marry 



1004—752 b. c. 5? 

Iarbas, king of Mauritania, by whom they were threatened with war. 
Dido requested three months for consideration ; and, during that 
time, she erected a funeral pile, as if wishing, by a solemn sacrifice, 
to appease the manes of Sichaeus, to whom she had vowed eternal 
fidelity. 

When her preparation was completed, she stabbed herself on the 
pile, in presence of her people, and by this desperate feat, obtained 
the name of Dido, valiant woman. The poets have made iEneas and 
Dido contemporaneous, but this is only a fiction, allowed perhaps by 
the rules of their art. 

6. Isaiah was the son of Amos, and of the lineage of David. He 
prophesied from 735 to 681 B. C. during the reigns of several kings 
of Judah. He is the greatest and the sublimest of the prophets. He 
reproved the sinners of his day with boldness, and exposed the many 
vices that prevailed in the nation. He is called the evangelical pro- 

fhet, from his frequent allusion to, and prediction of Gospel times. 
le is said to have been cut in two with a wooden saw, by the cruel 
king Manasseh. 



PERIOD VI. 

The period of the Roman kings, extending- from the 

founding of Rome, 752 years B. C, to the battle of Ma- 

rathon, 490 years B. C. 

ROMANS. 

Sect. 1. Romulus began the building of Rome 752 B. C. 
His brother Remus was indeed concerned in the projected un- 
dertaking, but a dispute arising between the brothers respect- 
ing the place where the city should stand, they had recourse 
to arms ; in consequence of which, Remus lost his life. 

Romulus, only 18 years of age, was thus left to pursue the 
enterprise alone. On the Palatine hill he fixed as the spot, 
and enclosing about a mile of territory in compass, with a 
wall, he filled it with 1000 houses, or rather huts. To this 
collection he gave the name of Rome ; and he peopled it with 
the tumultuous and vicious rabble, which he found in the 
neighbourhood. At first it was nearly destitute of laws ; but 
it soon became a well regulated community. 

§ The liberty of building a city on those hills, where the two bro- 
thers had fed their flocks, was granted to them by Numitor, the king. 
He assigned to them a certain territory, and permitted such of his 
subjects as chose, to resort thither in aid of the work. 

A division taking place, in regard to the particular spot where the 
city should stand, Numitor advised them to watch the flight of birds, 



58 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. 

a custom common in that age, when any contested point was to B© 
settled. They took their stations on different hills. Remus saw six 
vultures ; Romulus twice as many ; so that each one thought himself 
victorious — the one having the first omen, the other the most com- 
plete. 

A contest was the result; and it is asserted that Remus was killed 
by the hand of his brother. Jumping contemptuously over the city 
wall, he was struck dead upon the spot by Romulus, who declared 
that no one should insult his rising walls with impunity. 

2. Romulus, having been elected king, introduced order 
and discipline among his subjects, which gradually improved 
under his successors. 

He adopted many important regulations respecting the go- 
vernment and policy of his newly acquired territory, the wis- 
dom of which has been sanctioned by time. As some of 
these, and other institutions that were afterwards added, are 
to be presented under the General Views in this work, they 
need not here be given. 

3. Under the salutary regulations of Romulus, great 
numbers of men, from the small towns around Rome, flock- 
ed to the city, and every day it in creased in power and ex- 
tent. The most important event under the administration 
of Romulus, was the Rape of the Sabine virgins, by which 
the Romans were supplied with wives, and which caused the 
war that thence ensued between the Romans and Sabines. 

After conquering some of the neighbouring kings, Romu- 
lus was killed (it is supposed) by the Senators, having reigned 
37 years, and was succeeded, at the expiration of one year, 
hy Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, the wisest and best of the 
Roman kings, 715 years B. C. 

§ In the want of women, Romulus proposed intermar rages with the 
Sabines, his neighbours. His proposal, however, wa? rejected with 
scorn. He then tried the effect of intrigue and force. Inviting the 
neighbouring tribes to wituess some magnificent spectacle in the 
city, he had the pleasure of finding that the Sabines, with their wives 
and daughters, were among the foremost to be present. 

At the proper time, the Roman youth rushed in among them with 
drawn swords, seized the youngest and most beautiful of the women, 
and carried them off by violence. The virgins, at first offended by 
the boldness of the intrusion, at length became reconciled to their lot. 

The Sabines, as might be expected, resented the affront, and flew 
to arms. After several unfortunate attempts at revenge, the Sabines, 
with Tatius, their king, at their head, entered the Roman territories. 
25,000 men strong. Having by stratagem passed into the city, theV 



752—490 b. c. 59 

continued the war at pleasure. At length the Romans and Sabines 
prepared for a general engagement. 

In the midst of the fight, however, the Sabine women who had 
been carried off by the Romans, rushed in between the combatants. 
f If," cried they, " any must die, let it be us, who are the cause of 
your animosity ; since, if our parents or our husbands fall, we must, 
in either case, be miserable in surviving them." 

This moving spectacle produced an effect. An accommodation 
ensued. It was agreed that Tatius and Romulus should reign jointly 
in Rome : that 100 Sabines should be admitted into the senate ; and 
that the privileges of Roman citizens, should be extended to such of 
the Sabines as chose to enjoy them. 

Tatius lived but five years after this ; and Romulus, taking advan- 
tage of this event, and elated by prosperity, invaded the liberty of 
his people. The senators opposed his encroachments, and at length, 
it is said, tore him to pieces in the senate house. 

When the throne was offered to Numa, he wished to decline it ; and 
it was not until his friends repeatedly urged him to accept it, that he 
gave up his own wishes to theirs, and for the good of his country 
consented to become king of Rome. 

He was a wise and virtuous man, and, before his elevation to the 
throne, lived contentedly in privacy. He proved excellent as a mo- 
narch, and reigned 43 years in profound peace, inspiring his subjects 
with the love of wisdom and virtue. 

He multiplied the national gods, built temples, and instituted dif- 
ferent classes of priests, and a great variety of religious ceremonies. 
The Flamines officiated each in the service of a peculiar deity; the 
Salii guarded the sacred bucklers ; the Vestals cherished the sacred 
fire ; the Augurs and Aruspices divined future events from the flight 
of birds, and the entrails of victims. 

4. The third king of Rome was Tullius Hostilius, who 
was elected, and began to reign, 672 B. C. His disposi 
tk>n was warlike. He subdued the Albans, Fidenates, and 
other neighbouring states. The Sabines, now disunited from 
the Romans, became their most powerful enemy. Tullius 
reigned 33 years, and, according to some accounts, he was 
killed by lightning. The most remarkable event during the 
reign of Tullius, was the combat between the Horatii and 
Curiatii. 

In the war between the Romans and Albans, as their armies were 
about to engage, the Alban general proposed that the dispute should 
be decided by single combat, and that the side whose champion was 
overcome, should submit to the conqueror. To this the Roman king 
acceded. 

It happened that there were three twin brothers in each army ; 
those of the Romans were called Horatii, those of the Albans, Cu- 
riatii j all remarkable for their prowess. To these the combat was 



60 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VI. 



■others 



assigned. The armies were drawn up in due order, and the broth* 
took to their arms. 

The signal being given, the youths rushed forward to the encoun- 
ter. They were soon engaged hand to hand, each regardless of his 
own safety, seeking only the destruction of his opponent. The three 
Albans were severely wounded, and loud shouts ran along the Ro 
man army. In a few seconds, two of the Romans fell and expired. 
The acclamations were heard amid the Albans. 

The surviving Roman now saw that all depended on him ; it was 
an awful moment. But he did not despair ; he manfully roused his 
spirits to meet the exigence of the occasion. Knowing that force 
alone could not avail, he had recourse to art. 

He drew back, as if flying from his enemies. Immediately were 
heard the hisses of the Romans. But Horatius had the felicity to 
witness what he wished. The wounded Curiatii, pursuing him at 
unequal distances, were divided. Turning upon the nearest pursue r, 
he laid him dead at his feet. The second brother advancing, soon 
shared the same fate. 

Only one now remained on each side. The hisses of the Romans 
were turned into cheerings. But what was their exultation when 
they saw the last of the Curiatii stretched lifeless on the ground ! 

What followed, it is painful to relate. When Horatius reached 
Rome, he saw his sister bitterly lamenting the death of the Curiatii, 
one of whom she was engaged to marry. In the dreadful moment 
of ungoverned rage, he killed her on the spot. 

Horatius was condemned to die for his crime, but making his ap- 
peal to the people, he was pardoned, though his laurels and his cha- 
racter were forever tarnished. 

5. Rome was governed by four other kings, in succession, 
viz. Ancius Martius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and 
Tarquinius Superbus. 

Ancus inherited the virtues of his grandfather, Numa, and 
was, besides, a warrior ; Tarquin enriched Rome with mag- 
nificent works ; Servius ruled with political wisdom ; but 
Tarquin the Proud pursued a course of systematic tyranny. 
With him ended the monarchical form of government at Rome, 
509 years B. C. 

§ Servius married his two daughters to the two sons of Tarquin, 
and then having established good government, was preparing to qtj 
the throne and live in peace and retirement. But these intentions 
were frustrated. 

Tullia, one of his daughters, preferred her sister's husband to her 
own, and he was disposed to reciprocate so vile an attachment. To 
answer their base purposes, they both killed their respective partners. 
As one wickedness too surely paves the way for another, these flagi 
tious wretches next plotted the death of Servius. 

It will be read with horror, that not only did the cruel Tullia re- 
joice, when she heard that Tarquinius had murdered her father, but 



752— 490 b c. 61 

that when she rode forth in her chariot, to congratulate the base mur- 
derer, she would not permit her coachman to indulge even his hu- 
manity, who seeing the bleeding body of Servius lying in the street, 
was about to turn down another road, thinking, very rationally, that 
his mistress would be shocked to behold the mangled corpse of her 
old father. 

Tullia had expelled from her heart all natural feeling, and per- 
ceiving the hesitation of the coachman, angrily bade the man drive 
on; he did so, and the chariot-wheels of the daughter's car wer 
stained with the blood of her gray-haired father. 

Tarquin, surnamed the proud, upon this event, was made king ; 
but though at first he ingratiated himself with the lower classes oi 
the people, yet by his oppressive and tyrannical conduct, he at length 
became an object of universal detestation. His son Sextus having 
greatly indulged in detestable vices, became the occasion of his own 
and the king's ruin. 

This prince, and Collatinus a noble Roman, and some officers, 
when with the army besieging Ardea, a small town not far from 
Rome, in the height of a debauch, were boasting what excellent 
wives each possessed. Collatinus was certain that his was the best ; 
in their merriment, the young men mounted their horses, and set off 
for Rome, to discover whose wife was most properly employed in 
the absence of her husband. 

The ladies were all found visiting and passing the time in amuse- 
ment and mirth, except Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus. She was 
industriously spinning wool among her maidens at home. Sextus 
was so taken with the good sense and right behaviour of Lucretia, 
that he fell in love with her, and wished her to quit her husband, 
indulging at the same time the most unwarrantable designs. 

Lucretia, shocked at his vile proposals, and unable to survive her 
dishonour, killed herself for grief, which so distracted Collatinus, that 
with Junius Brutus, and other friends, he raised an army, and drove 
Sextus and his infamous father from Rome. The people had suffer- 
ed so much under the tyranny of this king, that they resolved that 
he should never come back, and that they would have no more kings. 

The cause of the interest which Brutus took in the death of Lu- 
cretia, was the following. His father and eldest brother had been 
slain by Tarquin, and unable to avenge their death, he pretended to 
be insane. The artifice saved his life ; he was called Brutus for his 
stupidity. When the infamous deed of the Tarquins was done, and 
the catastrophe which ensued was known, he seized the occasion of 
revenge. 

Snatching the dagger from the wound of the bleeding Lucretia, he 
Bwore upon the reeking blade, immortal hatred to the royal family. 
" Be witness, ye gods," he cried, " that from this moment I proclaim 
myself the avenger of the chaste Lucretia's cause," &c. This energy 
of speech and action, in one who had been reputed a fool, astonished 
Rome, and every patriot's arm was nerved against Tarquin and his 
adherents— against Tarquin and royalty. 

F 



62 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. 

6. From a monarchy, Rome now became a republic, wilh 
a gradual increase of the power of the people from time to 
time. At first the nobles had much the largest share in the 
government. The supreme authority was committed to two 
magistrates, chosen from the patrician order every year, who 
were named consuls. Their power was nearly or quite equal 
to that of the kings, only it was temporary. Brutus and 
Collatinus were the first consuls, who, with several of their 
successors, were engaged in hostility with the banished king. 

§ Tarquin, after his expulsion, took refuge in Etruria. where he 
enlisted two of the most powerful cities, Venii and Tarqiiirifij to es- 
pouse his cause. At Rome also he had adherents. A conspiracy 
having been formed to open the gates of the city to him, the republic 
was on the eve of ruin. 

It was however discovered in season, and the two sons of Brutus 
aaving been concerned in it, he sternly ordered them to be beheaded 
in his presence. He put off the father, and acted only the consul — a 
dreadful necessity. 

Some time after, in a combat between the Romans and Tarquins, 
Brutus engaged with Aruns, son of Tarquin, and so fierce was the 
attack, that they both fell dead together. Brutus was honoured as 
the father of the republic. 

Tarquin now fled for aid to Porsenna, king of Clusium, who ad- 
vanced with a large army to Rome, and had nearly entered it. The 
valour of one man saved the city. Iloratius Codes, seeing the ene- 
my approach the bridge where he stood sentinel, and observing the 
retreat of the Romans, besought them to assist him. He told them to 
burn or break down the bridge behind him, whilst he went forward 
to keep back the enemy. 

He then remained alone fighting in the midst of his enemies, and 
when he heard the crash of the bridge and the shouts of the Romans, 
knowing that no way of entrance was left for the foe, he jumped into 
the river and swam over to his friends in safety. 

In the war with Porsenna occurred another remarkable incident. 

Mutius Scawola, a noble young Roman, upon leave obtained of the 
senate, disguised himself, and entered the tent of Porsenna. There he 
saw a man so richly drest that he thought he was the king, whom he 
contrived to kill, but it was only the king's secretary. 

While endeavouring to quit the camp, Mutius was seized and car- 
ried before Porsenna, who told him he would severely torture him if 
he did not betray the schemes of the Romans. Mutius only answered 
by putting his hand into one of the fires lighted near him, and hold- 
ing it steadily there. 

The king, seeing the courage and fortitude of this youth, leaped 
from his throne, and drawing the hand of Mutius from the flame, 
highly praised him, and dismissed him without farther harm. Peace 
was soon concluded upon this incident. 



752—490 b. c. , 63 

7. The Latins, excited by Mamilius, Tarquirrs son-in- 
law, declared war against the Romans, 501 years B. C. The 
common people, oppressed by the patrician order, had become 
disaffected, and refused to enlist into the service. In this 
crisis, the Romans resorted to the desperate measure of having 
a dictator, a magistrate with unlimited authority, for the pe- 
riod of six months. This was an effectual resort in times of 
danger. 

A few years after, the people, supposing their grievances 
not sufficiently redressed, rose in general insurrection, when 
the senate consented to create five new magistrates, called 
tribunes, who were to be annually selected by the people. 

These were to be sacred ; their office was to defend the 
oppressed, pardon offenders, arraign the enemies of the peo- 
ple, and, if necessary, stop the whole machine of government. 
They were afterwards increased to ten. The popular or de- 
mocratic constitution of Rome may be dated from this period, 
490 years B. C. 

About this time, Coriolanus, a patrician and able warrior, 
being banished from Rome, for proposing tbe abolition of the 
tribunate, retired to the Volsci, among whom he raised an 
army, and advanced to besiege Rome. Attacking the city, 
he would probably have conquered it, but he was turned from 
his purpose by the prayers and tears of his mother, wife, and 
children. 

§ A few particulars respecting Coriolanus must here be related. 
Passing over the circumstances of his banishment, we find that upon 
his entrance into the territory of the Volsci, he met a most friendly 
reception from Tullus Aufidius, a mortal enemy to Rome. 

Having advised this prince to make war against the Romans, he 
marched at the head of the Volsci, as general. The approach o^ 
Coriolanus, at the head of so powerful an enemy, greatly alarmed 
the Romans, who sent him several embassies to reconcile him to his 
country, and to solicit his return. He was deaf to all proposals ; and 
though each successive embassy was made more and more solemn 
and urgent, he bade them prepare for war. 

At Rome, all was now confusion and consternation. The republic 
was nearly given up for lost. Coriolanus had pitched his camp at 
only a very short distance from the city. As a last resort, it was 
suggested, that possibly his wife or mother might effect what the 
senate and the ministers of religion could not. 

Accordingly his mother, Veturia, and his wife, Vergilia, with his 
children, and the principal matrons of the city, undertook the lpst 
embassy. The meeting of Coriolanus and this train, was in themgh- 



64 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. 

est degree tender and affecting. In the sternness of his soul he had 
resolved to give them a denial ; but the authority of a mother, and 
the entreaties of a wife and of children, must be listened to. 

" My son," cried his mother, " how am I to consider this meeting 7 
Do 1 embrace my son or my enemy? Am I your mother or your 
captive ? How have I lived to see this day— to see my son a banished 
man — and still more distressful, to see him the enemy of his coun- 
try ? how has he been able to turn his arms against the place that 
gave him life — how direct his rage against those walls that protect 
his wife, his children, and his gods ? But it is to me only that my 
country owes her oppressor. Had I never been a mother, Rome had 
still been free." 

With these and shnilar words, and with the tears and entreaties of 
his wife and children, his stern and obstinate resolutions were over- 
come. He was melted under them, and the feelings of a man rose 
superior to the honour of a soldier and the vengeance of a foe. The 
Volsci were marched from the neighbourhood of Rome, but the event 
fulfilled the sad prediction which he addressed to his mother, in re- 
ply — a prediction which only a Roman mother could hear — " O my 
mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son," 

The act of Coriolanus, of course, displeased the Volsci. He was 
summoned to appear before the people of Antium : but the clamours 
which his enemies raised were so prevalent, that he was murdered 
on the spot appointed for his trial. His body was honoured, never- 
theless, with a magnificent funeral by the Volsci, and the Roman ma- 
trons put on mourning for his loss. 

To show their sense of Veturia's merit and patriotism, the Romans 
dedicated a temple to Female Fortune. 
GREECE, 

8. Greece, during this period, underwent several changes. 
After the institutions of Lycurgus had been a number of 
years in successful operation, those of Athens began to re- 
ceive attention from some of their wise men. The office ot 
archon had become decennial, at the beginning of this pe- 
riod. 

In 648 B. C. the archons were elected annually, were 
nine in number, and all had equal authority. Under these 
changes the people became miserable, and a reform was at- 
tempted, first by Draco, and 150 years afterwards by the illus- 
trious Solon, 594 years B. C. At the request of the citizens, 
they each furnished, during his archonship, a written code 
for the regulation of the state. 

§ Draco was a wise and honest, but a very stern man. His laws 
were characterized by extreme severity. Very trifling offences were 
punished with death, "because," said Draco, "small crimes deserve 
death, and I havc»no greater punishment for the greatest sins,"— © 
plan ill adapted to the state of human society. 



752—490 b. c. 65 

Solon was one of the seven wise men of Greece. He established 
excellent rules of justice, order, and discipline. But, though possess- 
ed of extensive knowledge, he wanted a firm and intrepid mind ; and 
he rather accommodated his system to the habits and passions of his 
countrymen, than attempted to reform their manners. 

He cancelled the bloody code of Draco, except the laws which re- 
lated to murder ; and he abolished the debts of the poor by an act of 
insolvency. He divided the Athenians into four classes, of which the 
three first consisted of persons possessing property, and the fourth of 
those who were poor. 

All the offices of the state were committed to the care of the rich ; 
but those who possessed no property, were allowed to vote in the 
general assembly of the people, in whose hands he lodged the su- 
preme power. 

He instituted a senate, composed of 400 persons, (afterwards in- 
creased to 500 and 600,) who had cognisance of all appeals from the 
court of Areopagus, and with whom it was necessary that every 
measure should originate before it was discussed in the assembly of 
the people. In this way he sought to balance the weight of the po- 
pular interest. 

Solon committed the supreme administration of justice to the 
court of Areopagus. This court had fallen into disrepute, but So- 
lon, by confining its numbers to those who had been archons, great- 
ly raised the reputation of the body. 

The following anecdote of Solon and Thespis is worthy of remem- 
brance. Thespis was an actor of plays. Solon having at one time 
attended those shows, which were then very rude, called Thespis, 
who had been acting various characters, and asked him if he was 
not ashamed to speak so many lies ? 

Thespis replied, " It was all in jest." Solon, striking his staff on 
the ground, violently exclaimed, "If we encourage ourselves to speak 
falsely in jest, we shall run the chance of acquiring a habit of speak- 
ing falsely in serious matters." Such a sentiment is worthy of the 
wisdom of Solon. 

9. Scarcely had Athens begun to enjoy the benefit of 
these new regulations, when Pisistratus, a rich and ambi- 
tious citizen, usurped the supreme power, (B. C. 560,) which 
act Solon was unable to prevent. He and his posterity exer- 
cised it during 50 years. 

Hippias and Hipparchus, his sons, who succeeded him, en- 
joyed a peaceable crown for a time, but were at length de- 
throned, and democracy was restored. 

§ Pisistratus secured the favour of the people by the following ex- 
pedient. Wounding himself, he ran into the market place, and pro- 
claimed that his enemies had inflicted the injury. Solon, with con- 
tempt, said to him, " Son of Hippocrates, you act Ulysses badly : he 
hurt himself to deceive his enemies ; you have done so to cheat your 
friends." 



66 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VI. 

The populace, as is generally the case, being deaf to the voice of 
reason, Pisistratus became tyrant, or king of Athens. He secured 
the affections of the people by his splendour and munificence. He 
was eminent for his love of learning, and the fine arts. He adorned 
Athens with many magnificent buildings. 

The restoration of democracy was undertaken by Harmodius and 
Aristogiton, who were citizens in middle life. They succeeded 
eventually, though they both lost their lives in the attempt. Aristo- 
giton was previously tortured, having fallen into the hands of Hip- 
pias. By the aid of the Lacedaemonians the object was accomplish- 
ed, and Hippias, who at first escaped the fate of his brother, was at 
length dethroned. 

Passing into Asia, he solicited foreign aid to place him in the so- 
vereignty. Darius at this time meditated the conquest of Greece. 
Hippias took advantage of the views of an enemy against his native 
country, and Greece soon became involved in a war with Persia. 

10. Under the institutions of Lycurgus the Spartans had 
become a race of warriors. Being in the neighbourhood of 
Messenia, they were almost constantly at war with thai 
state. The first Messenian war began 743 jeavs B. C. and 
lasted 19 years. There were two other periods of conten- 
tion between Sparta and Messenia, but the latter was final- 
ly subdued. The territory was seized and its inhabitants 
were enslaved. 

§ During one of these wars, the Lacedaemonians, it is said, bound 
themselves by oath not to return home till they had conquered the 
Messenians. Despairing, however, of ever returning, they sent or- 
ders to the women of Sparta to recruit the population, by promiscu- 
ous intercourse with the young men, who being children when the 
war began, had not taken the oath. 

The offspring of this singular and improper order were denomina- 
ted Partheniae, or Sons of Virgins. 

ISRAELITES. 

11. The kingdom of Israel, towards, the beginning of 
the present period, (721 B. C.) was subverted by Salmana- 
zar king of Assyria, or Nineveh. The Israelites were car- 
ried captive to Assyria, whence they never returned. This 
event occurred during the reign of Hosea, their last king. 

§ Hosea had reigned nine years, when Salmanazar made him tribu- 
tary. But Hosea having revolted, the Assyrian king besieged Sama- 
ria, the capital of the ten tribes, and after three years took and plun- 
dered it. 

Except a few, who remained in Canaan, the Israelites were disper- 
sed throughout Assyria, and lost their distinctive character. Those 
who remained in their native country became intermixed with stran- 
gers. The descendants of these mingled races were afterwards 
known by the name of Samaritans. 



752—490 b. c. 6? 

Thus, in a little more than two centuries after the separation of the 
ten tribes from those of Judah and Benjamin, were they destroyed 
as a nation, having, on account of their great sins, previously suffered 
an awful series of calamities. 

JEWS. 

12. The kingdom of Judah from the commencement of 
this period enjoyed but a doubtful existence. It was invaded 
at different times by the Babylonians, rendered tributary, and 
finally subdued. 

Nebuchadnezzar, within 115 years after the destruction, of 
Samaria, took Jerusalem, and razed the city and its temple 
to its foundations. 

§ During the latter part of the kingdom of Judah, the greater por 
lion of its kings were impious. Two or three of them, however, 
were eminently religious. Such were Hezekiah and Josiah. They 
were both of them reformers, and destroyed the altars of idolatry. 

The idolatry of Ahaz was punished by the captivity of 200,000 of 
his subjects, though they were afterwards sent back upon the remon- 
strance of the prophet Obed. Manasseh, an impious and cruel prince, 
was carried to Babylon, bound with fetters. This affliction, becom- 
ing the means of his repentance, God heard his supplications, and 
brought him again into his kingdom. 

13. Under Jehoiachin, who was carried captive to Baby 
Ion, together with his people, commenced the Seventy years 
Captivity of the Jews, 606 B. C. The king was after- 
wards released, but remained tributary to the king of Baby 
Ion. ! 

§ In the reign of Zedekiah, the next but one in succession after Je« 
hoiachin, Jerusalem was taken by the Babylonians, and entirely de- 
molished. Zedekiah, after seeing all his children slain, had his eyes 
put out, and was brought in fetters to Babylon. 

14. The Jews having been in captivity to the Babylo- 
nians just 70 years, were permitted, by Cyrus, king of Persia,, 
to return to their native land, 536 years B. C. This was 
accomplished under the direction of Zerubbabel and Joshua, 
their leaders. 

They soon began the rebuilding of the temple, but their 
enemies prevented them from making any progress. Seve- 
ral years afterwards they commenced the work anew, and 
i>>mpWed it in the space of four years, 516 B. C. Upon 
thi.- -vent they celebrated the first passover. 

§ The return of the Jews from their captivity happened the first 
year of Cyrus, who, as we shall soon learn, had conquered Babylon, 
and terminated the Babylonian empire. 

The influence of adversity on many oi the Jews, seems to have 



68 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. 

been very favorable on this occasion. It brought them to repent- 
ance, and engaged them in the worship and ordinances of their re- 
ligion. The vessels of the temple, which Nebuchadnezzar had 
brought with him from Jerusalem, were all restored by the Persian 
monarch. 

NINEVEH. 

15. Of the three kingdoms into which the ancient Assy- 
rian empire was divided upon the death of Sardanapalus, 
Nineveh or Assyria comes first in order. Its first king is 
supposed to have been Tiglath Pileser, 747 B. C. A few 
of his successors, during this period, were Salmanazar, Sen 
nacherib, Esarhaddon, Nebuchadnezzar, and Belshazzar. 

Under the last of these kings the kingdom of Nineveh end 
ed. Babylon, its capital, was taken by Cyaxares II. aided 
by Cyrus, and Belshazzar was killed, 538 years B. C. 

§ Salmanazar was the sovereign mentioned above, in the history of 
the Israelites. He destroyed the kingdom of the Ten Tribes. 

Of Sennacherib it is recorded in his war with the Jews, that having 
written a letter to Hezekiah full of blasphemy against the God of Is- 
rael, God, in order to punish him, when he was just ready to take Je- 
rusalem, sent an angel, who in one night smote 185,000 men of his 
army. 

Covered with shame, he returned to his own country, and there 
his two eldest sons conspired against and killed him in the temple of 
Nisroch. 

About 108 years after this prince, Nebuchadnezzar began to reign 
over the kingdom of Nineveh. He signalized his reign by many con- 
quests, particularly of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. 

His heart being elated with success, God, to punish him for his 
pride, reduced him to such a state of insanity, that, wandering in the 
forests, he lived upon grass, like a wild beast. He recovered twelve 
months before his death, and, by a solemn edict, published through- 
out the whole of his dominions the astonishing things that God had 
wrought in him. 

Labynit, or the scripture Belshazzar, became peculiarly infamous, 
by profanely using the holy vessels which Nebuchadrezzar had 
brought out of the spoils of the temple. He was at length besieged 
by Cyaxares II, king of the Medes, in conjunction with Cyrus. 

During the siege he made a great entertainment for his whole court 
on a certain night; but their joy was greatly disturbed by a vision, 
and still more by the explanation which Daniel, the prophet, a Jew- 
ish captive, gave of it to the king, that his kingdom was taken from 
him, and delivered to the Medes and Persians. That very night 
Babvlon was taken and Belshazzar killed. 

BABYLON. 

16. Babylon, the next kingdom in order of the second em- 



752—490 b. c. 09 

pire of Assyria, continued separate not quite 70 years. Na- 
bonassar was its first king. After a few successive reigns, 
and interregnums, it was subdued by Esarhaddon, one of the 
kings of Nineveh, and annexed to his dominions, 680 B. C. 
§ The famous astronomical epocha at Babylon, called the era of 
Nabonassar, commenced from the reign of this prince. We are un- 
acquainted with the history of his successors, only Merodach seems 
to be the same prince who sent ambassadors to Hezekiah, to congra- 
tulate him on the recovery of his health. 

MEDES. 

17. The last in order of the kingdoms that constituted 
the second empire of Assyria was that of the Medes. After 
the destruction of the first Assyrian empire, the Medes enjoy- 
ed for some time the liberty they had acquired by their va- 
lour. They formed a republic ; but anarchy having prevailed, 
they elected a king after 37 years. 

Dejoces, the first king, was elected 690 years B. C. The 
fourth king after him, viz. Cyaxares II. or Darius the Mede, 
having with his nephew, Cyrus, conquered Babylon, reigned 
over it two years in conjunction with Cyrus ; after which the 
kingdom of the Medes, and indeed the whole Assyrian em- 
pire, was united to that of Persia, 536 years B. C. 

§ The Medes are supposed to be the descendants of Madai, the third 
son of Japhet, from whom they derived their name. They seem to 
have been independent tribes at first, and not to have been united 
under one monarchy till the time of Dejoces. 

They were governed by petty princes, and some are of opinion, 
that one of the four kings, who in the time of Abraham, invaded the 
southern coast of Canaan, reigned in Media. They were first brought 
into subjection to the Assyrian yoke by Ninus. 

Some time after they had shaken off this yoke, they were govern- 
ed by kings of their own, who became absolute, and were controlled 
by no law. Of Dejoces it is recorded, that he no sooner ascended 
the throne, than he endeavoured to civilize and polish his subjects. 
He built the beautiful city of Ecbatana, and made it the capital of his 
empire. 

• He then contrived a code of laws for the good of the state, and cau- 
sed them to be strictly obeyed. In a war with Nebuchadnezzar I. 
his capital was plundered, and stripped of all its ornaments, and 
falling into the conqueror's hands, he was cruelly shot to death with 
arrows. 

Phraortes, his successor, was much more fortunate, and conquered 
almost all upper Asia. Cyaxares I. a brave prince, made war upon 
the kingdom of Nineveh, to avenge the wrongs inflicted by Nebu- 
chadnezzar. A battle ensued, in which the Ninevites or Assyrians 



70 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI. 

were defeated ; but a formidable army of the Scythians having invaded 
Media, Cyaxares marched with all his forces against them. 

The Medes, however, were vanquished, and obliged to make an 
alliance with the Scythians, who settled in Media, where they re- 
mained for 28 years. Finding that they could not get rid of their 
troublesome guests by force, they effected it by stratagem. The 
Scythians being invited to a general feast, which was given in every 
family, each landlord made his guest drunk, and in that condition 
massacred him. 

After this event, Cyaxares entered into a war with the Lydians. 
This war continued five years. The battle fought in the fifth year, 
Was remarkable on account of a total eclipse of the sun, which hap- 
pened during the engagement, and which was foretold by Thales, the 
philosopher. 

The Medes and Lydians, equally terrified, immediately retreated, 
and soon after concluded a peace. Two more princes succeeded, viz. 
Astyages and Cyaxares II. Astyages married his daughter to Cam- 
byses, king of Persia, of which marriage Cyrus was the issue. After 
the death of Cyaxares, Cyrus united the kingdoms of the Medes and 
Persians. 

PERSIA. 

18. From the days of Cyrus the Great, 536 years B. C. 
the Persian empire holds a distinguished place in ancient 
history. It was originally of small extent, and almost un- 
known ; but after being founded by Cyrus, it included all 
India, Assyria, Media, and Persia, and the parts adjoining to 
the Euxine and Caspian Seas. It is sometimes called the 
Medo-Persian empire. 

Cyrus is represented as a prince of an excellent character, 
and he obtained the surname of Great, from his heroic actions 
a&d splendid achievements. Having undertaken an expedi- 
tion against the Scythians, he was surprised and slain by 
means of an ambuscade from the enemy, 529 years B.C. 

He was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who is called in 
scripture Artaxerxes, and who added Egypt to his empire. 
Cambyses was succeeded by Darius, 522 years B. C, the son 
of Hystaspes, who by a stratagem obtained the sovereignty. 

§ The first inhabitants of Persia were called Elamites, and descended 
from Elam the eldest son of Shem. During, however, more than 16 
centuries we have little information relative to their history. Che- 
derlaomer, the only king of Elam recorded in history, conquered the 
king of Sodom, but was defeated by Abraham. This incident is 
mentioned in Scripture. 

Cyrus was born but one year after his uncle Cyaxares. The man- 
ners of the Persians were admirable in those days, great simplicity 
of dress, and food^and behaviour, universally prevailed, so that Cyrus 



752—490 b. c. 71 

was plainly and wisely educated, as he was treated like other chil- 
dren of •! lis own age. But he surpassed them all, not only in aptness 
to learn, but in courage and in address. * 

When he was yet a boy, his mother took him to visit his grand- 
father, but the pride and luxury of the court of Media quite surprised 
and disgusted him. Astyages was so charmed with the sensible con- 
versation and artless manners of the prince, that he loaded him with 
presents. Cyrus, however, gave them all away to the courtiers, ac- 
cording to their merits, or their services rendered to himself. 

Sacas, the cup-bearer, he neglected, because he did not let him visit 
Astyages when he pleased ; and when Astyages lamented his neglect 
of so good an officer, " Oh," said the young prince, " there is not 
much merit in being a good cup-bearer ; I can do as well myself." 
He then took the cup, and handed it to his mother with great modesty 
and gracefulness. 

Astyages admired his skill, but laughingly observed, " the young 
waiter had forgotten one thing." " What have I forgotten ?" asked 
Cyrus. " To taste the wine before you handed it to me and your mo- 
ther." "I did not forget that, but I did not choose to swallow poison." 

" Poison !" exclaimed the king. " Yes, there must be poison in the 
cup, for they who drink of it sometimes grow giddy and sick, and 
fall down." " Then do you never drink in your country ?" inquired 
Astyages. " Yes, but we only drink to satisfy thirst, and then a lit- 
tle; water suffices." 

Many similar anecdotes are recorded of this prince, which maybe 
learnt from larger histories. Having reduced all the nations from 
the iEgean sea to the Euphrates, he advanced towards Babylon, and 
at length entered it by stratagem. Having caused deep and large 
ditches to be dug all around it, he, on a certain night, when all the 
Babylonians were engaged in feasting and merriment, ordered the 
dams of the ditches to be thrown open, that the waters of the Euphra- 
tes might run into them. 

By this means, the channel of the river, which ran through the city, 
was left dry, so that the troops entered it without opposition. The 
guards were surprised and slain, together with the king and all his 
family. The kingdom of Babylon was thus destroyed for ever. 

Two years after this, Cyrus reigned over his vast empire alone 
during seven years, in the first of which he published the famous 
edict for the return of the Jews. 

Of Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, it is recorded that he conquered 
Egypt, which remained under the Persian yoke 112 years. He made 
himself master of Pelusium. the key of Egypt, by the following 
stratagem. He placed in front of his ai my a great number of those 
animals considered sacred by the Egyptians, who not daring to injure 
them, made no opposition to the Persian army. 

After an impostor named Smerdis, who reigned 7 months, Darius, 
a descendant of Cyrus on the mother's side, ascended the throne. 
In his time it was that the .Tews were permitted to rebuild their tem- 
ple. After a war against the Scythians, he turned his arms, as we 
shall soon see, against the Greeks. 



¥2 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VI. 

LYDIANS. 

19. Jja the history of the Lydians, the last of its dynasties', 
was that of the Mermnadse. Gyges, one of the chief officers 
of Candaules the king, having murdered the latter, became 
possessed of his queen and throne, 718 years B. C. He was 
the first of the Mermnadee race. The fourth prince after him 
was Croesus, so celebrated for his riches. His kingdom was 
conquered by Cyrus. 

§ A circumstance worthy of record occurred in the contest between 
Cyrus and Croesus. After Croesus was taken prisoner, he was con- 
demned by the conqueror to be burnt alive. When the unhappy 
prince was led to the funeral pile, he exclaimed aloud three times, 
Solon ! Solon i Solon ! 

Cyrus immediately demanded, why he pronounced that celebra- 
ted philosopher's name with so much vehemence in that extremity. 
Croesus answered, that the observation of Solon, "That no mortal 
could be esteemed happy till the end of life," had forcibly recurred to 
his recollection. 

Cyrus was struck with the remark, and, as if in anticipation of his 
own tragical end, ordered the unhappy king to be taken from the pile, 
and treated him ever after with honour and respect. 

EGYPT. 

20. Egypt, during the present period, was governed by 
the following kings — Sabbacon, Tharaca, Pharaoh-Necho. 
Psammenitus, and a few others. Under the last of these, 
525 B. C. Egypt was conquered by Cambyses, king of Per 
sia, to which power it was subject more than a century. 

§ Sabbacon, a king of Ethiopia, it seems, conquered Egypt. He 
killed Nechus, king of Sais ; burnt Bocchoris, another king, to death, 
and forced Anysis the blind to retire into the morasses. During his 
continuance in Egypt, he acquired a high reputation for wisdom and 
integrity. He finally relinquished the sceptre, and returned into 
Ethiopia, because he would not massacre the priests, agreeably to a 
suggestion said to have been imparted unto him by the tutelar god 
of Thebes. 

Tharaca, called in scripture Tirhakah, made war against Senna- 
cherib, king of Assyria. After him there was an anarchy of two 
years, and an aristocracy of twelve governors for fifteen years. 

Pharaoh-Necho waged war against the Assyrians and Jews, killed 
Josiah king of Judah, captured Jerusalem, imprisoned Jehoahaz, 
and appointed Jehoiachim king. 

Psammenitus reigned only six months before the invasion of Cam- 
byses, and the subjection of his kingdom. He was kindly treated at 
first by the conquerer, but thirsting for an opportunity to revenge 
himself, he was condemned to drink bull's blood, and died wretch- 
edly. 



752—490 ii. c. 73 

Distinguished Characters in Period VI. 

1. Romulus, founder and first king of Rome. 

2. Sappho, a Greek poetess, inventor of the Sapphic verse. 

3. iEsop, a Phrygian philosopher and fabulist. 

4. Solon, a legislator of Athens, and one of the wisest men 
of Greece. 

5. Thales, founder of the Ionic philosophy. 

6. Cyrus, a wise and successful prince, who conquered 
most of the East. 

7. Anacreon, a Greek poet, and father of the Anacreontic 
verse. 

8. Pythagoras, a Grecian philosopher. 

§ 1. Romulus was a son of Rhea Sylvia, and grandson of Numitor, 
king of Alba, and bom at the same birth with Remus. His story 
has already been told. As the founder of Rome his name is immor- 
tal. His virtues were those of a military chieftain and adventurer 
in a rude age. He is net undistinguished as a legislator, though his 
institutions had almost exclusively a warlike tendency. 

After a reign of 37 or 39 years, he was killed, as is supposed, by 
the senators. The fable, however, on this subject is, that as he was 
giving instructions to the senators, he disappeared from their sight — 
an eclipse of the sun, which happened at that time, being favourable 
to the rumor that he was taken up to heaven. The Romans paid 
him divine honours under the name of Quirinus, and ranked him 
among the twelve great gods. 

2. Sappho was born in the island of Lesbos, about 600 years B. C. 
She is celebrated for her poetical talents and beauty. Her tender 
attachments were extremely violent, and the conduct into which they 
betrayed her must be reprobated by every virtuous mind. She con- 
ceived such a passion for Phaon, a youth of Mytiiene, that upon his 
refusal to reciprocate it, she threw herself into the sea from Mount 
Leucas. 

She composed nine books in lyric verses, besides epigrams, elegies, 
&c. Of all these compositions nothing now remains but two frag- 
ments, one of which is preserved by Longinus ; though they were 
all extant in the age of Horace. Her poems w T ere admired for their 
sublimity, sweetness, and elegance ; yet they were highly objection- 
able, it is said, on account of their licentiousness. 

3. iEsop flourished about 580 years B. C. Those entertaining and 
instructive fables which he composed, have acquired for him a high 
reputation, and he is generally supposed to have been the inventor 
of that kind of writing. He was originally a slave, and had several 
masters, but procured his liberty by the charms of his genius. Fall- 
ing into the hands of an Athenian philosopher, he was enfranchised. 

He travelled over the greatest part of Greece and Egypt, but re- 
sided much at the court of Croesus, king of Lydia, by whom he was 
sexii 10 consult the oracle of Delphi. In this commission iEsop be- 



74 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V 






haved himself with great severity, and sarcastically compared the 
Delphians to floating sticks which appear large at a distance, but are 
nothing when brought near. 

The Delphians. offended with his caustic remarks, accused him of 
some act of sacrnege, and pretending to have proved it againsc him, 
threw him down from a rock. He is said to have been short and 
deformed in his person. 

4. Solon was born at Salamis and educated at Athens. After de- 
voting the early Dart of his life to philosophical and political studies, 
he travelled over the greatest portion of Greece; but was distressed 
with the dissentions that prevailed among his countrymen. 

Having, however, been elected archon and legislator of Athens, he 
made a reform in every department of the government. He institu- 
ted the Areopagus, regulated the Prytaneum, and his laws flourished 
in full vigour above 400 years. He died, as some report, in Cyprus, at 
the court of king Philocyprus, in his 80th year, about 558 B. C. 

5. Thales was born at Miletus, in Ionia. Like the rest of the an- 
cients, he travelled in quest of knowledge, and for some time resided 
in Crete, Phoenicia, and Egypt. Under the priests of Memphis he 
was taught geometry, astronomy, and philosophy, and enabled to 
measure with exactness, the height and extent of a pyramid, by its 
shadow. 

His discoveries in astronomy were great, and he was the first who 
calculated accurately a solar eclipse. Like Homer, he looked 
upon water as the principle of every thing. In founding the Ionic 
sect of philosophy, which distinguished itself for deep and abstruse 
speculations, his name is memorable. 

He died in the 96th year of his age, about 548 years B. C. His 
compositions are lost. 

6. Cyrus subdued the eastern parts of Asia, and made war against 
Croesus, king of Lydia, whom he conquered, B. C. 548. He invaded 
the kingdom of Assyria, and took the city of Babylon, by drying the 
channels of the Euphrates, and marching his troops through the bed 
of this river, while the people were celebrating a grand festival. 

He afterwards marched against Tomyris, the queen of the Massa- 
getae, a Scythian nation, and was defeated in a bloody battle, B. C. 
530. The victorious queen, who had lost her son in the previous 
encounter, was so incensed against Cyrus, that she cut off his head, 
and threw it into a vessel filled with human blood, exclaiming, " Sa- 
tisfy thyself with blood, which thou hast so eagerly desired." 

According to Xenophon, Cyrus possessed many excellent traits of 
character. 

7. Anacreon had a delicate wit, but he was certainly too fond of 
pleasure and wine. All that he wrote is not extant ; though his odes 
remain, and their sweetness, gayety, and elegance have been admi- 
red in every age. With " flowers, beauties, and perpetual graces," 
they have a hurtful moral tendency. 

He lived to his 85th year, and after every excess of pleasure and 
debauchery, choked himself with a grape stone, and expired. His 
statue was placed in the citadel of Athens, representing him as an 



752—490 b. c. 75 

old urunfcen man, singing, with every mark of dissipation and in- 
temperance. 

8. Pythagoras was born at Samos. In his 18th year he obtained 
the prize for wrestling at the Olympic games. He afterwards tra- 
velled in Egypt, Chaidaea, and the east, and at length, in his 40th 
year, he retired to Crotona, in Magna Grascia. 

Here his universal knowledge gained him friends, admirers, and 
disciples, and a reformation took place in the morals of the people. 
The wond is indebted to him for the demonstration of the 47th pro- 
position of Euclid, respecting the square of the hypothemise. By 
his ingenious discoveries in astronomy he traced the true solar sys- 
tem. The time and place of his death are unknown. 



PERIOD VII. 

The Period of Grecian Glory, extending from the Battle 

of Marathon* 490 years B, C. to the birth of Alexander, 

356 years B. G. 

GREECE. 

I. The Greeks, soon after the expulsion of Hippias, the 
king of Athens, became involved in a war with Persia. Un- 
der Darius, the Persians invaded Greece, 496 years B. C. 
His first fleet was wrecked ; but a second of 600 sail, con- 
taining 500,000 men, ravaged the Grecian islands, and an 
immense army poured down on Attica. 

Miltiades, at the head of the Greeks, met the Persian hosts, 
and defeated them on the plain of Marathon. The Persians 
lost 6300 men in that battle, while the Greeks lost but 190. 
The Grecian force did not exceed 10,000 men. The date 
of this engagement is 490 years B. C. and one of the most 
important in its consequences that history records. 

§ Ambition and revenge in the breast of Darius, gave rise to his 
project of invading Greece. The Athenians had rendered assistance 
to the people of Ionia in attempting to throw off the Persian yoke^ 
and had ravaged Sardis, the capital of Lydia. Darius soon reducing 
the Ionians to submission, turned his arms against the Greeks ; while 
the exile Hippias, basely seconded the plans of the Persian monarch. 
d^)ne expedition in a great measure failed ; and it was some time 
berore another could be gathered and prepared to act, so that it waa 
six years from the period in which the Persian invasion first com 
menced, to the battle of Marathon. Previously to the descent on 
Attica, the Persians, under Mardonius, had attacked Thrace, Macedo- 
nia, and the neighbouring provinces. 

Marathon, where the Grecian and Persian forces met, was a small 
lo wu by the sea side. The Greeks were led by ten generals, each 



frfl ANCIENT HISTORY— PERIOD VII. 

of whom was to command for one day by turns, and Miltiades was 
to take his turn as the others, although he was chief general. 

Aristides, (one of the ten,) had sense enough to see the evil of such 
a plan, and generosity to give up his honours, for the benefit of his 
country. When it was his day to command he resigned it 10 Miltia- 
des, because, as he said, " Miltiades is the best general." The other 
generals saw the propriety of this conduct, and resigned to their 
commander in like manner. 

Miltiades, however, thought it his duty not to act till his proper day 
came round, but he probably made the necessary preparation. The 
armies engaged in a fierce and obstinate battle. Themistocles, a 
brave man, and the compeer of Aristides, fought nobly by his side. 
From the skill with which Miltiades had placed his troops, as much 
as from the valour of those troops, the battle of Marathon was won 
by the Greeks. 

A soldier covered with the blood of the enemy ran to Athens with 
the news, and had just strength enough left to say, " Rejoice ! the 
victory is ours !" and then fell down "dead, from his fatigue and 
wounds. 

Not long after this service rendered to his country, Miltiades, who 
at first was loaded with honours, died in prison, where he was thrust 
by the Athenians, because he could not pay a fine which they order- 
ed him to pay. On a false pretence of treachery to his country, this 
great general had been condemned to death, and afterwards the sen- 
tence of death was changed to the paying of a fine. 

Greece, particularly Athens, abounded with great men about this 
time. A little tale or two concerning Themistocles may be interest- 
ing here. At a time when he was great in power, he laughingly 
said, that " his son was greater than any man in Greece/' " How is 
that V said a friend. " Why," replied Themistocles, "the Athenians 
govern Greece, I command the Athenians, his mother commands 
me, and this boy commands his mother." 

Themistocles was an able general, and saved his country in one 
instance or more. But he was not an amiable man. Ambition was 
his god. Plutarch relates that after the battle of Marathon, in which 
Miltiades gained so glorious a victory, Themistocles was observed to 
court solitude, and indulge in a profound melancholy. 

Upon inquiry made of him respecting the cause of his mental de- 
jection, he replied, that " the trophies of Miltiades would not permit 
him to sleep." Indeed all his feelings and conduct showed how 
completely ambition had gotten the mastery over him, and how much, 
consequently, he wished to be master of Athens and of Greece. Yet 
under the ungrateful treatment, which he afterwards received frpm 
his countrymen, he would not betray the land that gave him birth, 
though he had an opportunity of doing it. 

2. On the death of Darius, his son Xerxes prosecuted the 
war against Greece. During the early part of this war were 
fought the celebrated battles of Thermopylae and PI ata j a on iand, 
and those of the straights of Salamis and Mycale on water. 



490—356 b. c. 7" 

The battles of Thermopylae and Solairns took place 480 
years B. C. ; and those of Plataea aila Mycale, 479. Leoni- 
das, Themistocles, Aristides, Pausanias, and several others, 
distinguished themselves in the defence of Greece, and ac- 
quired lasting renown by their achievements. 

Xerxes brought over with him 2,000,000 of fighting men, 
besides vast numbers of women and domestics — the largest 
army and assemblage of persons recorded in history. This 
immense force was effectually resisted, during two days, at 
the pass of Thermopylae, by 6000 Greeks. 

Their valour, though it could not finally arrest the progress 
of the Persians, cost the latter the lives of 20,000 warriors. 
Athens was soon reached, which the Persians pillaged and 
burnt. The women and children, however, had been pre- 
viously conveyed to a place of safety, and the men betook 
themselves to their fleet. 

§ Xerxes was a vain mortal. He ordered a passage to be cut 
through the high mountain of Athos, in Macedonia, and thus a canal 
was made for his ships. He is said to have written a letter to 
Mount Athos, in which he " commanded it not to put stones in the 
way of his workmen, or he would cut it down and throw it into the 
sea," and he ordered the labourers to be chastised to make them work 
faster. 

When he saw, from a high hill, the plain covered with his soldiers^ 
and the sea with his ships, he at first, in the pride of his heart, called 
himself the most favoured of mortals ; but when he reflected, that in 
a hundred years, not. one of the many thousands whom he beheld 
would be alive, he burst into tears at the instability of all human 
things. 

Almost all the small cities of Greece submitted to the Persian king 
when he sent to them, as was the custom, for earth and water; 
which was the same as to ask them, whether they would receive. 
him as their conqueror. Sparta and Athens, with the small towns 
of Thespia and Platsea, alone refused to receive the heralds and to 
send the token of homage. 

Every thing gave way before the march of Xerxes, until he came 
to the pass of Thermopylae. On this spot Leonidas, one of the two 
reigning kings of Sparta, with his 6000 of brave soldiers, awaited his 
coming. Xerxes, after a weak attempt to corrupt him, imperiously 
summoned him to give up his arms. "Let him come and take 
them," was the short answer of this true native of Laconia. 

The bravest of the Persian troops were ordered out against Leoni- 
das, but they were always driven back with disgrace. At last a 
wretch went and informed the king of a secret path, by which he 
could mount an eminence which overlooked the Grecian camp, 
The Persians gained this advantageous post during the darkness of 

G2 



78 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. 

the night, and the next morning the Greeks discovered that they had 
been betrayed. 

Leonidas knew that it was in vain to expect his small army could 
conquer the endless forces of Xerxes ; he therefore sent away his 
allies, and kept with him only his 300 Lacedaemonians. He had been 
told by the oracle that either Sparta or her king must perish, and he 
longed to die for the good of his country. 

Xerxes marched his vast army against this heroic little band. Leo- 
nidas fell among the first, bravely fighting, and covered with wounds. 
Of the 300 heroes, only one escaped to bear to Sparta the news that 
her valiant warriors had died in her defence. 

Xerxes having arrived at Athens, found it desolate and deserted 
He burnt down its citadel, and sent away its finest pictures and 
statues to Susa, the capital of Persia. The Athenians having man- 
ned their fleet, soon attacked that of the Persians, and put it to flight 
after a very short, but severe engagement. Themistocles command- 
ed on this occasion. 

The Persian king had seated himself on a high mountain, that he 
might see his Persians overcome the Greeks, but when he saw the 
issue of the battle, so contrary to his expectations, he hastened with 
a part of his army across the Hellespont. 

A second overthrow awaited his army by land ; for Mardonius, 
his general, at the head of 300,000 Persians, was defeated with im- 
mense slaughter, at Platsea, by the combined arni}^ of Athenians and 
Lacedaemonians, amounting to a little over 100,000 men, led by Pau- 
sanias and Aristides. 

On the same day with this battle, the Greeks engaged and destroy- 
ed the remains of the Persian fleet at Mycale. Thus gloriously to 
the Greeks, ended the celebrated expedition of Xerxes against Greece. 

i 3. From the time of the battles of Platsea and Salamis, the 
ambitious schemes of Xerxes were at an end. He left Greece 
suddenly, and his inglorious life was soon after terminated 
by assassination. The military glory of the Greeks was now 
at its height. They were for the most part united in oppo- 
sing the common enemy. Their danger was the cause of 
their union, aucl their union was the cause of their prosperity! 
i 4. About 10 years after the return of Xerxes into Asia 
with a part of his forces, Cimon, son of Miltiades, expelling 
the Persians from Thrace, destroyed the Persian fleet at the 
mouth of the river Eurymedon, and landing his troops, sig- 
nally defeated their army the same day. 

Some years afterwards he destroyed a Persian fleet of 300 
sail ; and landing in Cilicia, completed his triumph by de- 
feating 300,000 Persians under Megabyzes, 460 years B. O. 
Artaxerxes, who had succeeded his father Xerxes, soon sued 
for peace. The terms were highly honourable to the Greeks. 



490—356 b. c. 79 

§ The prosperity and military glory of the Greeks continued 50 
years ; after which, upon the return of the peace with Persia, the 
martial and the patriotic spirit began visibly to decline in Athens. 
Still, as will soon appear, the following age, called the age of Pericles, 
was an era of the highest splendour, so far as literature, taste, and 
the fine arts were concerned. 

Cimon was as renowned as his father Miltiades. He was joiner 1 
with Aristides at one time in the command of the Athenians ; yet, 
notwithstanding the important services which they rendered to their 
country, they were both punished by the ostracism,* and scarcely 
with any pretext. 

Before Cimon was banished, besides the victories he gained for 
Athens, he had greatly improved the city; he planted groves and 
shady walks ; he erected fine places for exercise and public speak- 
ing. The celebrated tragic poets, iEschylus and Sophocles were 
wont to recite their pieces before him. Cimon was not less devoted 
to his ungrateful countrymen after his return from banishment. His 
victories procured the peace above mentioned. In it, he stipulated 
for the freedom of all the Grecian cities of Asia. 

Of Aristides, who was called " the just," many interesting anec- 
dotes are recorded, but we have room for only two. 

Once when he was carrying a prosecution against his enemy, and 
sentence was about to be pronounced, before the accused had spoken, 
Aristides entreated that the man might be heard in his defence, and 
even helped him to make it. 

On another occasion, when he was judge, a trial came before him, 
in which one of the parties thought to irritate him against the other, 
by declaring that the other had said and done many injurious things 
against Aristides. "Do not talk about that," said Aristides, "tell 
me only what harm he has done to thee, it is thy cause I am judg- 
ing." 

5. The authority in Athens became for a time divided be- 
tween Cimon and Pericles. In a few years, however, Peri- 
cles stood at the head of the Athenian republic. His will had 
almost the force of law. He adorned Athens with the most 
magnificent structures, and rendered it the seat of learning", 
taste, and the fine arts. He laboured, however, under the re- 
proach of having corrupted the manners of the people, by his 
luxuries. 

Under his administration commenced the Lacedaemonian 
war, 431 years B. C, which lasted 28 years. He died three 
years after its commencement, and was succeeded in the 
government of Athens by Alcibiades, who ran a similar 
course, though with less integrity. Alcibiades repeatedly ex 

♦See " General Views." 



£0 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. 

perienced the ingratitude of his countrymen — a conduct which 
he eagerly retaliated. 

The 7 iacedaemonian war ended in the humiliation and 
submission of Athens. The Athenians agreed to demolish 
their port, to limit their fleet to 12 ships, and to undertake for 
the future, no enterprise in war, but under the command of 
the Spartans, 405 year B. C. Lysander, the Spartan com- 
mander, signalized himself in this war. 

§ Pericles was remarkable for the dignity of his manners, and the 
elegance of his speech. For 40 years he secured an unbounded au- 
thority. Athens, at this time, was considered as in its highest state 
of refinement and knowledge, and with Sparta, ranked as the first of 
the cities of Greece. 

"When some persons complained that Pericles spent too much ol 
the public money in beautifying the city, he went into the assembly oi 
the people, and asked, " whether, indeed, they thought him extrava- 
gant ?" The people said, " yes." " Then place the expense at my 
charge instead of yours," answered Pericles, " only let the new build- 
ings be marked with my name instead of yours." 

The people were either so pleased with the spirit of his reply, or were 
so jealous of the fame which Pericles might acquire, that they cried 
out, " he might spend as much as he pleased of the public treasures." 

At a critical time in the Peloponnesian war, Pericles was taken 
off in consequence of the ravages of a terribJe plague which then 
afflicted Athens. That plague was one of the most malignant and 
fatal which history relates to us. 

Beginning in Ethiopia, it swept over several countries in its course, 
and finally rested in Athens. It surpassed the efforts of the medical 
art to cure it. Few or no constitutions could withstand its attacks. 
The nature of the disease was such that it threw its victim into a 
sort of despair, so that he was disabled from seeking or applying 
relief. 

It was dangerous for friends to offer their assistance to the diseas- 
ed ; and the situation of the Athenians was such, in consequence of 
being shut up by an invading army, that the malignity of the pesti- 
lence was greatly increased. They fell down dead upon one anothei 
as they passed along the streets, and the dead and the dying were 
mingled together in the utmost confusion. 

In this complication of distress, Pericles displayed a great soul 
He was able to inspire courage into the drooping hearts of his coun 
trymen; but after some fresh plans of conquest adopted during a 
mitigation of the pestilence, he was himself cut off by the plague, 
which had broken out anew. 

On his death bed his friends attempted to console him, by recount- 
ing his glorious deeds, particularly his military successes, and th« 
monuments he erected to commemorate them. " Ah, r * exclaimed the 
dying statesman and hero, " you have forgotten the most valuable 
part of my character, and now the most pleasant to my mind— that 



490—356 b. c. 81 

none of my fellow-citizens have been compelled, through any act 
of mine, to put on a mourning robe." 

The occasion of the Lacedaemonian war was as follows :— Corinth 
having been included in the last made treaty between Athens and 
Sparta, the Corinthians in waging war with the people of Corcyra, 
an ancient colony of their own, solicited the aid of Athens, as did 
also the people of Corcyra. 

The Athenians took the part of the latter — a measure which ex- 
ceedingly displeased the Corinthians, and was considered as viola- 
ting their treaty with Sparta. On this ground war was declared be- 
tween Athens and Lacedaemon, each being supported by its respec- 
tive allies. This war distracted and enfeebled Greece. 

Alcibiades, who bore a conspicuous part in it on the Athenian 
side, during the interval of a truce with Sparta, persuaded his coun- 
trymen to try the conquest of Sicily, and was sent as the general of 
the troops. When he was gone, his enemies raised an accusation 
against him, and the fickle people directed him immediately to re- 
turn. 

Alcibiades, fearing to return whilst the Athenians were so incens- 
ed against him, fled away secretly, and when he was told that for 
his disobedience, all his property was confiscated, and that he him- 
self was condemned to death, " I will show them xhat I am alive," 
he exclaimed. 

He first fled to Argos, and next to Sparta, where he gained all 
hearts by conforming to their plain dress and simple food. But the 
king of Sparta perceiving that Alcibiades affected to appear what he 
Was not, was by no means backward to disapprove him, which in- 
duced the Athenian to quit Sparta, and seek protection in Persia. 

Athens was now governed by a council of 400, and the tyranny of 
these was so great, that Alcibiades was sent for to assist in restoring 
the liberty of the people. The Spartans, with some vessels, were 
watching the city, to take advantage of the confusion that prevailed. 
Alcibiades, with the small fleet he had collected at Samos, attacked 
the Spartans, destroyed their ships, and soon after entered Athens 
in triumph. 

The Athenians being again displeased with Alcibiades, he left the 
city to avoid their displeasure. He at length retired to live in a 
small village in Phrygia, with a woman called Timandra. The 
Spartans persuaded the Persians to destroy him. 

Accordingly, a party of soldiers went to his house, and fearing his 
known courage, dared not to enter it, but set fire to the building. 
Alcibiades rushed out. and the barbarians from a distance (for they 
feared to approach him) killed him with darts and arrows. Timan- 
dra buried the corpse decently, and was the only mourner of this 
once powerful man. 

The defeat of the Athenian fleet at JEgos Potamos, by Lysander, 
was the means of bringing the tedious Lacedaemonian war to a close. 
The taking and plundering of Athens were the consequence of it. 
Having gained possession of the city, Lysander burnt down the 
houses and demolished the walls. It was said that lie was so cruel as 



82 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. 






to add msuli to misfortune, by ordering music to be played whilst 
the walls were destroyed. 

6. Lysander, after the reduction of Athens, abolished the 
popular form of government in that state, and substituted that, 
of the thirty tyrants, which was absolute. Many of the dis- 
tinguished citizens fled from their country ; but Thrasybulus, 
aided by a body of patriots, expelled the usurpers, and once 
more re-established the government of the people, 403 years 
B. C. 

§The thirty tyrants were as many Lacedaemonian captains, to 
whom the government of the Athenians was delegated by Lysander. 
They held their authority but three years. To Lysander, history 
ascribes the first great breach of his country's constitution, by the 
introduction of gold into that republic. 

7. The persecution and death of Socrates, the philosopher, 
took place about this time, (401 j^ears B. C.) This transac- 
tion has thrown a dark stain on the Athenian character. 
He was destroyed contrary to every principle of reason and 
justice. 

§ Socrates was the friend and tutor of Alcibiades. The sophists, 
whose manner of reasoning he turned into ridicule, represented him 
as an enemy to the religion of his country, because, without con- 
forming to the popular superstitions, he led the mind to a knowledge 
of the Deity, the Creator of the universe ; and to the belief of a fu- 
ture state of rewards and punishments. 

He made a noble and manly defence, in all the consciousness of 
innocence ; but in vain. He was condemned to die by his inimical 
judges. One of his disciples lamenting before him that he should 
die innocent, " Would you have me die guilty ?" replied Socrates, 
with a smile. 

The juice of hemlock, or something resembling hemlock, a liquor 
which was said to cause death, by its coldness, was administered to 
the philosopher. He continued calmly conversing with his friends, 
to the last moment of his life. 

8. In the same year with the death of Socrates, occurred 
the celebrated retreat of 10,000 Greeks, under Xenophon, 
from Babylon to the banks of the Euxine. This is considered 
the most remarkable retreat on record. It was accomplished 
in a few months, the soldiers traversing a hostile country of 
1 600 miles in extent, amidst incredible hardships and dangers. 
They lost only 1500 men. 

§ The Greeks came into the situation above mentioned, in conse- 
quence of assisting Cyrus, a younger brother of Artaxerxes Mnemon, 
in his attempt to dethrone the latter. Cyrus failed in the attempt, 
in a battle near Babylon, and lost his life. The Greeks, who amount- 
ed to 13,000 at first, were reduced to 10,000, and in this situation 



490—356 b. c. 83 

were under the necessity either of submitting to the enemy, or of 
making good their retreat. 

The latter they both chose and accomplished. The Greek* were 
led by Clearchus on this expedition, but he having trusted himself 
among the Persians, was basely delivered up to the king, by whose 
order he was beheaded. In this exigency they elected Xenophon, a 
young Athenian, as their commander, under whom they were to 
effect their retreat. 

They observed the greatest order and discipline ; and though in 
the midst of vindictive enemies, and with deserts, hills, mountains, 
rivers, and even the sea before them, they arrived with an inconsi 
derable loss, at the banks of the Euxine. Xenophon himself has 
written an admirable account of this retreat. 

The Greek cities of Asia having taken a part in this enterprise of 
the Greeks, Sparta was engaged to defend her countrymen, and 
consequently was involved in a war with Persia. The disunion of 
the Grecian states, and especially the hostility of Athens against 
Sparta, rendered the war disastrous to the Spartans ; who, to avoid 
destruction, sued for peace, and obtained it, by the sacrifice of all her 
Asiatic colonies, 387 years B. C. 

9. Among the Grecian states, Thebes became particularly 
distinguished during the latter part of the present period. 
It had been comparatively obscure before. The Thebans 
contending among themselves, the Spartans interfered in the 
contention, and seized on the Theban fortress. This mea- 
sure brought on a war between Sparta and Thebes. 

Athens at first united with Thebes, but at length Thebes 
stood alone against Sparta and the league of Greece. Pe- 
lopidas and Epaminondas were the Theban leaders, who 
greatly distinguished themselves in this war. The celebra- 
ted battles of Leuctra and Mantinea were gained by the The- 
bans over their enemies, the one 371 years B. C., and the 
other S years afterwards. In the latter engagement, the great 
Epaminondas was slain. 

The ravages of this contention among the Grecian states, 
may be said to have paved the way for their entire subjugation 
by a foreign power. 

§ The fortress at Thebes, which the Spartans had seized, was kept 
by the latter during four years, but the angry and deceived Thebans 
took their revenge. A party of them, headed by Pelopidas, putting 
on women's clothes over their armour, entered among the Lacedae- 
monians, at a feast given to them, and cut their principal officers to 
pieces. 

Archias, the chief Spartan, had that very day received a letter from 
Athens to inform him of the whole plot, but he had very improperly 
thrown aside the letter without looking into it, saying, " business to- 
morrow " Tie was t.hp first, man killed, anr] thus lost his life for a 



84 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. 

neglect of his duty, in suffering the pleasure he enjoyed in the com- 
pany of his friends, to make him forget the interests of his country, 

Epaminondas, the friend of Pelopidas, who had acted with the lat- 
ter, was, upon the expulsion of the Spartans from the citadel, called 
from a quiet and private life to become the general of the Theban 
army. He was as much celebrated for his wisdom and virtue, as for 
his bravery. Of all the excellencies of his character, he gained the 
most respect for his strict regard to truth, as he was never known to 
be guilty of a falsehood. In the battle of Leuctra, the Theban army 
was much smaller than that of Sparta ; but the skill of their general, 
in disposing the force to the best advantage, and the valour of the sol- 
diers and officers, more than made up for the difference in numbers. 
Besides, the Thebans were fighting for their liberty ; the Spartans 
omy for conquest. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that the 
Thebans prevailed. 

Pelopidas shared the danger and the glory of his friend ; yet when 
these valiant generals returned to Thebes, they were both called be- 
fore the tribunal of justice for the crime of keeping their command 
too long. Both were acquitted ; yet the enemies of Epaminondas 
caused him to be elected a city scavenger, on purpose to disgrace and 
vex him. But what might have been a disgrace to a mean person, 
was no disgrace to this noble Theban. He accepted the office, saying, 
" If the office will not give me honour, I will give honour to the office." 

Epaminondas fell in the battle of Mantinea, and in the moment of 
victory. A javelin had pierced his bosom, and becoming disabled, a 
fierce contest arose between his foes and friends for the possession of 
his person. The Thebans at length bore him from the field. Epa- 
minondas, though in extreme agony from his wound, thought only 
of his country ; and when informed that the Thebans had conquered, 
he said, " then all is well." 

He drew the weapon from his bosom, as no one around him had the 
fortitude to do it, it being understood, from the nature of the wound, 
he would expire as soon as it was extricated. The glory of Thebes 
rose with this man, and with him it expired. 

ROMANS. 

10. In the history of Rome, during this period, we may 
observe an additional change in its constitution of govern- 
ment. It became, in effect, a democracy 471 years B. C. 
The supreme authority passed from the higher order, into 
the hands of the people. The popular character of the go- 
vernment had been theoretically established before, but it be- 
came now practically democratic. 

§ This change was completed by Volero, a Roman tribune, who 
obtained a law for the election of magistrates, in the comitia held by 
the tribes. Before this time, the comitia, by century's and by curiae, 
could not be called but in virtue of a decree of the senate, after consult- 
ing the auspices, and in those comitia the tribunes had been hithert j 
elected. In the comitia held by tribes these restraints were unknown 




Coriolanus, meeting his mother, wife, fyc. P. 64. 




Virginius threatening the Tribune. P. 86. 



490—356 b. c. 85 

11. Soon afterwards, (456 B. C.) upon the invasion of the 
iEqui and Volsci, the Romans had recourse to the despotic 
measure of choosing a dictator. Quinctius Cincinnatus was 
appointed. He was called from the plough to this office. 
After having- rescued a Roman army from destruction, de- 
feated a powerful enemy, and rendered other signal services 
to his country, he hastened to resign his power at the end of 
16 days, though he might have held it 6 months, the term for 
which dictators were appointed. 

§ Cincinnatus was fixed upon as the wisest and bravest man be- 
longing to the commonwealth. He cultivated a small farm of four 
acres with his own hands. The deputies of the senate found him 
following his plough in one of his little fields. They begged him 
to put on his gown, and hear the message from the senate. 

Cincinnatus anxiously asked, " if all was well ?" and then desired 
his wife Racilia to fetch his gown from their cottage. After wiping 
off the dust and dirt with which he was covered, he put on his robe 
and went to the deputies. They saluted him dictator, and bid him 
hasten to the city, which was in the greatest peril. 

A handsome barge had been sent to carry him over the river, for his 
farm lay on the opposite side of the Tiber. His three sons, with his 
friends, and several of the senators, were ready to receive him when 
he landed at Rome, and to carry him in a pompous procession to the 
house prepared for him. 

The very next morning he began to fortify, the city, and marshal 
the soldiers for battle ; and he very soon gained a great victory, and 
made the officers of the enemy pass under the yoke. His administra- 
tion was entirely satisfactory to all parties, though 1he times were ^x - 
tremely turbulent. He most probably saved Rome from destruction 
by his wisdom and valour. 

He was chosen dictator on another emergency, many years after- 
wards, in his 80th year, and then also acted with vigour and wisdom. 

12. In 451 years B. C. ten persons who were called the 
Decemviri, were elected to frame a code of laws, and were 
invested with absolute power for one year, during which all 
other magistrates were suspended. They afterwards caused 
their laws to be engraven on 12 tables, and placed in the most 
conspicuous part of the city. 

These laws were long preserved and acted upon, and are 
to this day respected in some parts of Europe. They how- 
ever manifested the stern spirit of the people, and like those 
of Draco, might be said to be written in blood. Nine crimes* 

* Parried was very properly included as one of those crimes. But to the 
honour c* "Romans it should be observed, that this crime was not known to 

be comm :\. <-' ring more than 500 years from the building- of the city. ]_,. Os- 
tiuewas the'" , -»arricide# 

* IT 



86 ANCIENT iilSTORY— PERIOD VII. 

of very different complexions were punishable with death, one 
of which was nightly meetings. 

§ The Romans had no code of laws until that which was formed and 
digested by the decemviri. The number of the laws was increased 
from time to time by the senate and people. Each decemvir, by turn, 
presided for a day, and had the sovereign authority, with its insignia, 
the fasces. The nine others acted solely as judges in the determina- 
tion of law-suits, and the correction of abuses. 

Their government lasted only three years. Its dissolution was 
highly tragical. Appius Claudius, one of the ten, fell in love with the 
beautiful Virginia; she was engaged to marry Icilius, formerly a tri- 
bune of the people, and would not therefore listen to the proposals 
of Appius. 

He therefore, to get possession of the lovely virgin, procured a base 
dependant to claim her as his slave. The claim was made to Appiup 
himself, who pronounced an infamous decree, by which she was de- 
clared to be the property of this profligate minion of his own. 

Virginius, her father, who was falsely sworn to have stolen hei 
from the dependant of Appius, was at a distance with the army 
Intelligence, however, by means of Icilius, was conveyed to him re- 
specting the transactions in the city, and he returned with all imagi- 
nable speed. 

Finding, notwithstanding his true and simple tale that Virginia 
was his daughter, that he could not preserve her from the licentious 
decemvir, he now begged to give her his parting embrace. His re- 
quest was granted. He clasped his child in his arms, while she clung 
round his neck, and wet his cheeks with her tears. 

As Virginius was tenderly kissing her, before he raised his head, he 
suddenly plunged a dagger into her bosom, saying, " Oh ! my child, 
by this means only can I give thee freedom." He then held up the 
bloody instrument to the now pale and frighted Claudius, exclaim- 
ing, " By this innocent blood, Appius, I devote thy head to the infer- 
nal gods." 

All was now horror and confusion. Icilius showed the dead body 
to the people and roused their fury. Virginius hasted to the camp 
bearing with him the dagger reeking with his daughter's blood ; and 
instantly the camp was in an uproar. The power of the decemviri 
and the senators could not still the tumult, 

Appius would have been torn to pieces at once, but he found the 
means of escape and voluntary death. Public tranquillity was at 
length restored, by the consent of the senate to abolish the decemviri. 
The consuls were now restored, together with the tribunes of the peo- 
ple, 499 years B. C. 

13. A law for the intermarriage of the patricians and pie 
beians at Rome was passed 445 years B. C. In the same 
year military tribunes were created. These were in lieu of 
the consuls : they were six in number, three patricians and 
three plebeians. The consuls, however, were soon restored. 



490—356 b. c. 87 

In 437 years B. 0. was established the office of censors, 
whose duty it was to make the census of the people every 
five years. 

§ The people, in their desire for still more power, endeavoured to 
break down the only two barriers that separated the patricians from 
themselves. These w r ere, one, the law which prevented their inter- 
marriage ; and the other, the constitutional limitation of all the highel 
offices to the patrician order. 

The first point, after a long contest, was conceded— the other was 
partially evaded. The senate sought a palliative in the creation of 
the military tribunes above mentioned. This measure satisfied the 
people for a time. 

The new magistracy of the censors w r as highly important. In 
addition to making the census, it was incumbent on the censors to 
inspect the morals and regulate the duties of the citizens. It became, 
in after times, the function only of consular persons, and after them, 
of the emperors. 

14. The dissentions between the different orders of the 
people, raged with violence ; but the senate, not long after 
their concession to the people, adopted for themselves a very 
wise expedient. This was to give a regular pay to the troops, 
an expense defrayed by a moderate tax on the citizens. 
From this period soldiers were to be obtained, and the senate 
had the army under its control. Roman ambition now be- 
came systematic, and irresistible. 

15. Veii, the rival of Rome, was besieged by the Romans, 
and after a siege of ten years, was taken by Camillus, 391 
years B. C. Two years after, Falerii, the capital of the Fa- 
lisci, surrendered to the same general. The dominion of 
Rome, confined hitherto to a territory of a few miles, was 
now rapidly extended 

§ The siege of Veii was attended with much expense of blood and 
treasure to the Romans. They nearly despaired of taking it ; but 
upon the appointment of Camillus dictator, things soon assumed a 
different aspect. He secretly wrought a mine into the city, which 
opened into the midst of the capital. 

Then giving his men directions how to enter the breach, the city 
was instantly filled with his legions, to the utter confusion of the be- 
sieged. Thus, like a second Troy, was Veii taken after a ten years' 
siege, and Camillus, according to the manner of the Roman kings, 
enjoyed the honour of a triumuph. 

It is related, that during the attack of Falerii, a schoolmaster be- 
trayed into the hands of Camillus all his scholars, expecting to obtain 
a handsome reward for his treachery. The boys happened to be 
the sons of the principal Falisci, and the Roman general was given 



88 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. 

to understand, that they would probably deliver up their city to re- 
cover their children. 

The noble Roman, shocked at this perfidious action, sent back the 
boys in safety to their parents, and giving each of them a nid, bade 
them whip the traitor into town. This generous behaviour of 
Camillus accomplished more than his arms could have done. The 
place instantly submitted, leaving to the Roman the conditions of the 
surrender, which were of course very mild. 

The brave Camillus, becoming at length an object of envy or 
jealousy with the people, he was obliged to quit Rome, a ad live at 
Ardea, a town in its neighborhood, but they had reason aiitrwardsto 
be ashamed of their injustice. 

16. Soon after these successes, Rome experienced a terrible 
calamity. It was taken, devastated, and burnt by the Gauls, 
under Brennus, 385 years B. C. The capitol, however, wa3 
preserved. This the barbarians besieged, but they were soon 
expelled the city by Camillus. 

§ The Gauls were a branch of the great Celtic nation, and inha- 
bited regions beyond the Alps. These they had penetrated at differ- 
ent periods, and a portion of this people had already settled in small 
towns at the foot of the mountains. This people, it seems, on some 
occasion, had undertaken the siege of Clusium, a city of Etruria. 
The Clusians, who were not of a warlike character, immediately en 
treated the mediation of the Romans. 

The latter sent ambassadors to Brennus, but without success. 
These ambassadors then retired to Clusium, where they appeared at 
the head of the Clusians in a sally against the besiegers. Upon this, 
Brennus, in great displeasure, marched directly against Rome. 

In this condition, an army was drawn out to save the city ; but the 
numbers and impetuosity of the barbarians were such, that no ef- 
fectual resistance was made. The greatest part of the citizens fled 
for protection to the neighbouring cities ; the young and brave men 
entered into the capitol, resolved to hold out to the last against the 
enemy ; and the aged senators assembled in the senate-house, deter 
mined patiently to await their fate. 

Soon after they entered the city, Brennus, and some of his soldiers, 
went into the senate-house. The venerable appearance of these no- 
ble old men rendered the Gauls afraid or unwilling to harm them. 
A soldier at last gently shaking the beard of Papyrius, the old Roman 
was so offended at the act, that he struck the man on his head with 
an ivory staff he had in his hand : this slight blow instantly aroused 
the fury of the barbarians ; they massacred the senators on the spot, 
and set fire to the city. 

In this season of distress, the Romans did not give up all for lost. 
The little band, shut up in the capitol, made every possible arrange- 
ment for defence. They were assaulted in vain. At this juncture, 
Camillus, forgetting all his private wrongs, gathered an army, with 
which he entered Rome, and immediately put the barbarians to 
flight 



490—356 b. c. 89 

A singular occurrence, showing the providence of God in the go- 
vernment of the world, attended the siege of Rome. 

The capitol was at one time nearly taken by surprise : a number 
of Gauis having climbed up the steep rock on which it stood, were about 
to kill the sentinels and make themselves masters of the place, when 
some geese, kept near the spot, being awakened by the noise, began 
to flutter their wings, and cackle loudly, so as to arouse the soldiers. 
This little circumstance saved the capitol, and perhaps the Roman 
name from extinction. 

17. The constitution of Rome was still farther altered 
about this time, 367 years B. 0. The plebeians obtained the 
right of having one of the two consuls chosen from among 
them. The military tribunes were abolished the next year. 
Prom this period the Roman power began rapidly to rise. 

§ The vanity and ambition of a young woman produced this change 
in the government of Rome. Fabius Ambustius, a patrician, had 
married two daughters, one to a plebeian, and the other to a patrician. 
The wife of the plebeian, envious of the honours of her sister, pined 
with discontent. 

Her father and brother, learning the cause of her unhappiness.. 
promised her the distinction which she desired. By their joint en- 
deavours, after much tumult and contest, they succeeded in obtain 
ing for the plebeians the right of admission into the consulate. Lu- 
cius Sextius was the first plebeian consul. The husband of the ple- 
beian lady, viz. Licinius Stolo, was the second. 

EGYPT. 

18. The kingdom of Egypt, which had been conquered by 
Cambyses, king of Persia, was, under Darius Nothus, a dis- 
tant successor, restored by Amyrthaeus, 413 years B. C. It 
continued independent for 60 years, under eight kings. 

At the expiration of this term it was subjected again to the 
Persian yoke, by Artaxerxes Ochus. 

§ No very interesting particulars occur in this portion of the Egyp- 
tian history. It is necessary only to observe, that it was by means 
of aid afforded to them by the Greeks, that the Egyptians, after they 
had revolted, under Amyrthaeus, were enabled to withstand the Per- 
sian force which sought to reconquer them. It was under a king 
called Nectanebis that Egypt again lost her independence. 

PERSIA. 

19. The history of the Persian empire, during this period, 
is mostly involved in that of the Greeks, with whom the for- 
mer was so frequently at war. Darius, Xerxes, and Arta- 
xerxes II. as we have seen, were, during most of their lives, 
engaged in this war. Concerning the rest of the Persian 
sovereigns, there is little interesting to be communicated. 

H2 



90 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIGO VII. 

§ Artaxerxes I. we are told, killed his brother Darius, being de 
ceived by Artabanus, who imputed the murder of Xerxes to tbai 
prince: but upon being acquainted with the truth, he put Artabanus 
and all his family to death. During his reign the Egyptians at- 
tempted to shake off his yoke, but were soon obliged to submit. 

Xerxes II. was assassinated by his brother, Sogdianus, 45 days af- 
ter he ascended to the throne. Sogdianus, who assumed the govern- 
ment, enjoyed the fruits of his fratricide only six months and a 
half, when he was smothered in ashes, (a mode of torture invented 
on this occasion, and afterwards inflicted on great criminals,) by or- 
der of his brother Ochus, who took the name of Darius Nothus. 

Darius Nothus was a weak prince, in whose reign it was that the 
Egyptians recovered their independence. Artaxerxes II. succeeded 
him, who was surnamed Mnemon, by the Greeks, on account of his 
prodigious memory. He killed his brother Cyrus, who had taken 
arms against him, in single battle. The 10,000 Greeks who retreat- 
ed under Xenophon, served in the army of this Cyrus. 

Ochus succeeded him, who poisoned his brother, and murdered all 
the princes of the royal family. He invaded Egypt, plundered the 
temples, and killed the priests. But his chief minister, enraged at 
the ruin of his country, poisoned him. 

MACEDON. 

20. The kingdom of Macedon, which was governed, dur- 
ing several hundred years, by the descendants of Caranus, 
was comparatively unknown till the time of Philip, who was 
also a descendant of Caranus. Philip soon gave it celebrity. 
Previously to the birth of his son Alexander, he had con 
quered Thessaly, Pseonia, and Illyricum. He had also gain 
ed a victory over the Athenians, at Mythone, 360 years B. C. 

§ Philip ascended the throne by popular choice, in violation of the 
natural right of the nearer heirs to the crown ; he secured his power 
by the success of his arms against the neighbouring nations. He was 
brave, artful, and accomplished, and by his intrigues gained over, at 
an early period of his career, many Greeks to favour his interests. 

In his war against the united Paeonians,Illyrians, &c. he met with sin- 
gularly good fortune. Parmenio, his general, was sent against the 
Illyrians, and he himself marched an army into Paeonia and Thrace, 
where he was signally successful. On his return, a messenger ar- 
rived with news of Parmenio's victory ; and soon after came another, 
informing him that his horses had been victorious at the Olympic 
games. 

This was a victory that he esteemed preferable to any other. Al- 
most at the same time came a third messenger, who acquainted him 
that his wife, Olympias, had brought forth a son, at Pella. Philip, 
terrified at so signal a happiness, which the heathens generally con- 
sidered as a bad omen, exclaimed, " Great Jupiter, in return for so 
many blessings, send me a slight misfortune." 



490--356 b. c. 91 

Distinguished Characters in Period VII 

1. Confucius, the great Chinese philosopher. 

2. Herodotus, a Greek, the father of profane history. 

3. Pindar, the chief of the Grecian lyric poets. 

4. Phidias, a Greek, the most famous sculptor of antiquity. 
6. Euripides, an eminent tragic poet of Greece. 

6. Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet of Greece. 

7. Socrates, the greatest of heathen moralists. 

8. Thucydides, an eminent Greek historian. 
9- Hippocrates, the father of medicine. 

10. Xenophon, a celebrated general, historian, and philo 
gopher. 

§ 1. Confucius was born in the kingdom of Lt., which is now the 
province of Chan Long, 551 years B. C. He was a man of great 
knowledge and extensive wisdom, was beloved on account of his vir- 
tues — rendered great service to his country by his moral maxims, 
and possessed much influence even with kings, as well as with his 
countrymen in general. He died in the 73d year of his age. 

2. Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus. His history describes 
the wars of the Greeks against the Persians, from the age of Cyrus 
to the battle of Mycale. This he publicly repeated at the Olympic 
games, when the names of the Muses were given to his nine books. 

This celebrated work, which has procured its author the title of 
father of history, is written in the Ionic dialect. Herodotus is among 
the historians, what Homer is among the poets. His style abounds 
with elegance, ease, and sweetness. He also wrote a history of As- 
syria and Arabia, but this is not extant. 

3. Pindar was a native of Thebes. His compositions were courted 
by statesmen and princes, and his hymns were repeated in the tem- 
ples, at the celebration of the festivals. Some of his odes are extant, 
greatly admired for grandeur of expression, magnificence of style, 
boldness of metaphors, and harmony of numbers. 

Horace calls him inimitable ; and this enlogium is probably not 
undeserved. After his death, his statiie was erected at Thebes, in the 
public place where the games were exhibited, and six centuries after- 
wards it was viewed with pleasure and admiration by the geogra- 
pher Pausanias. He died B. C. 435, at the age, as some say, of 86. 

4. Phidias was an Athenian. He died B. C. 432. His statue of 
Jupiter Olympius passed for one of the wonders of the world. That 
of Minerva, in the Pantheon of Athens, measured 39 feet in height, 
and was made of gold and ivory. 

5. Euripides was born at Salamis. He was the rival of Sophocles. 
The jealousy between these great poets, was made the subject of suc- 
cessful ridicule by the comic poet Aristophanes. It is said that he 
used to shut himself up in a gloomy cave, near Salamis, in which he 
eomposed some of his best tragedies. 

During the representation of one of his pieces, the audience, dis 



92 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII. 

pleased with some lines in the composition, desired the writer to 
strike them off. Euripides heard the reproof with indignation, and 
advancing forward on the stage, he told the spectators, that he came 
there to instruct them, and not to receive instruction. 

The ridicule and envy to which he was exposed in Athens induced 
him to retire to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, where he 
was entertained with the greatest munificence. He was here how- 
ever destined to meet a terrible end. It is said the hounds of the king 
attacking him, in one of his solitary walks, tore his body to pieces 
407 B. C. in the 78th year of his age. 

As a poet hf is peculiarly happy in expressing the passions of love, 
especially the more tender and animated. He is also sublime, and the 
most common expressions have received a most perfect polish from 
his pen. His productions abound with moral reflections, and philo- 
sophical aphorisms. 

The poet was such an enemy to the fair sex, that some have called 
him the woman hater. In spite of his antipathy he married twice ; 
but his connexions were so injudicious, that he was compelled to di- 
vorce both his wives. From this cause may have arisen his erro- 
neous conceptions of the female character. Of 75 tragedies, only 19 
remain. 

6. Sophocles was born about 497 B. C. He was distinguished not 
only a? a poet / but as a statesman and general, and filled the office of 
archon with applause. 

Twenty times he obtained the prize of poetry from his competi- 
tors. Of one hundred and twenty tragedies which he wrote, seven 
only are extant, but these prove him to have carried the drama 
almost to perfection. 

Accused of insanity by his children, who wished to obtain his pos- 
sessions, the poet composed and read his tragedy of (Edipus, at Co- 
lonos. Asking his judges whether the author of such a performance 
could be insane, he was at once acquitted, to the confusion of his un- 
grateful offspring. 

He died in his 91st year, through excess of joy, at hearing of hk 
having obtained a poetical prize at the Olympic Games. 

7. Socrates was a native of Athens. He followed the occupation 
of his father, who was a statuary, for some time ; and some have men- 
tioned the statues of the Graces, admired for their simplicity and ele- 
gance, as the work of his own hands. He was called away from this 
meaner employment, for which, however, he never blushed, by a 
friend ; and philosophy soon became his study. 

He appeared like the rest of his countrymen in the field of battle, 
and he fought with boldness and intrepidity. But his character ap- 
pears more conspicuous as a philosopher and moralist, than as a 
warrior. He was fond of labour, bore injuries with patience, and 
acquired that serenity of mind and firmness of countenance which 
the most alarming dangers could never destroy, or the most sudden 
calamities alter. 

He was attended by a number of illustrious pupils, whom he in- 
structed by his exemplary life, as well as by his doctrines. He spoke 



490—356 b. c. 93 

with freedom on every subject, religious as well as civil. This inde- 
pendence of spirit, and that visible superiority of mind and genius 
over the rest of his countrymen, created many enemies to him, ana 
at length they condemned him to death, on the false accusation 01 
corrupting the Athenian youth, of making innovations in the religion 
of the Greeks, and of ridiculing the gods which the Athenians w n¥ ~ 
shipped. He drank the juice of the hemlock in the 70th year of his 
age, and died 401 B.C. 

Socrates believed the divine origin of dreams and omens, and was 
a supporter of the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. From Kh 
principles, enforced by his example, the celebrated sects of the Pia- 
tonists, Stoics, Peripatetics, &c. soon after rose. 

8. Thucydides was born at Athens. He early appeared in the 
Athenian armies, but being unsuccessful in some expedition, he was 
banished Athens, in the 8th year of the Peloponnesian war. He then 
wrote his history of the important events of that war, to its 21st 
year. 

So deeply was Thucydides inspired by the muse of history, that 
he shed tears when he heard Herodotus repeat his history of the 
Persian wars, at the public festivals of Greece ; the character of his 
interesting work is well known. He is considered highly authentic 
and impartial, and stands unrivalled for the fire, conciseness, and 
energy of his narrative. 

Thucydides died at Athens, where he had been recalled from exile, 
in his 80th year, 391 B. C. 

9. Hippocrates was born in the island of Cos, B. C. 406. He im- 
proved himself by reading in the tablets of the temples, the diseases, 
and means of recovery of individuals. He was skilful, and devoted 
his whole time to medical applications and professional duties. Some 
say he delivered Athens from a dreadful plague. - 

According to Galen, his opinions were respected as oracular. His 
memory is still venerated, and his writings, few of which remain, 
procured him the epithet of divine. He died in the 99th year of his 
age, 361 B. C, free from all disorder of the mind and body, and after 
death, received the highest honours. 

10. Xenophon was an Athenian. He was bred in the school of 
Socrates, and acquired great literary distinction. He served in the 
army of Cyrus the younger, and chiefly superintended the retreat of 
the 10,000, after the battle of the Cunaxa. He afterward followed 
the fortunes of Agesilaus, and acquired riches in his expeditions. 

In his subsequent retirement he composed and wrote for the in- 
formation of posterity, and died at Corinth, in his 90th year, 359 
B. C. He continued the history of Thucydides, wrote a life of Cy- 
rus the Great, and collected Memorabilia of Socrates. The simpli- 
city and elegance of Xenophon's style have procured him the name 
of the Athenian muse, and the bee of Greece. 



94 ANCIENT HISTORY- -PERIOD VIIL 



PERIOD VIII. 

The period of Roman Military Renown, extending from 
the Birth of Alexander, 356 years B. C. to the destruc- 
tion of Carthage, 146 years B. C. 

GREECE. 
Sect. 1. At the commencement of this period, the Greeks 
were greatly embroiled in doinestic dissensions, and were fast 
falling from the enviable height to which their arms and na- 
tional spirit had formerly raised them. They were no longer 
the people they had been, and were preparing to receive the 
yoke of a master. From that time their history is connected 
with that of the Macedonian monarchy. 

An attempt of the Phocians to plunder the temple of Del- 
phos, excited the sacred war, in which almost all the states be- 
came involved. The assistance of Philip being solicited by 
the Thebans and Thessalians, he commenced hostilities by 
invading Phocis, the key to Attica. The eloquence of De- 
mosthenes roused the Athenians to arms. But their struggle 
was unsuccessful. 

Philip met them at Cheronaea, gained a complete victory, 
and Greece fell into the hands of the conqueror. This event 
is dated 338 years B. C. He however chose not to treat them 
as a conquered people. The separate governments retained 
their independence, subject only, in their national acts, to the 
control of Philip. After his death they hoped to recover their 
liberty, but they only changed masters. 

§ The sacrilege of the Phocians in robbing the temple of Delphos, 
subjected them to a summons to appear before the Amphictyonic 
council, to answer for their crime. A fine being imposed, disputes 
arose, which could be settled only by arms. The war continued 10 
years. 

The interference of Philip at this juncture was, as might have 
been expected, fatal to the liberties of Greece. He contrived to have 
the Phocians expelled from the Amphictyonic council, and to be him- 
self chosen in their place. 

The eloquence of Demosthenes delayed for a time the fate of 
Gveece, He was ever stirring up the Athenians against Philip and 
satirizing that, king. His speeches were called Philippics, since they 
were directed against Philip, and hence Philippics has been a term 
signifying "speeches against any person." 

Demosthenes, it is well known, had to contend against many na 



356—146 b. c. 95 

tural impediments, in attaining the art of addressing a popular assem- 
bly. As a proof of his triumphant success, it is recorded, that 
jEschines, a rival orator, once repeated a speech of his own, and one 
of Demosthenes. His own was much applauded, but that of Demos- 
thenes applauded much more. " Ah !" said the generous iEschines, 
" how would you have applauded it, had you heard Demosthenes 
speak it." 

Soon after the battle of Cheronaea, Philip, calling a general coun- 
cil of the states, was appointed commander in chief of the forces of 
Greece ; but on the eve of attempting the conquest of Persia, he was 
assassinated by Pausanias, a captain of his guards, from private re- 
sentment. The hopes inspired by his death proved abortive, as the 
Greeks soon came under the yoke of his successor. 

2. Greece was entered by Alexander, son of Philip, 336 
years B. C. He obliged the Athenians to submit, burnt 
Thebes, and was declared commander in chief of the Grecian 
forces, in the expedition against Persia, which he began the 
next year. 

§ Alexander was 20 years old, when the death of Philip raised hirn 
to the throne. The celebrated Aristotle was his teacher, and under 
him, the youthful prince early desired to distinguish himself. He 
read much ; Homer's Iliad he especially studied. 

When very young, he managed the fiery war-horse Bucephalus, 
which no one else dared to mount. In honour of this steed, lie af- 
terwards built a city which he called Bucephala. When he attended 
his father to battle, he manifested nrt only valour, but skill ; and once 
had the happiness to save his parents life, when it was in great dan- 
ger from an enemy. 

At Corinth he saw Diogenes, named the Cynic, because he affect- 
ed great dislike to wealth and rank, and lived in a strange, rude man- 
ner. Alexander asked him whether he wanted any thing. " Yes," 
said Diogenes, " I want you to stand out of my sunshine, and not to 
take from me, what you cannot give me." 

Alexander admired this speech, and directly remarked, "Were I 
not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." As if he had said, " Had I not 
all things as Alexander, I would desire to scorn all things as Dio- 
genes." 

Before his expedition into Asia, which will soon be mentioned, he 
was resolved to consult the oracle at Delphos ; but as he visited the 
temple on a day on which it was forbidden to ask the oracle, the 
priestess refused to go into the temple. Alexander, unaccustomed to 
denial, seized her by the arm and drew her forwards. " Ah, my son, 
you are irresistible !" exclaimed the priestess. " These words," he 
observed, " are a sufficient answer/' 

The Grecian states had revolted after the death of Philip ; but 
Alexander, in a few successful battles, brought them into subjection. 
In an assembly of the deputies of the nation at Corinth, he commu- 
nicated to them his resolution of undertaking the conquest of Persia, 
agreeably to the designs of his father Philip. 



96 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. 

3. Alexander, at the head of the Grecian forces, invaded 
Persia 335 years B. C. He was then not 22 years of age. 
He took with him only 35,000 men, and with this small force, 
he conquered not only Persia, but Syria, Egypt, India, and 
several other countries, and meditated the design of proceed- 
ing to the Eastern ocean, which, however, he was obliged to 
relinquish. 

He accomplished his immense undertaking within the 
short space of six years. On his return home, while he tar- 
ried at Babylon, he died suddenly in a. fit of debauch, as some 
have maintained, in the 33d year of his age, and the 13th of 
his reign. Alexander was not destitute of some traits which 
we love in human beings ; but in a moral point of view, he 
must be regarded as a mighty murderer, and enemy of hu- 
man happiness. 

§ The first exploit of Alexander in this expedition, was the passage 
of the Granicus, which he effected notwithstanding the opposition of 
the Persians, who lost 20,000 men in the conflict. The fruit of this 
victory was the submission of all Asia Minor. 

The next encounter between the Macedonians or Greeks, and the 
Persians, was in 333 B. C, near the town of Issus, in which the lat- 
ter lost 1 00,000 men ; and the mother, wife, and children of Darius, 
the Persian monarch, fell into' the hands of Alexander. 

After this victory he overrun all Syria, took Damascus, where he 
found the treasures of Darin a, destroyed Tyre, entered Jerusalem, 
stormed Gaza, subjugated Egypt, and visited the temple of Jupiter 
Amnion, in the Lybian desert, where he caused himself to be pro- 
claimed the son of that fictitious deity ; on his return he built the 
city of Alexandria. 

Returning from Egypt he found Darius with his forces concentra- 
ted on the eastern bank of the Tigris ; a battle ensued at Arbela, 331 
years B. C, in which 300,000 Persians were slain, or as some, with 
greater probability, say, 40,000, and but 500 Macedonians. Darius be- 
took himself to flight, and was slain by Bessus, one of his lieutenants. 
Babylon, Suza, and Persepolis, fell into the hands of the conqueror, 
who set fire to the last, at the instigation of the courtezan Thais. 

Having finished the conquest of Assyria, Persia, and Media, 
Alexander crossed the mountains of Caucasus, entered Hyrcania, and 
subdued all the nations south of the Oxus. He then, passing into 
Sogdiana, overtook the perfidious Bessus, and put him to death. 
While in Sogdiana, he killed the veteran Clitus, his friend, in a fit oi 
intoxication. 

In 328 B. C he projected the conquest of India. Penetrating be- 
yond the Hydaspes, he defeated Porus, a king of that country. He 
still continued his course to the East ; but when he arrived at the 
banks of the Ganges, his soldiery seeing no end to their toils, would 



356—146 e. c. 97 

go no farther. He returned to the Indus, and pursuing his course 
southward by that river, he arrived at the ocean, whence lie des 
patched his fleet to the Persian Gulf. 

After his arrival at Babylon, he gave himself up to much intempe- 
rance, but was still projecting new conquests, when death suddenly 
put an end to his career. Alexander possessed some generosity of 
nature, but his vicious habits often overpowered it. Intoxication and 
the love of conquest render his name odious to a good man. 

One or two instances of amiable native feeling, will show what h 
might have been, could he have controlled his violent passions. 

He conducted himself very dutifully towards his mother, listened 
to her reproofs with mildness and patience, and when Antipater, whom 
he left to govern Macedonia in his absence, wrote a long letter com- 
plaining of Olympias, the king said, with a smile, " Antipater does 
not know that one tear shed by a mother, will obliterate ten such 
letters as this." 

When he conquered Porus, who was seven and a half high, this sin- 
gularly tall man, as he was introduced to Alexander, was asked by him 
how he would be treated, " Like a king," replied Porus. Alexander 
was so much pleased with this answer, that he restored his kingdom to 
him, and ever afterwards treated him with kindness and respect. 

4. The conquests and acquisitions of Alexander were divi- 
ded, soon after his death, among thirty-three of his principal 
officers. Four, however, of his generals, at length obtained 
the whole, 312 years B. C. having partitioned the empire 
among themselves. It then constituted four considerable 
monarchies. 

The names of these generals were Ptolemy, Lysimachus, 
Cassander, and Seleucus. Egypt, Lybia, Arabia, and Pales- 
tine, were assigned to Ptolemy ; Macedonia and Greece to 
Cassander ; Bithynia and Thrace to Lysimachus ; but the 
remaining territories in Asia, as far as the river Indus, which 
were called the kingdom of Syria, to Seleucus. 

The most powerful of these divisions was that of Syria, 
under Seleucus and his descendants, and that of Egypt under 
the Ptolemies. Only Ptolemy and Seleucus transmitted their 
empires to their children. 

§ Alexander nominated no successor. He had a son, called Her- 
cules, by one of his wives, named Barsine. He also left a brother, 
Aridaeus. Aridasus, and another son of Alexander, born subsequent- 
ly to the conqueror's death, and called after his own name, were 
soon destroyed. Hercules and Barsine, and Cleopatra, the only sis- 
ter of Alexander, shared the same fate, not long afterwards. 

Thus his whole family became extinct. Of this destruction, the 
contentions of his generals were the cause, and the cause of those 
contentions was the neglect of appointing a successor. The vanity of 



98 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. 

human grandeur, in this instance, appears peculiarly striking. Of the 
wars and intrigues of these generals among themselves, we need 
give no account, as they are not interesting. Some subsequent 
events, relating to them or their sovereignties, will be mentioned in 
the proper place. 

5. From the period of Alexander's death, the history of the 
Grecian states, to the time of their subjugation by the Romans, 
presents only a series of uninteresting revolutions. This 
people had lost their political distinction. The last effort made 
to revive the expiring spirit of liberty, was the formation of 
the Achaean league, which was a union of 12 of the smaller 
states, for this object. 

This took place 281 years B. C, but it effected little, 

§ Immediately after Alexander's death, Demosthenes made one 
more effort to vindicate the national freedom, and to rouse his coun- 
trymen to shake of the yoke of Macedon ; but it was too late. The 
pacific counsels of Phocion, suited far better the timid or languid 
spirit of the people. Antipater, who governed Greece a short time 
after Alexander's death, demanded that Demosthenes should be de- 
livered up to him. But Demosthenes prevented this by committing 
suicide. 

Phocion, though he opposed Demosthenes, was one of the most 
eminent men of Greece. He recommended peace : inasmuch as he 
was honest himself, he did not. suspect the cunning of the enemy of 
his country. After having been chosen general 45 times, and after 
having performed the greatest services for his country, he was con- 
demned to die by the ungrateful Athenians. 

When about to swallow the dose of hemlock, that was to poison 
him, he was asked what message he would send to his son. " Tell 
him," said this virtuous old man, " that I desire he will not remember 
the injustice of the Athenians." 

The government of the Achaean league was committed to Aratus, 
of Sicyon, with the title of Praetor, a young man of great ambition, 
who immediately conceived the idea of freeing the whole country 
from the Macedonian dominion. But this plan was defeated by the 
jealousy of the greater states. 

Sparta refused to follow the guidance of the Praetor of Achaia, and 
Aratus, forgetful at once of the interests of his country, thought of 
nothing but to wr«ak his vengeance against Sparta. For this purpose 
he solicited the iuu even of the Macedonians themselves. 

6. Macedonia and Greece were now preparing to follow 
the fate of all the nations within the grasp of Roman ambi- 
tion. Their period of conquest was ended ; that of their 
subjugation was at hand. The Romans, as we shall soon 
learn, had become the most powerful of the contemporary na- 
tions. 



356—146 b. c. % 

An occasion was offered for the interference of the Romans 
in the affairs of Macedonia and Greece — an occasion which 
was eagerly embraced. Macedonia, with its last king, Per- 
seus, first fell, 167 years B. C. Twenty-one years afterwards, 
Greece surrendered its independence to Rome, whose legions 
were led by the consul Mummius. This event was hastened 
by the dissensions which the Romans fomented between the 
different states of Greece. 

An insult, said to have been received by the deputies of 
Rome from the Achseans, furnished the pretext for an attack 
on Greece. From this time, Greece became a province of 
Rome, under the name of Achaia. 

§ The occasion of the introduction of the Romans into Greece, was 
an invitation from the iEtolians, to assist them in repelling an attack 
by Macedonia. Nothing could have better suited the wishes of the 
Romans. Perseus, a successor of Alexander in the part of his em- 
pire which fell to Cassander, was then king. 

He persuaded the Achseans to join him in his preparations against 
Rome. After being sometimes the conqueror, and sometimes the 
conquered, he was at last vanquished by Paulus iEmilius, at Pydna, 
and himself and all his family taken prisoners. They were carried 
to Rome, and served to swell the train of the conqueror. Perseus 
starved himself to death, and Macedonia became a province of Rome. 

The Romans had, in effect, conquered Greece, by their arts, before 
they made use of their arms. They had corrupted many of the 
principal Greeks ; and, on the pretence above mentioned, they marched 
their legions against this once renowned people. Metellus, the con- 
sul, began the war, which Mummius completed. 

Corinth, in which the Greeks made a last stand, was razed and 
burnt to the ground. Direus, who commanded the Greeks in this 
city, killed his wife, to prevent her from falling into the hands of the 
enemy, and then took poison, of which he died. Corinth was de- 
stroyed the same year which witnessed the destruction of Carthage, 
146 B. C, which latter event we have referred to the beginning of the 
next period, — having anticipated this item of the Grecian history. 

Some time previously to the subjugation of Greece, Philopoemen 
was selected to command the forces of the Achaean cities. He was 
an admirable man ; but, in one instance, he stained his character by 
his conduct towards the Spartans, numbers of whom he cruelly 
butchered, when that city was taken by him. 

He was, however, called to suffer in his turn ; for, at 70 years ol 
age, he was taken prisoner, when besieging Messena. The Messe- 
nians were so delighted to possess this illustrious man in bondage, 
that they dragged him in chains to the public theatre, for crowds to 
gaze upon him. 

At night, he was put into a dungeon, and the jailor carried to him 
a dose of poison. He calmly received the cup, and, having heard 



100 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. 

that most ot his friends had escaped by flight, he said, " then I find 
we are not entirely unfortunate," and, drinking off the fatal draught, 
without one murmur, laid himself down and expired. 

About this same time, Sparta had a king called Nabis, who was 
notorious for his cruelty and avarce. Most of the wealthy citizens 
he banished from Sparta, that he might seize their riches, and many 
he caused to be assassinated. He had received Argos from Philip, in 
pledge for some money which he had lent that monarch. He there 
practised the most shocking cruelties. 

He had invented a machine, in the form of a statue, resembling his 
wife, the breast, arms, and hands of which were full of pegs of iron, 
covered with magnificent garments. If any one refused to give him 
money, he was introduced to this machine, which, by means of cer- 
tain springs, caught fast hold of him, and, that he might deliver 
himself from this exquisite torture, he readily granted whatever Na- 
bis desired. 

ROME. 

7. Rome, at the commencement of this period, under cir- 
cumstances more favourable for conquest than it ever had been 
before, was not long in subduing the petty nations within a 
moderate distance of its territory. The name of " Gauls" still 
inspired some terror, but the Romans soon began to despise 
them, after they had repressed one or two invasions. 

8. Having subdued all their neighbours, such as the Her- 
nici, the iEqui, the Void, &c. the Romans began to look for 
greater conquests. They soon found an occasion against the 
Samnites, a numerous and warlike people inhabiting the south 
of Italy, with whom they were engaged in war 71 years. 
This war commenced 343 years B. C. A war with the La- 
tins commenced three years afterwards. The Latins were 
soon subjugated. 

§ The Samnites possessed that tract of country, which at this day 
constitutes a considerable part of the kingdom of Naples. They 
were a far more formidable enemy, both as to numbers and disci- 
pline, than the Romans had hitherto contended with. Two consuls 
were at first sent against them. The fortune of Rome attended one 
of them ; but th? other, Cornelius, was involved in difficulty. 

Having been surrounded by the Samnites, his army must have per- 
ished had not the tribune Decius, with 400 men, made a diversion 
in his favour. Decius advanced to seize a hill in the midst of the 
enemy. This bold attempt cost the life of every one of his soldiers. 
Decius alone escaped, but he preserved the army of the consul. 

In the war with the Latins, at this time a distinct nation, again 
Titus Manlius, who was consul, gave a most remarkable instance of 
well meant, but mistaken severity. He had ordered the Roman sol- 
diers not to quit their ranks, without permission, on pain of death. 



356—146 b. c. 101 

A son of the consul happened, with his detachment, to meet a troop 
of Latins, headed by Melius. 

Metius scoffingly addressed the Romans, and at last dared their 
young commander to fight him. The son, forgetful of the orders of 
his father, or regardless of them, in his indignation, sprang forward 
to the encounter, and soon conquered the Latin. Then gathering to- 
gether the arms of the fallen foe, he ran to his father's tent, and 
throwing them at his feet, told his story. 

But tragical was the issue. The consul turned from him, and or 
dering the troops to be assembled, thus addressed him in their pre 
sence. 

"Titus Manlius ! you this day dared to disobey the command oi 
your consul, and the orders of your father ; you have thus done an 
injury to discipline and military government, and must, by youi 
death, expiate your fault. Your courage has endeared you to me, but 
I must be just ; and if you have a drop of my blood in your veins 
you will not refuse to die, when justice demands it. Go, lictor, and tie 
him to the stake." 

The astonished young man showed his noble .spirit to the last, and 
as calmly knelt down beneath the axe, as he had bravely wielded his 
sword against the enemies of his country. The whole Roman armies 
mourned his early death. How unnatural were even the virtues of 
the Romans, in many instances ! 

9. The war with the Samnites continued with occasional 
suspensions, but was destined to end only with their ruin. 
The Romans were generally successful in their battles, 
though, in one instance, a Roman army experienced a signal 
mortification, in being obliged to pass under the yoke. 

The Tarentines, having become the allies of the Samnites, 
shared their fate. The -Samnites were completely subdued, 
272 years B. C, although, in the mean time, the Romans had 
on hand a war with some other states, as will be soon men- 
tioned. 

§ During the war with the Samnites, their general, Pontius, de- 
coyed the Romans into a defile, in which they were wholly in the 
power of their enemies. Rejecting the advice of his father, which 
was either to put them all to death, or honourably to free them, he 
chose a middle course, and determined to disgrace them. 

For that purpose, he obliged the Roman soldiers, with their officers 
leading the way, to pass half naked under the yoke — a sort of gal- 
lows made of three spears, two being fixed firmly in the ground, and 
one laid across on the top of the others. This was considered an in- 
sufferable disgrace. 

The Romans keenly felt the indignity, and not having their power 
in the least crippled by this means, only became the more impatient 
to subdue their rivals. They had soon an opportunity of inflicting 
upon the Samnites a similar odium, and of obliging them at length to 
sue for peace. 

12 



102 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VIII. 

10. The Romans had a short contention with the Tus- 
cans, 312 B. C. During two successive years, they were de- 
feated, — in the last by Fabius. But the most important war, 
about this time, was that in which they were engaged with 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. 

The aid of this celebrated general had been sought by the 
Tarentines, as allies with the Samnites, in their united con- 
test with Rome. He landed in Italy with 30.000 men, and a 
train of elephants, and commenced an attack on the Romans. 

After various turns of fortune, he was at last totally defeat- 
ed, with the loss of 26,000 men, and returned with haste to 
lis dominions. From this time, the hostile states, left to bear 
alone the weight of the Roman power, were no longer for- 
midable, and all Italy submitted to Rome, about 270 years 
B. C. 

§ Pyrrhus was born to be a warrior ; but warriors make themselves 
miserable. When lie was preparing to comply with the invitations of 
the Tarentines, Cineas, a wise and good man, asked him what were 
his intentions and expectations ? 

" To conquer Rome," said Pyrrhus. 

" And what will you do next, my lord ?" 

" Next, I will conquer Italy." 

"And what after that?" 

" We will subdue Carthage, Macedonia, all Africa, and Greece." 

" And when we have conquered all we can, what shall we do ?" 

"Do ! then we will sit down, and spend our time in comfort." 

" Ah ! my lord !" said the reasonable Cineas, " what prevents our 
being in peace and comfort now ?" 

Having arrived in Italy, he speedily conquered the Romans under 
their consul Laevinius. This victory was thought to have been gain- 
ed by the effect produced by the elephants of Pyrrhus's army, the 
Roman horses taking fright at the sight of these huge animals. Pyr- 
rhus was surprised at the valiant and skilful conduct of the Romans, 
for, at that time, all people, except those of one's own nation, were 
considered barbarians, rude and unknowing. 

After the first battle, observing the noble and stern countenances 
of his enemies, as they lay dead on the field, Pyrrhus, awed into re- 
spect, cried out, in the true spirit of military ambition, " O with what 
ease could I conquer the world, had I the Romans for soldiers, and 
had they me for their king !" He gained a second victory, but after 
that he found himself losing ground daily, and was glad to leave 
Italy before he was entirely conquered. The people of Sicily had 
sent to him for assistance ; thither he went. 

In Sicily, he also experienced a change of fortune, at first prospe 
rous, and then adverse. So that he once more returned to Italy, being 
almost driven from Syracuse by the Carthaginians. The Romans 



356—146 b. c. 103 

fell before him again ; but at last, they terribly defeated him, and he 
was obliged to return with haste to his own country. 

An anecdote, illustrating the generosity of the Romans and of Pyr • 
rhus, and shewing that this was the age of Roman virtue, is worth re- 
cording. One of the physicians of Pyrrhus told the Romans, that 
he would poison his master, if they would give him a large reward. 
Fabricius, the Roman general, was shocked at this treachery, and di- 
rectly informed Pyrrhus of it, sending away the physician with 
scorn; "for," said the general, "we should be honourable even to 
our enemies." Pyrrhus would not be outdone in generosity, and ex- 
pressed his gratitude by sending to Rome all his prisoners without 
ransom, and by desiring to negotiate a peace. 

11. The different states of Italy had now lost their inde- 
pendence ; but after their conquest, they did not all bear the 
same relation to Rome. Their privileges were unequal, va- 
rying according to the different terms granted to the con- 
quered, and afterwards modified according to their fidelity 
to the parent state. Some were entirely subjected to the Ro- 
man laws ; others were allowed to live under the original in- 
stitutions ; and some were tributary, and others allies. 

The success of the war with Pyrrhus, gave the Romans 
reputation abroad. They now seemed to themselves to be 
equal to any enterprise. They had long been jealous of the 
growing power of Carthage, and easily found a pretext for 
declaring war against that republic. It was alleged that 
Carthage had rendered assistance to the enemies of Rome. 

Thus commenced what is commonly called the first Punic 
War, 264 years B. C. It lasted 23 years. The Romans 
were in general victorious, though they were once, under Re- 
gulus, severely beaten before the gates of Carthage. Their 
first attempts in naval warfare were made during this conten- 
tion. They were highly successful in them, although the Car- 
thaginians had been long celebrated for their enterprise and 
courage on the ocean. 

The Romans won several naval battles, and took the 
strongest of the Sicilian towns, Sicily being the principal 
scene of the war. The i/1 success of the Carthaginians, re- 
duced them to the necessicy of making peace on very humili- 
ating terms. They were required to quit Sicily, return all the 
prisoners they had taken, and pay 3,200 talents of silver. 

§ The Mamertines, who inhabited a small section of the island of 
Sicily, had put themselves under the protection of Rome, with a view 
to ward off impending ruin, with which the Carthaginians threatened 
them, as allies of Hiero, king of Syracuse. The Romans, too proud 



104 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. 

to dignify the Mamertines with the name of allies, instead of pro- 
fessing to assist them, boldly declared war against Carthage, alleging 
as a reason, the assistance not long before rendered by Carthage to 
the southern parts of Italy, against the Romans. 

Such was the frivolous pretext for this sanguinary war. It was the 
object, both of Carthage and Rome respectively, to reduce Sicily en- 
tirely to its sway. The Carthaginians had already possessed them- 
selves of a considerable part of it. The Syracusans at first having 
confederated with the Carthaginians, at length turned against them. 

Agrigentum was taken from the Carthaginians, after a long siege; 
and a fleet of the Romans, the first they ever possessed, and which 
they had equipped in a few weeks, defeated that of Carthage, in a 
most signal manner. A second naval engagement soon followed, at- 
tended with like success, the Carthaginians, under Hanno and Hamil 
car, losing 60 ships of war. 

These victories so much encouraged the Romans, that they boldly 
crossed the Mediterranean sea, and landing in Africa, took the small 
town of Clypea. Regulus, the leader, was ordered to remain there, 
and continue, as pro-consul, to command the troops ; but he earnestly 
requested to return home, as he had a small estate of seven acres 
which required his care. 

A person was directed to perform this service, and then Regulus, 
satisfied that his wife and children would have food, willingly devo- 
ted himself to his public duties. The Carthaginians had procured 
forces from Sparta under Xantippus, and thus supported, defeated 
the Romans, and took Regulus prisoner. 

Regulus having been kept in prison several years, was then sent to 
Rome to propose peace, and an exchange of prisoners. He was first 
obliged to take an oath that he would reiiirn to Carthage, if he did 
not succeed in his proposals. When this noble Roman made his ap- 
pearance among his countrymen, they were all touched by his mis- 
fortunes, and were willing to purchase his freedom, by granting the 
request of his enemies. 

But he would not allow his country to suffer for his sake, and, 
though he knew that torture and death awaited him at Carthage, he 
besought the Romans to send him back, and to refuse the Carthagi- 
nians their prisoners. The senate, with the utmost pain, consented 
to this disinterested advice ; and, in spite of the tears of his wife, the 
embraces of his children, and the entreaties of his friends, Regulus 
returned to Carthage. 

The sequel may be easily conjectured. As soon as the Carthagi- 
nians saw him come back with a denial, they put him to every kind 
of suffering they could invent— to the most barbarous tortures, all ol 
which he bore with patient silence. He died as heroically as he had 
lived. 

After various successes on both sides, the Romans gained two na- 
val battles, and thus so effectually crippled the strength of the Car- 
thaginians on their own element, that they sought a peace by great 
sacrifices. The island of Sicily was now declared a Roman province^ 
though Syracuse maintained her independent government. 



356—146 b. c. 105 

12. A peace of twenty-three years' continuance subsisted 
between Rome and Carthage, during which time the Ro- 
mans had two short contentions — first with the Illyrians, and 
next with the Gauls. Over both of these nations the Roman 
arms triumphed. The temple of Janus, which was never 
shut during a time of war, was now shut for the second time, 
since the foundation of the city, 235 B. C. The Romans, 
at this era, began to cultivate the arts of peace, and to acquire 
a taste for literature. 

§ The war with the Illyrians was owing to depredations committed 
by them, on the trading subjects of Rome. Redress being refused, 
the consuls marched against them, and most of the Illyrian towns 
were obliged to surrender. The war with the Gauls was occasioned 
by the irruption of these barbarians upon Italy. The Romans oppo- 
sed them, with such success, that they lost two kings, and in one bat- 
tle alone 40,000 men killed and 10,000 taken prisoners. 

13. The peace between the Romans and Carthaginians was 
rather a matter of policy than of inclination. The Carthagi- 
nians particularly had improved the time in preparing for re- 
venge. They began the aggression in the second Punic war, 
by htying siege to Saguntum, a city of Spain, in alliance 
with Rome, Their leader in this war was the celebrated Han- 
nibal, son of Hamilcar, under whom the first Punic war was 
principally conducted. The son inherited the father's enmity 
<o the Romans, and was greatly superior to him in talents. 

The war commenced 218 years B. C, and lasted 17 years. 
It was at first highly favourable to the Carthaginians, and 
Rome was thrown into imminent danger, and great distress, 
by the victories of Hannibal, who had carried the war into 
Italy. But the Roman fortune began at length to prevail, 
and Hannibal was recalled to save Carthage itself, inas- 
much as Scipio the Roman general, who triumphed in Spain, 
had passed over into Africa, and spread terror to the gates of 
Carthage. 

Hannibal and Scipio met at Zama ; the battle of that 
place decided the fate of the war, and the Carthaginians sued 
for peace, which they obtained only by abandoning Spain, 
Sicily, and all the islands — by surrendering all their prisoners, 
and nearly the whole of their fleet, by paying 10,000 talents, 
and by engaging to undertake no war without the consent of 
Rome. 

§ Of Hannibal it is recorded, that when only nine years of age, at 



106 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII. 

the instance of his father, he took a solemn oath at the altar, decla 
ring himself the eternal enemy of the Romans ; and never had they 
so terrible a foe. Like most other great soldiers, he was capable of 
bearing fatigue and hardship, heat and cold, good and bad fortune in 
the extreme, with entire equanimity, and without shrinking. 

He was simple in dress, rigid in self-government— he ate, drank 
and slept only so much as to support his body, and give him strength 
to perform the intentions of his great mind. If, however, we are to 
believe the accounts of his enemies, he was not without striking 
moral defects— being cruel, negligent of his truth and honour, and a 
scorner of the religion of his country. 

Hannibal crossing the sea from Africa to Europe, and taking Sa- 
guntum, in Spain marched through Spain, and over the Pyrennean 
hills into Gaul, along the coast of that country, and over the lofty 
Alps crowned with snow, to Italy — a land journey of 1000 miles. 
Such an exploit had never been done before. The difficulties of the 
way would have disheartened any other man. In addition to this he 
passed through various barbarous tribes, with most of whom he was 
obliged to fight for a passage ; the Gauls among the rest attempting 
to oppose his progress. 

He arrived in Italy with only 20,000 foot and 6000 horse. When 
he began this wonderful enterprise he was only 26 years old. 
Several Roman generals of approved talent and valour opposed him, 
yet he was on the point of making himself master of proud Rome. In 
the first engagement near the Ticinus, the Romans were defeated, 
and they lost two other important battles at the Trebia and the lake 
Thrasymenus. 

Advancing to Cannae, the Carthaginians were opposed by the 
whole force of Rome ; but in vain. Their fine army under their 
consuls was totally routed. Varro gave orders for the battle against 
the wish of his colleague Paulus iEmilius ; but the encounter once 
begun, iEmilius fought with the utmost skill and bravery, and died 
covered with wounds. 

Just before his death he was found sitting on a stone, faint and 
streaming with blood. The soldier who discovered him, besought 
him to mount his horse, and put himself under his protection. " No," 
said iEmilius with gratitude, "I will not clog you with my sinking 
frame ; go hasten to Rome, and tell the senate of this day's disaster, 
and bid them fortify the city, for the enemy is approaching it. I wih 
die with my slaughtered soldiers, that I may neither suffer the in- 
dignation of Rome myself, nor be called upon to give testimony 
against my colleague, to prove my own innocence." 

It is an opinion generally enteitained, though by no means certain, 
that if Hannibal had marched directly to Rome, after the battle of 
Cannae, the fate of the republic would have been inevitable. But 
this he did not see fit to attempt. The tide of success now began tc 
turn against him. Wintering his troops in the luxurious city of Cap- 
ua, they lost much of their virtue. 

The Romans concentrated all their strength, even the slaves, arm- 
ed in the common cause ; and victory once more attended the stan 



356—146 b. c. 107 

dards of Rome. Hannibal retreated before the brave Marcellus. 
The forces of the king of Macedon, who had joined the Carthaginians, 
were also defeated at this juncture. 

While Fabius, who was now opposed to Hannibal, conducted the 
war prosperously, by always avoiding a general engagement, the 
younger Scipio accomplished the entire reduction of Spain. Asdrubal 
was sent into Italy after a long delay, to the assistance of his brother 
Hannibal, but was defeated by the consul Claudius, and slain in battle. 

Scipio, having triumphed in Spain, passed over into Africa, where 
his path was marked with terror and victory. This policy he had 
himself suggested to the Roman senate, as the only probable means 
of driving the Carthaginians from Italy. According to his expecta- 
tions, when Carthage perceived the danger to which itself was ex- 
posed, Hannibal was recalled to protect his native land. He had beeu 
absent 16 years. 

Scipio was an antagonist worthy of Hannibal. When he was 
very young, he saved the life of his father in a battle ; and after the 
fatal overthrow at Cannae, hearing of some young men who thought 
of abandoning their country, he, with a few other resolute spirits, 
suddenly entered the room where they were deliberating, and fiercely 
drew his sword and exclaimed, "whoever is against Rome, this sword 
is against him.' 1 The young men, intimidated by his resolution, or 
inspired by his spirit^ took a vow with him and his companions, to 
fight for their country whilst a drop of blood remained in their veins. 

The meeting at Zama, in Africa, between Hannibal and Scipio, the 
two greatest warriors in the world, was highly interesting. They gazed 
on each other with mutual awe and admiration. Hannibal in vain strove 
to procure honourable terms of peace. The youthful Roman, however, 
answered him with pride and disdain ; and the armies prepared for battle. 

The contest was dreadful ; but the superior vigour of the Romans, 
notwithstanding the skill of the Carthaginians, prevailed. The latter 
lost 40,000 men in killed and in prisoners, and were thus obliged to 
conclude a fatal peace. Carthage was nearly ruined. As to Hanni- 
bal, he survived this battle several years ; but being hated and hunted 
by the Romans from place to place, he committed the unjustifiable act 
of suicide, so common in ancient times. 

"Let us relieve the Romans of their fears," said he, "by closing 
the existence of a feeble old man." He died at 70 years of age, at the 
court of Prussias, king of Bythynia. The second Punic war ended 
with the battle at Zama, B. C. 201. 

14. The Roman dominion now rapidly extended. Other 
victories over other enemies attended the arms of the republic. 
Philip king of Macedon was defeated by the Romans under 
Flaminius in Thessaly, 197 years B. C. The Gauls received 
some signal overthrows. 

§ The war with Philip is called thefirst Macedonian war, and was ter- 
minated by the request of Philip for peace, which the senate granted 
the second year of the contest. The second Macedonian war, which 
terminated the monarchy, as also that which put a period to Grecian 



108 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII* 

liberty, have already been narrated in the history of Macedonia and 
Greece. 

15. Five years afterwards, or 192 years &. C, commenced 
the Syrian war, under Antiochus the Great. This ended in 
his entire defeat, and in the cession to the Romans of all 
Asia Minor. The pretext of this war was, that Antiochus 
j?ad made encroachments on the Grecian states, who were 
then called the allies of Rome. These successes, by pouring 
wealth into Rome, began to corrupt the simplicity of the an- 
cient manners. 

SICILY. 

16. The history of Sicily is considerably included in that 
of Rome and other nations, but a few particulars may deserve 
a separate notice. In early times the government was a 
monarchy, but it afterwards became a republic, and continued 
such, except at Syracuse, the monarchy of which, after 60 
years, was re-established in the person of Dionysius the Elder. 

The Sicilians were frequently engaged in wars with the 
Carthaginians, and the latter, in the course of time, possessed 
themselves of a considerable part of the island. It was the 
scene and the object of the first Punic war; and in the se- 
cond, the whole of it was brought under the sway of Rome. 
by the consul Marcellus, 212 years B. C. 

§ This important island in the Mediterranean sea, the granary of 
Italy, was settled in an early age of the world, though the exact pe- 
riod is unknown. The Phoenicians had sent colonies thither before 
the Trojan war. The Greeks at later periods made considerable set- 
tlements in the island. The Corinthians founded Syracuse, which 
6ecame the most renowned of the Greek cities of Sicily. 

The regal government exercised in the various parts of the island, 
having become excessively tyrannical, was the cause of its being 
abolished in all the cities held thereby the Greeks. Dionysius, how- 
ever, a person of mean birth, but great talents, found the means of 
reviving the monarchy at Syracuse, and though thrice expelled on 
account of his tyranny, he re-assumed the sceptre, which he transmit- 
ed to his son, Dionysius the Younger. 

This weak and detestable tyrant had been well educated by the 
great Plato ; but lie soon forgot all the good that had been taught 
him. He so provoked his virtuous brother-in-law Dion, (whom the 
jeal.msy of the nobles had banished,) by marrying Dion's wife to one 
of his courtiers, that the latter led an army to Syracuse, drove the 
tyrant from his throne, and recovered his wife. In the hands of Dion 
the government was administered with much moderation and ability, 
hut this excellent sovereign was at last cruelly murdered 



356—146 b. c. 109 

At his death Dlonysius again ascended the throne, and was again 
driven from it ; and after all' his various fortunes, it is said he became 
a school-master at Corinth. The brave and humane Timoleon, a 
Greek, was the person who accomplished the second banishment of 
this tyrant. Timoleon was went for to assist the Syracusans against 
the Carthaginians, and having defeated them, he entered Syracuse in 
triumph. 

Dionysius, being unfit to rule, surrendered himself and his citadel 
into his hands, and was sent to Corinth. Timoleon again defeated 
the Carthaginians under Asdrubal and Amilcar, and at length sub- 
dued all the enemies of Syracuse. After having served Syracuse 
and the whole island to the extent of his powers he gave up his 
authority, and lived the rest of his days in tranquil retirement. 

A few years after the battle of Ca*nnae, Marcellus the Roman con- 
sul, laid siege to Syracuse ; and in spite of the "Wonderful machines 
constructed and employed, by Archimedes, he finally took it. Mar- 
cellus, who was acquainted with the extraordinary abilities of this 
man, when the city had fallen into his hands, gave orders, that 
Archimedes should be conducted to him in safety. 

When the city was taken, this philosopher was so absorbed in 
study, that he was not aware of the event, until a soldier, rushing into 
his apartment, bade him rise and follow him. Archimedes desired him 
to wait a moment until he had solved the problem that he was work- 
ing. The soldier, not understanding what he was talking about, and 
provoked at his disobedience, drew his sword and killed him on the 
spot. Marcellus was greatly disappointed at this event. 

SYRIA. 

17. During the present period the kingdom of Syria, or 
Syro-Medio, rose into importance under its founder Seleucua 
Nicator, or the Conqueror, 312 years B. C. In the first divi- 
sion of Alexander's empire, the country anciently called Syria, 
fell to the lot of Antigonus. But Seleucus, a distinguished 
and able officer in the empire, revolted, and made war upon 
Antigonus, who being slain at the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus 
remained possessor of his dominions. The sovereigns of this 
new kingdom, after him, were known under the name of Se- 
leucidse. 

§ Syria was first inhabited by the posterity of Aram, the youngest 
son of Shem. The kings of this country were little known till the ti me 
of Alexander the Great, except what is related of them in the Bible. 
Hadadezer made an unsuccessful war against David. Benhadad was 
three times defeated by Ahab and Ahaziah. A few other particulars 
are related of the Syrian kings, till Syria was made a province of 
the Assyrian Empire by Tiglath-Pileser, who defeated and slew Re- 
zin, the king of Syria, in battle. 

18. The second and last division of Alexander's empire 
was formerly mentioned. Seleucus who retained Syria to 

K 



UO ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIll. 

which other possessions were added, made war upon Lysi- 
lnachus, who had reduced Macedonia under his sway. Lysi 
machus was killed, and Seleucus seized on Ills kingdom. Bui 
the conqueror was assassinated the same year, by Ptolemy 
Ceraunus, who afterwards reigned at Macedon. 

§ Of the Seleucidae, or successors of Seleucus, to the end of this 
period, the following epitome may be given. Antiochus Soter, or the 
saviour, succeeded the conqueror. Of this Antiochus it is recorded, 
that when a young man, he fell in love with one of his father's wives, 
a young and beautiful woman, to such a degree, as to be nearly re- 
duced to death. 

His physician discovering, from the agitation of his pulse at the 
sight of Stratonice, (the name of the object of his passion,) the true 
cause of his disease, made it known to Seleucus the father. From 
affection to the son he renounced Stratonice, and gave her to him in 
marriage, 280 B. C. 

Antiochus Theos, or the God, invaded Egypt. During his ab- 
sence the provinces of the East were entered by the Parthians, who 
founded a new kingdom. The Bactrians also became independent. 
He made peace with Ptolemy Philadelphia, and married his daugh- 
ter Berenice, after repudiating his wife. The king of Egypt being 
dead, he took back his former wife, who poisoned him, Berenice, and 
her son, 261 B. C. 

After the reigns of Seleucus Callinicus, and Seleucus Ceraunus, re 
specting whom nothing remarkable took place, Antiochus the Great, 
ascended the throne. He was at first engaged in subduing some of 
his revolted governors. Afterwards he invaded Media, Parthia, Hyr- 
cania. Bactria, and even India, 223 B. C. 

Having planned the conquest ef Asia Minor, and taken some places 
there, an embassy was sent by the Romans, desiring him to desist. 
This brought on the war with the Romans which has been particu- 
larly detailed. In this attempt he first conquered a part of Greece. 
'Here the Romans defeated him, and being closely pursued by Seipio 
Asiaticus, he was beaten again in Asia. Among one of the conditions 
of peace was the delivery of his son Antiochus, as a hostage to the 
Romans. 

Seleucus Philopater, who was left by his father to govern Syria, 
during his absence, next ascended the throne, 187 years B. C. His 
general Heliodorus, in attempting to rob the temple of Jerusalem of 
its treasures, was repulsed by the hand of God, and rigorously chas 
tised. lie poisoned Selelicus after his return. 

Antiochus Epiphancs, the son who was delivered as a hostage to 
the Romans, and exchanged, after chastising Heluxbrus, gained pos- 
session of the throne, 175 years B. C. In attempting to reduce Egypt 
under his dominion, he was stopped by a Roman ambassador, who 
obliged him to return. 

Incensed at this, he vented his racre against the Jews, took Jerusa- 
lem, &. .ughtered 40,000 persons, and made as many prisoners. The 
Jesvs 3 however, revolted, and under Judas Maccabaeus defeated scvc- 



356—146 B.C. Ill 

ral of his generals. These wars will be detailed in the history of the 
Jews. Antioehus, in attempting to exterminate the Jews, perished in 
great torments. 

Antioehus Eupator and Demetrius Soter continued the war with 
the Jews, and Alexander Balas, the last sovereign, during this period, 
abandoned himself to a life of debauchery. 

JEWS. 

20. In the history of the Jews at the commencement of 
tliis period, w~e have to notice the favour which was mani 
fested towards them by Alexander the Great, who granted to 
them the freedom of their country, laws, and religion, and ex- 
empted them from paying tribute every seventh year. 

In their dependent state, they had continued to enjoy a de- 
gree of prosperity under the sovereigns of Persia, even after the 
time of Cyrus. His successors, down to the era of Alexander, 
had, in general, treated them with much kindness. But with 
the latter expired the prosperous state of Judea, 324 years 
B. C. 

§ Darius, son of Cyrus, favoured the Jews during his long reign. 
Xerxes confirmed their privileges. Under Artaxerxes they were still 
more favoured through the influence of his queen Esther, a Jewess. 
From this prince, Ezra obtained very liberal donations to be applied 
to the service of the temple, and authority to re-establish the govern- 
ment according to the divine constitution, 480 years B. C. 

Several years afterwards, under the same prince, Nehemiah his 
cup-bearer, obtained leave to go to Jerusalem and rebuild its walls. 
He and Joiada the high priest reformed many abuses respecting 
tithes, the observation of the sabbath, and the marrying of strange 
wives. 

In the latter period, to which our accounts more particularly refer, 
it is recorded that Jaddus, the high priest, in his priestly attire, met 
Alexander the Great, and shewed him the prophecy of Daniel, w 
which his conquest was foretold. 

21. From this time, 323 years B. C, Judea was succes 
sively invaded and subdued by the Egyptians and Syrians, 
and the inhabitants were reduced to bondage. In conse- 
quence of an invasion by Antioehus Epiphanes, about 170 
years B. 0. the sacrifices ceased among the Jews, and there 
scarcely existed any external signs of their peculiar civil or 
religious polity. 

Such persecutions roused the Jew T s to drive the Syrians 
from Judea, which they gloriously achieved under Judas 
Maccabeus, 166 yeais B. C. 

§ Under the priesthood of Onias I., Ptolemy, governor of Egypt 
taking advantage of the circumstance that the Jews would not fight 



112 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VIII. 

on the sabbath, captured Jerusalem on that day, and carried off 
100,000 persons, whom, however, he afterwards treated kindly. 

When Eleazer was high priest, he sent to Ptolemy Philadelphus 
six men of every tribe, to translate the sacred scriptures into Greek. 
This translation is the celebrated one called the Septuagint, 277 
B.C. 

Jason, 170 B. C, on false reports of Antiochus' death, raised great 
disturbances in Jerusalem, with a view to recover the high priest- 
hood. Antiochus (Epiphanes) irritated by the frequent revolts of 
the Jews, marched to Jerusalem, slew 80,000 people, took 40,000 
captives, and then entered the temple and plundered the treasures. 

Antiochus having commanded the Jews to observe the rites of the 
heathen, and to eat of the sacrifices, some of the more conscientious 
among them chose rather the loss of life ; among whom were a mo- 
ther and her seven sons, who expired in dreadful tortures. The same 
year the king's commissioner, who was entrusted with this iniquitous 
business, was killed by Mattathias and his five sons, who thereupon 
fled into the wilderness. 

Judas Maccabaeus, at the head of those who fled into the wilder- 
ness, made war against Antiochus, and defeated several of his gene- 
rals. The king hearing of the defeat of his troops in Judea, took an 
oath, that he would destroy the whole nation. As he hastened to 
Jerusalem, he fell from his chariot, and died miserably. 

In a battle with a general of one of his successors, Judas was killed. 
Jonathan his brother succeeded, and was made high priest, 153 years 
B. C. A younger brother had been previously killed. The remain- 
der of the history of the Maccabees is to be pursued in the next suc- 
ceeding period. 

EGYPT. 

22. Egypt, having been in subjection 30 years since it 
was last brought under the Persian yoke, was subdued by 
Alexander the Great, 332 years B. C. He appointed Ptol- 
emy Lagns its governor, who. after the conqueror's death, be- 
gan a new dynasty of kings, called Ptolemseans or Lagidse 
323 years B. C. 

This dynasty lasted 294 years, and ended in Cleopatra. 
Of the sovereigns that belong to the period now treated of, we 
find the names of six of various characters. 

, Ptolemy Lagus, called also Soter or Saviour, was a man of great 
bilities, and endeavoured to restore Egypt to its ancient splendour. 
He erected the famous library at Alexandria. He subdued Syria, 
Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Jerusalem. 

Ptolemy Philadelphus, or Lover of his brother, pursued the steps 
of his father in a great measure. He protected commerce, arts, and 
sciences, and erected magnificent buildings. Ptolemy Evergetes, or 
th? Benefactor, was not only a lover of science, but an author. He 
sj *rt.'I no pains to enrich his library. 

Ptolemy Philopater, or Lover of his father, a surname probably 



356—146 b. c. 113 

I ,-ven him m derision, being suspected to have put his father to death, 
•was a cruel prince. He slew his brother, murdered his queen, and 
ordered all the Jews within his dominions to abjure their religion, 
which however they refused to do. 

Ptolemy Epiphanes, or the Illustrious, was famous only for his 
vices. He suffered every thing to fall into disorder, and was at last 
poisoned by his subjects. 

Ptolemy Phiiometer, or Lover of his mother, engaged in an un- 
successful war against Syria, in which he was taken prisoner, and 
the crown given to his brother Physcon ; but after Phiiometer re 
gained his liberty, they reigned jointly. 

PARTHIA. 

23. The history of Parthia begins at this era. Arsaces, 
a nobleman, descended as some think from Artaxerxes 
Mnemon, king of Persia, revolted from Antiochus Theos, 
king of Syria (256 B. C.) and founded the new kingdom of 
Parthia, which at first consisted only of the province so called 
From him Jiis successors are called Arsacidse. 

§ The single province of Parthia was not large ; but the Parthian 
empire included not only Parthia, but Hyrcania, Sogdiana, Bactria, 
Persia, Media, and several other regions. Parthia was first sub- 
ject to the Medes, afterwards to the Persians, and lastly to Alexander 
the Great : upon whose death, it fell to the share of Seleucus Nicator; 
and his successors held it till the reign of Antiochus Theos. 

They were a warlike people, and the best horsemen and archers in 
the world. For the sake of war, they neglected agriculture, trade, 
and all other callings. 

24. The Arsacidce were in general conquerors, and greatly 
extended their dominions from time to time. Mithridates I, 
the fifth from Arsaces. was a man of uncommon wisdom and 
courage. He reduced the Bactrians, Persians, Medes, and 
Elymeeans, and extended his dominions into India, beyond 
the boundaries of Alexander's conquests. 

CHINA. 

25. The third dynasty of the emperors of China, which 
commenced 1110 years B. C, ended during this period 
viz. 246 years B. C. It included 35 emperors. It is called 
the dynasty of Tcheou. 

The fourth dynasty, which began at the latter date, lasted 
43 years, terminating 203 years B. C. It included four em- 
perors. It is called the dynasty of Tsin. 

§ Chaus the fourth emperor of the third dynasty was excessively 
fond of hunting. In the pursuit of that sport, he did incalculable 
damage to the crops of his subjects. Their remonstrances being un- 
heeded, they determined to destroy him. For this purpose, as he 

K 2 



114 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VIII. 

was wont to pass a large river, on his return from the chase, in a 
boat which waited for him, they caused one to be built of such con- 
struction as to break in pieces before it reached the opposite shore. 
Entering his boat, he and his attendants soon went to the bottom. 

Ching, the second emperor of the fourth dynasty, left a monument 
of his power, which still astonishes those that behold it, viz. the fa- 
mous wall, 500 leagues long, which separates China from its north- 
ern neighbours. He suppressed the tributary kingdoms, and reduced 
them to their former state of provinces. 

Elated with his success, he became ambitious of being thought the 
first sovereign of China. With this view he ordered all the historical 
writings and public records to be burned, and many of the learned 
men to be buried alive, that past events might not be transmitted 
to posterity. 

Distinguished Characters in Period VIII. 

1. Plato, an eminent Grecian philosopher, called the 
Divine. 

2. Apelle^. the greatest of the painters of antiquity. 

3. Alexander the Great, conqueror of most of the world 
known to the ancients. 

4. Demosthenes, the prince of orators. 

5. Aristotle, the ablest logician and philosopher of antiquity. 

6. Euclid, the greatest master of mathematical science. 

7. Theocritus, the father of pastoral poetry. 

8. Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy. 

9. Archimedes, a famous geometrician of Syracuse. 

1. Plato was born about 429 years B. C. His name, Aristocles, was 
changed to Plato, from the largeness of his shoulders. He was 8 
years the pupil of Socrates, after whose death, he travelled into 
foreign countries. When he had finished these, he retired to the 
groves of Academus, where he was attended by a crowd of noble and 
illustrious pupils. 

His learning and virtues were topics of conversation in every part 
of Greece ; he was elegant in his manners, and partook of innocent 
pleasures and amusements. He died in his 81st year, about 348 B. C. 

The works of Plato are numerous ; they are all in the form of a 
dialogue, except twelve letters. The ancients and even the learned 
moderns have highly respected and admired the writings of this great 
philosopher. They display unusual depth of thought, and singular 
elegance, melody, and sweetness of expression. Amongother truths, he 
maintained by many powerful arguments the immortality of the soul. 

2. Apelles was born in the island of Cos, and lived contemporary 
with Alexander, who would suffer no other to draw his picture. His 
Venus rising out of the sea, was purchased by Augustus, and placed 
in. a temple at Rome. The lower part had sustained some injury 
which no artist could repair. He wrote some pieces which were 
extant in the age of Pliny 



356— 146 b. c. 115 

One of his pictures of Alexander exhibited the conqueror with a 
thunderbolt in his hand. The piece was finished with so much skill 
and dexterity, that it used to be said that there were two Alexanders : 
one invincible, the son of Philip : the other inimitable, the produc- 
tion of Apelles. The date of his death does not appear. 

3. Alexander was born at Pella in Macedonia, 355 B. C. At the 
age often years he was delivered to the tuition of Aristotle, and early 
followed his father to the field. When he came to the throne, he in- 
vaded Asia, as has been already described, defeating Darius in three 
great battles, reducing Egypt, Media, Syria, and Persia, and spread- 
ing his conquests over a part of India. 

On his return from India he stopped at Babylon, where he died in 
his 32d year, from excess in drinking, or as some think, from poison. 
He aspired to be thought a demigod, but was humane, liberal, and a 
patron of learning. With many valuable qualities, much is it to be 
regretted that he should have been the scourge, by being the conqueroi 
of the world. 

His tender treatment of the wife and mother of Darius, who were 
taken prisoners, has been greatly praised. The latter, who had sur- 
vived the death of her son, killed herself when she heard that Alex- 
ander was dead. He was guilty of many extravagant and profligate 
actions ; yet amidst them all he was fond of candour and truth, and 
after any act of wickedness, appeared to be stung with grief and re- 
morse. 

When one of his officers read to him as he sailed on the Hydaspes, 
a history which the officer had composed of his wars with Porus, 
and in which he had too liberally praised him, Alexander snatched 
the book from his hand, and threw it into the river saying, " What 
need is there of such flattery 1 Are not the exploits of Alexander suf- 
ficiently meritorious in themselves, without the colouring of false- 
hood ?" 

The death of his friend Clitus, of Avhich he was the author, while 
it might be in a degree palliated, shewed how capable he was of re- 
gret for a wrong action. Clitus had greatly abused Alexander ; they 
were both heated with wine and passion. The monarch after bear- 
ing the abuse for some time, ordered Clitus to be carried out of his 
presence. 

The latter, however, soon returned, and renewed his invectives. 
Alexander giving loose to his indignation, stabbed the veteran ; but 
was so immediately shocked with what he had done, that he was 
about to kill himself on the spot, and was only prevented by his 
friends. 

4. Demosthenes was only seven years old when his father died, 
and his guardians, proving unfaithful to their trust, squandered his 
property, and neglected his education. He was therefore indebted 
to his own industry and application, for the discipline of his mind. 

By unwearied efforts, and by overcoming the greatest obstacles, 
such as weakness of the lungs, difficulty of pronunciation, and un- 
couth habits of body, he became the greatest orator in the world. 
That he might devote himself the more closely to his studies, he con* 



116 ANCIENT HISTORY— PERIOD VIII. 

fined himself to a retired cave, and shaved half of his head, so thai 
he could not decently appear in public. 

His abilities as an orator soon placed him at the head of the go- 
vernment, and in this capacity he roused and animated his country- 
men against the ambitious designs of Philip. He also opposed Alex- 
ander, and made every effort to save his country'. When the gene- 
rals of Alexander approached Athens, he fled for safety to the temple 
of Neptune, and there took poison to prevent himself from falling 
into their hands, in his 60th year, B. C. 322. 

5. Aristotle possessed one of the keenest and most inventive ori- 
ginal intellects ever known. His writings treat of almost every branch 
of knowledge in his time ; — moral and natural philosophy, metaphy- 
sics, mechanics, grammar, criticism, and politics, all occupied his pen. 

His eloquence also was remarkable. He was moderate in his meals, 
slept little, and was indefatigably industrious. That he might not 
oversleep himself, Diogenes Laertius tells us, that he lay always with 
one hand out of the bed, holding in it a ball of brass, which, by its 
falling into a basin of the same metal, awaked him. 

Though educated in the school of Plato, he differed from his mas- 
ter, and at length formed a new school. He taught in the Lyceum. He 
had a deformed countenance, but his genius was an. ample compensa- 
tion for all his personal defects. As lie expired, he is said to have ut- 
tered the following sentiment. " I entered this world in impurity, 1 
have lived in anxiety, I depart in perturbation. Cause of causes, 
pity me !" If he lived in scepticism, as is affirmed, he hardly died 
in it. His death occurred in his 63d year. 

6. Euclid was a mathematician of Alexandria. He flourished about 
300 years B. C. He distinguished himself by his writings on music 
and geometry, but particularly by 15 books on the elements of mathe- 
matics, which consist of problems and theorems, with demonstrations. 
His elements have gone through innumerable editions. He was 
greatly respected by antiquity, and his school, which he established 
at Alexandria, became the most famous in the world, for mathe- 
matics. 

7. Theocritus flourished at Syracuse in Sicily, 282 years B. C. He 
distinguished himself by his poetical compositions, of which 30 Idy- 
lia, and some epigrams, are extant, written in the Doric dialect, and 
admired fg,r their beauty, elegance, and simplicity. 

He excelled in pastorals. He clothes his peasants with all the rusti- 
city of nature, though sometimes speaking on exalted subjects. It is 
said he wrote some invectives against Hiero, king of Syracuse, who 
ordered him to be strangled. 

8. Zeno was a native of Cyprus. In early life he followed commer- 
cial pursuits ; but having been shipwrecked, to divert his melancholy, 
he took up a book to read. The book was written by Xenophon, and 
so captivated was he, that from this time he devoted himself to phi- 
losophy. 

Becoming perfect in every branch of knowledge, he at length 
opened a school in Athens, and delivered his instructions in a porch, 4 
in Greek called stoa. He was austere in his manners, but his life was 



146— 80 b. c. 117 

an example of moderation and sobriety. He taught philosophy 48 
years, and died in his 98th year, B. C. 264. A stranger to diseases and 
indisposition, virtue was his chief good. 

9. Archimedes was born at Syracuse. At the siege, by Marcellus, 
he constructed machines which sunk some of the Roman ships, and 
others he set on fire with burning glasses. These glasses are supposed 
to have been reflectors made of metal, and capable of producing their 
effect at the distance of a bow shot. 

He was killed at the taking of the place, 208 B. C. by a soldier, who 
was ignorant of his character, and while the philosopher was enga- 
ged in his studies. Some of his works are extant. 



PERIOD IX. 

The period of the civil war between Marius and 8ylla, 
extending from the destruction of Carthage, 146 years 
B. C. to the first campaign of Julius Caesar, 80 years 
E. a 

ROME. 

Sect. 1. This period, as well as that which follows, pro- 
perly begins with the affairs of the Romans — a people, 
already possessing vast power and resources, and destined to 
become in a short time, the conquerors of the whole civilized 
portion of the human family. 

Following the course of their victories, we next light upon 
their final conquest and destruction of Carthage, the most 
formidable rival Rome ever possessed. That city fell under 
the hands of the conquerors 146 years B. C. The war, of 
which this was the result, had commenced four years, before. 
The Romans were the aggressors, having invaded Africa at 
a favourable juncture, when the Carthaginians were engaged 
in a war with another power. 

Carthage fell, notwithstanding the desperate efforts of its 
inhabitants, and was converted into a pile of ruins, with the 
extinction of the Carthaginian name. 

§ When the indications of Roman hostility appeared, the Cartha- 
ginians, who had suffered so severely in the last war, recoiled at the 
idea of another contest with the conquering Romans. They therefore 
sent a deputation to Rome to settle the matter pacifically, if possible. 
The Senate gave no decisive answer. 

A second deputation followed, but it sought in vain to avert the 
threatened evil. The demands made upon the Carthaginians were 
in the highest degree disgraceful to Rome. They were commanded 



118 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IX. 

to promise implicit obedience, and to send 300 hostages as a security 
for their future good conduct. The promise was given, ana the 
Carthaginians yielded up their children, as the required hostages. 

They were next ordered to give up all their arms ; this order was 
also obeyed: and to consummate their degradation and the cruelty of 
the Romans, they were required to quit their beloved city, and allow 
it to be levelled to the ground. The Carthaginians, as might have 
been expected, were fired with indignation, and resolved unani- 
mously that if they could not save their capital, they would perish 
with it. 

Despoiled, however, of their arms, they could at first effect but 
little, although they exerted every nerve, in meeting the foe. Their 
women cut off their long fine hair to be twisted into cords for bows , 
they brought out all their gold and silver vessels to be converted into 
arms, for these were the only metals they had left. 

The Romans were astonished at the resistance they experienced, 
many times were they repulsed from the walls, and many were the 
soldiers slain in the various attacks. Indeed, it is thought by some, 
that Carthage would not finally have been taken, had not one of her 
own officers basely gone over to the enemy. The affairs of the 
Carthaginians declined from that time. 

Scipio JGmilianus cut off their supplies of food, and blocked up 
the haven. The persevering citizens cut out a new passage into the 
sea. He next attacked and cut to pieces the army they had station- 
ed without the walls, killing 70,000 men, and taking 10,000 prison- 
ers. After this he broke through the walls, and entered the city, 
pulling or burning down houses and temples, and public buildings, 
with indiscriminate fury. 

Asdrubal, the Carthaginian general, delivered himself and citadel 
to the conquerors ; but his wife and children, with numbers of the 
citizens, set fire to the temples, and rushing into them, perished in 
the flames. So completely was this once beautiful city destroyed, 
that the place on which it stood cannot be discovered ; it was burning 
17 days, and was 24 miles in circumference. 

All the cities which befriended Carthage, shared her fate ; and the 
Romans gave away the lands to their friends. 

2. Soon, after the ruin of Carthage, viz. 137 years B. C. 
the Nimiantines, a people of Spain, overcame the Romans in 
battle ; but three } r ears after this defeat, Numanthi, the finest 
and largest city in Spain, was taken by the Romans, and 
he inhabitants, to escape falling ir to the hands of these cruel 
conquerors, set fire to their city, and all of them perished in 
the names. Thus Spain became a province of Rome 134 
years B. C. 

§ Previously to the defeat of the Romans by the Numantines, there 
had been a war between the Romans and Spain, which lasted 9 years, 
Fabius, who was sent to manage this war, gained a victory over one 



146— SO b. c. 119 

o<" the leaders of the Spanish forces, who was obliged to retire into 
Lusitania. 

The. reverse which the Romans met with in the contest with Numan- 
tia. was highly disgraceful to them. Thirty thousand of their num- 
ber were conquered by 4000 Numantines. The consul, Mancinus, was 
recalled, and Scipio was sent into Spain, whfi restored the discipline 
of the troops. He soon defeated the Numantines, who, being reduced 
to the last extremity, perished as above described. 

3. Rome at this time, (133 B. C.) was beginning to be 
greatly disturbed by internal dissensions. Attalus, king of 
Pergamus, having, by his last will, made the Romans his 
heirs, Tiberius Gracchus, a tribune of the people, proposed 
that the money should be divided among the poor. This 
caused a great disturbance, during which Gracchus was 
killed. 

About twelve years afterwards, Caius Gracchus, brother to 
Tiberius, having opposed the senate, and become popular and 
powerful, exposed himself to the resentment of the nobles, 
who marked him out for destruction. In consequence of some 
riots, the consul Opimius pursued him so closely, that to avoid 
falling into his bands, he accomplished his own death, by the 
assistance of a servant. 

§ The Gracchi were sons of Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Afri- 
can us, the conqueror of Hannibal. She was left a widow with twelve 
children. The following circumstance places her character in a very 
favourable light. A lady once came to visit her, who prided herself 
much on her jewels, and after shewing them to Cornelia, asked to 
see hers in return. Cornelia waited till her sons came home from 
school, and then presenting them to her guest, said, " Behold, madam, 
these are my jewels." 

The interference of Tiberius, her elder son, in behalf of 'the poor, 
had given great offence to the rich. At a public meeting he chanced 
to put his hand to his head, and those who wished his downfall im- 
mediately said that he was desirous of a crown, and in the uproar 
that ensued, he lost his life. 

At his death, the populace placed his younger brother at their 
head. Caius Gracchus was only 21 at this time, and had lived a life 
of great retirement, yet he did much good, and caused many useful 
acts to be passed. He was temperate and simple in his food, and of 
an active and industrious disposition. His love and respect for his 
mother were remarkable. At her request he withdrew a law he much 
desired to have passed : and so much was he esteemed, that a statue 
was erected to the memory of his mother, with this inscription, ' 

Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi," a tribute honourable to both 
parent and children. 

The tumults attending the attempts of the Gracchi to remove the 
corruptions of the higher orders at their expense, were a prelude to 



120 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IX. 

those civil disorders, which now rapidly followed to the end of the 
commonwealth. 

4. The Romans, though, corrupt at home, still displayed 
their valour abroad. Besides some small states which they 
had acquired on the north and east, they defeated Jugurtha, 
king of Numidia, about this time. The war with him com- 
menced 111 years B. C, and was finished under Marius 108 
B. C. The consequence to Jugurtha was the loss of his king- 
dom and life. t> 

After an engagement in which 90,000 of the Numidian 
army were slain, he was betrayed and made prisoner, and 
the senate finally condemned him to be starved to death in 
a dungeon. Jugurtha's own conduct occasioned his calamity, 
though the senate of Rome acted with singular cruelty. 

In this war Metellus the consul was leader at first, but 
Marius found means to supplant him, and to succeed in 
command. 

§ Jugurtha, who was grandson of the famous Massinissa, that 
sided against Hannibal, sought to usurp the crown of Numidia, by 
destroying his cousins, the sons of the late king. He succeeded in 
murdering the elder brother ; and the younger, applying for aid to 
Rome, failed of success, since Jugurtha bribed the senate, who de- 
creed to him the sovereignty of half the kingdom. 

He then made war upon his cousin, and finally put him also to 
death. The displeasure of the Roman people being excited by this 
conduct, the senate were constrained to summon him to Rome, to 
answer for his perfidy. He accordingly went thither, and pleading 
his own cause in person, he again, by bribery, secured the favour of 
die senate. 

A repetition of his base conduct in reference to his cousin, drew 
upon him, however, the vengeance of the Romans. Metellus was 
sent against him : and in the space of two years, Jugurtha was over- 
thrown in several battles, so that he was forced to negociate a peace. 
The negociation, however, was soon laid aside. 

Metellus had very much broken the strength of the Numidian 
king, before Marius succeeded to the command. Having by his arts 
ontained the consulship, Marius enjoyed the reputation of putting an 
end to the war. This man was the glory and the scourge of Rome. 
He was born of poor parents, and inured from infancy to penury 
and toil. His manners were as rude as his countenance was forbid- 
ding. 

He was thus prepared, however, to become a great general. His 
stature was extraordinary, his strength incomparable, and his bravery 
undaunted. When he entered the country of Jugurtha, he quickly 
made himself master of the cities that yet remained to the latter. 

Docchus, king of Mauritania, at first assisted this prince, but fear- 
ing at length for his own crown, and understanding that the Romans 



146—80 b. c. 121 

would be satisfied with the delivery of Jugurtha into their hands, he 
resorted to this treacherous measure, and the Numidian, dragged in 
chains to Rome, experienced the fate above recorded. 

5. After a short war with the Teutones and Cimbri, of 
whom several hundred thousands were slain under Marius, 
the Romans fell into a contention with the allied states of 
Italy. This was called the Social War, and was entered into 
on the part of the states, with a view to obtain the rights of 
citizenship, 91 years B. C. 

This war ended in an allowance of those rights, to such of 
the allies as should return to their allegiance. It cost the 
lives of 300,000 of the flower of Italy, and was conducted by 
the ablest generals, on both sides. 

6. Following this was the commencement of theMithridatic 
War, 89 years B. O. Sylla, who had distinguished himself in 
the social war, was appointed to the command of the expe- 
dition against Mithridates, to the great disappointment of Ma- 
rius. This measure was the foundation of those dreadful 
dissensions by which Rome became soon distracted. 

Within the space of three years, Sylla greatly humbled the 
power of Mithridates, and at the expiration of that time re- 
turned to Rome, burning with revenge against his enemies,— 
Marius and his accomplices. 

§ Mithridates was a powerful and warlike monarch, whose dominion 
at this time extended over Cappadocia, Bithynia, Thrace. Macedon, 
and all Greece. He was able to bring 250,000 infantry into the field, 
and 50,000 horse. He had also a vast number of armed chariots, 
and in his port 400 ships of war. 

The Romans desired to attack him, and they wanted no other pre 
tence, than his having invaded some of those states that were under 
the protection of Rome. Sylla entered with spirit on the war, and 
soon had an oppotunity to acquire glory by his arms. 

This general who now began to take the lead in the commonwealth, 
belonged to one of the most illustrious families in Rome. His person 
was elegant, his air noble, his manners easy and apparently sincere , 
he loved pleasure, but glory still more ; and fond of popularity, he de- 
sired to please all the world. He rose by degrees into office, and 
soon eclipsed every other commander. On this account he received 
the present appointment, in opposition to the claims of Marius. 

In the course of the war, which had now commenced in earnest. 
Mithridates having caused 150,000 Romans, who were in his domin- 
ions, to be slain in cold blood, next sent his general Archelaus to op- 
pose Sylla. Archelaus, however, was defeated near Athens, with the 
loss of an incredible number of his forces. 

Another battle followed, by which the Roman general recovered 
all the countries that had been usurped by Mithridates ; so that both 



122 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IX. 

parties desired a cessation of arms, Mithridates on account of his 
losses, and Syila on account of his designs against Marius. 

7. Before much progress was made in the Mithridatic war, 
the contention between Marius and Sylla had begun, 88 years 
B. C. Sylla having been recalled from Asia, refused to obey 
the mandate of the senate, and found his army well disposed 
to support him. They required their leader to march them 
to Rome. He accordingly led them on, and they entered the 
city sword in hand. 

Marius and his partisans, after some resistance, fled from the 
city, and Sylla ruled for a time in triumph. He soon returned, 
however, into Asia, to finish the war he had undertaken. In 
the mean time, the party of Marius recovered strength, and he 
returning to Italy, and joining his forces to those of China, his 
zealous partizan, laid siege to Rome. The city he compelled 
to absolute submission. 

After putting to death all whom they considered their ene- 
mies, they assumed the consulship. But Marius, in a fit of 
debauch, died a few days after ; and China at no great inter 
val followed, having been privately assassinated. 

§ After Sylla had entered Rome in arms, his object, with the excep- 
tion of a few vindictive measures, seemed to be to give peace to the city, 
and it was not until he had effected this object, as he supposed, that 
he departed upon his expediton against Mithridates. By confining 
his efforts solely against Marius, he had, however, overlooked a for- 
midable rising opponent in Cornelius China. 

This man, who was of noble extraction, ambitious, bold, and enter 
prising, had sufficient influence to raise an army with a view to con- 
tend against the supporters of Sylla. Just at this juncture, Marius, 
having escaped a thousand perils during his absence, returned, with 
his son, to the gates of Rome. An army of veterans and slaves, the 
latter of whom he had promised liberty, flocked to his standard, and 
burning with revenge, he entered Rome, having previously received 
the submission of the senate. 

Tragical occurrences followed ; for senators of the first rank were 
butchered in the streets, and every personal enemy which Marius or 
China had, that could be found, was put to death. In a month Mari- 
us died, having satisfied his two prevailing passions of ambition and 
revenge ; and while Cinna was preparing to meet Sylla in arms, he 
perished in a mutiny of his own soldiers, by an unknown hand. 

8. Sylla soon returned to Italy, victorious over his foreign 
enemy, and joined by Cethegus, Pompey, and other leade.s, 
gave battle to those Romans who had been opposed to him, 
and entirely defeated them. Rome now for the first time re- 
ceived a native master. A most dreadful massacre and pro- 



146—80 b. c. 123 

scription followed, in which Sylla designed to exterminate 
every enemy he had in Italy. 

§ The army opposed to Sylla was headed by young Marius, son of 
Caius, and although it was more numerous than that of Sylla, it was 
less united and disciplined. Several misfortunes, however, happen- 
ing to the forces of Marius, they soon yielded. 

A large body of the Samnites, who, at this time, were in the interest 
of Mo.r :, is, had carried the war to the gate of Rome. They were on the 
point of success, when Sylla met them, and a most obstinate contest 
ensued. Sylla found himself victorious. On the field of battle 50,000 
of the vanquished and the victors lay promiscuously in death. Sylla 
now became undisputed master of his country, and entered Rome at 
the heau vx *i«s army. 

But he entered it to accomplish the purposes of the direst revenge. 
A long list of senators, and Roman knights, together with an unnum 
bered multitude of the citizens, he caused to be put to death. This 
work of destruction he extended throughout the principal towns of 
Italy. He permitted his soldiers to revenge their private injuries, 
and thus almost indiscriminate massacres took place. 

9. Such violence, however, could be supported only by an 
increase of power. Accordingly Sylla invested himself with 
the Dictatorship, thus designing to give an air of justice to his 
monstrous oppressions. This dictatorship commenced 82 years 
B. C, and lasted not quite three years. Rome was now be- 
ginning to settle into a despotism, having passed through all 
the forms of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. From 
this time, though nominally a republic for a number of years, 
it never freed itself from the yoke of despotism. 

Sylla, as perpetual dictator, was without a rival in authority, 
and absolute master of the government. Every thing was 
done as he exacted. The least opposition aroused his ven- 
geance. The people saw nothing before them but the pros- 
pect of hopeless slavery, for, while they were amused with the 
show of their former government, Sylla took care that none 
but his own creatures should be elected to any office. 

It was at this crisis, however, that, contrary to all expecta- 
tion, Sylla laid down the dictatorship. The step was unac- 
countable, and the reasons of it have ever remained hidden 
from mankind. 

§ He retired in safety. Of all that great multitude which he had so 
often insulted and terrified, none were found hardy enough to reproach 
or accuse him, except one young man who pursued him, with bitter 
invectives, to his own door. 

Sylla, without replying to so low an adversary, turning to those 
who followed, observed, " That this fellow's insolence would, for the 



124 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IX. 

future, prevent any man's laying down an office of such supreme 
authority." 

Retiring into the country, in order to enjoy the pleasures of tran- 
quillity and social happiness, if such a wretch could enjoy either, he 
did not long survive his abdication, dying of a most filthy disease — a 
loathsome and mortifying object to human ambition. 

A little before his death lie made his own epitaph, the tenor of 
which was, " that no man had ever exceeded him in doing gocni to his 
friends, or injuries to his enemies." 

SYRIA. 

LO. The affairs of Syria, under the Seleucidse, or succes 
sors of Seleucus, to the end of this period, were in a very un- 
prosperous state. A succession of massacres and usurpations 
took place, till the time of Tigranes, king of Armenia, whom 
the Syrians invited to reign over them, 85 years B. C. Indeed 
Syria existed in independence but a few years after the pre- 
sent period, having been made a province of Rome soon after 
the commencement of the next succeeding period, viz. 64 
years B. C. 

§ The following are the names of some of the Seleueidae of the pre- 
sent era. The first was Demetrius Nicator, or the conqueror, who 
reigned five years, but was then confined to his palace for a long 
time. He afterwards recovered his dominions, and reigned four 
years. 

After him Tryphon usurped the sceptre, and reigned four years. 
He was at length killed by his own soldiers. 

Antiochus Sidetes, the second son of Demetrius Soter, next ascend- 
ed the throne of his ancestors. He made war against Jerusalem, and 
obliged it to capitulate, but he granted the Jews a peace upon reason- 
able conditions. 

In attempting to recover all the provinces that belonged to the Sy- 
rian empire, of which Parthia was one, he made war against Phraates, 
king of Parthia, but being obliged to separate his troops and put 
them into winter quarters, the inhabitants of the country resolved on 
their destruction, and massacred them all in one day. Including at- 
tendants, they amounted to 400,000 persons. 

After this prince were Seleucus V. Antiochus Gryphus, who reign- 
ed 29 years, Antiochus IX. who was slain by a son of Gryphus ; and 
one or two others whose names need not be mentioned. 

The Syrians having suffered so long, and so severely, under the 
turbulent princes of the race of Seleucus, resolved to exclude them 
from the throne. This they accomplished by sending an embassy to 
Tigranes, and inviting him to accept of the sovereignty. 

Tigranes complied with their request, and swayed the Syrian 
sceptre 18 years in perfect peace. Engaging afterwards in a war v*Lh 
the Romans, Lucullus the consul defeated him, and took the citj *f 
Tigranocerta, 69 years B. C. 



146— 80 b. c. n:i 

After this, Antiochus Asiaticus, a son of one of the former kings of 
Syria, was acknowledged as king by Lucullus, and reigned peace- 
ably for the space of four years ; but at the expiration of that time 
he was driven from the throne by Pompey, and Syria was reduced 
to a Roman province. 

JEWS. 

11. Pursuing the history of the Jews under the Maccabees 
it appears, that the brothers of Judas Maccabaeus availed 
themselves of their advantages with perseverance and suc- 
cess. By their exertions they established the independence of 
their country, and changed its republican government to a vi- 
gorous monarchy. 

John Hyrcanus, son of Simon Maccabeeus, uniting in his 
person the offices of high priest and generalissimo of the 
army, subdued the enemies of his country, ceased to pay ho- 
mage to the kings of Syria, firmly established his govern- 
ment, and is celebrated for his many valuable qualities, 135 
B. C. He reigned 2S years. 

His sons assumed the title as well as the power of kings ; 
and the high-priesthood remained in his family, though not 
in the person of the monarch. His descendants are distin- 
guished in the history of the Jewish nation, by the appella- 
tion of the Asmonean dynasty, which continued about 1 26 
years. The independence of Judea was, however, drawing 
near to its close, an event which will be noticed in the suc- 
ceeding period. 

■§ Concerning Hrycanus it may be further recorded, that he seized 
on several of the defenceless cities of Syria, and thus accomplished 
a complete deliverance of his nation from the oppression of Syria. 
He also made some conquests, both in Arabia and Phoenicia, turned 
his victorious arms against the Samaritans, and subdued Idumea. At 
the time of his death he had raised his nation to a considerable de- 
gree of wealth, prosperity, and happiness. 

Of Aristobulus, one of the sons that reigned after Hyrcanus, it is 
recorded that he caused his brother Antigonus to be killed on suspi- 
cion of disloyalty ; that his mother claiming a right to the sove- 
reignty by virtue of Hyrcanus' will, was barbarously starved to 
death, — and that her other sons were kept in close confinement. 

This tyrannical persecutor assumed the royal diadem, which had 
not been worn by any of his predecessors, and effected the conquest 
of Iturea. His successes, however, were soon interrupted by sick- 
ness ; and the deep remorse he felt on account of the treatment o f his 
mother, produced a vomiting of blood, which speedily close*' his 
wicked life and reign. 

L2 



126 ANCIENT HISTORY— PERIOD IX. 

EGYPT. 

12. Egypt, during this period, continued under the rule 
of the Ptolemsean dynasty. The nation increased in mag- 
nificence and consequence during the reigns of the Ptolemies. 
Their reigns, however, were disturbed by many plots and in- 
surrections, which arose between the different states over 
which the princes had dominion. 

These states were so numerous, as at one time to include 
33,333 well peopled cities. 

§ Of the first Ptolemy in this period, viz. Physcon, we remark, that 
tie was so called on account of his corpulency ; but the name which 
he assumed was Evergetes, or the Benefactor. This was changed by 
his subjects into Kakergetes, or the Evil Doer, for he was the most 
cruel, wicked, and despicable of the Ptolemies who swayed the Egyp- 
tian sceptre. 

He murdered the child of his wife Cleopatra in his mother's arms. 
He caused all persons to be put to death who had lamented the fate 
of the young prince, and gave free pennission to the foreigners who 
composed his guard, to plunder and massacre the inhabitants of 
Alexandria. That wealthy city was accordingly stript of its inhabi- 
tants, and repeopled by strangers whom he had invited thither. 

These, and many other enormities, rank him among the most bru- 
tal of mankind. Ptolemy Lathyrus succeeded Physcon. His mother 
Cleopatra, however, contrived to dethrone him, and to place his bro- 
ther Alexander on the throne. The latter retained the title of king 
18 years. After his death, Lathyrus re-assumed the government. 

To Lathyrus a most inhuman action is attributed, in his war with 
the Jews, on a certain occasion. Having taken up his quarters aftei 
a victorious battle, in the neighbouring villages of Judea, he caused 
all the female and infant inhabitants to be murdered, and their muti- 
lated limbs to be put into boiling caldrons, as if he designed to make 
a repast for his army. He wished to inspire the Jews with terror by 
representing their enemies as cannibals. 

PARTHIA. 

13. Parthia continued, during this period, to be governed 
by the Arsacidae, or descendants of Arsaces. This empire, 
which was greatly extended at one time, and which undei 
Mithridates I. enjoyed the height of its grandeur, was soon 
afterwards considerably abridged. The principal sovereigns 
during this peroid, were Phraates II. Artabanus II. and Mi- 
thridates II. 

§ Phraates II. when preparing to invade Syria at a certain time, 
found himself under the necessity of fighting the Scythians, whom 
he had called to his assistance against Antiochus, and to whom he 
refused to pay the promised sum, on account of their not arriving 
before the defeat of the Syrians 



146—80 b. c. 12? 

In order to strengthen his army he enlisted all the Greek merce- 
naries, who, following Antiochus, were prisoners ; but these Greeks 
having been treated with cruelty during their captivity, resolved to 
have revenge ; and in the first engagement deserted to the Scythians, 
and in conjunction with them attacked the Parthians, cut their army 
to pieces, killed the king, and ravaged their country. In this battle 
the Chinese also assisted the Scythians, which is their first appear- 
ance abroad, which history records. They had previously been con- 
fined to their own country in their wars and transactions. 

Distinguished Characters in Period IX. 

1 . Polybius, a learned historian, who wrote the history of the 
Greeks and Romans. 

2. Apollodorus, a Greek grammarian. 

3. Lucilius, an early Roman poet. 

4. Marius, a celebrated Roman general and consul. 

5. Sylla, an able general, eminent for his success and cru- 
elty in war. 

6. John Hyrcanus, a liberator of the Jews, and father of the 
Asmonean dynasty. 

§ 1. Polybius was a native of Arcadia, in Greece. He was initiated 
in the duties, and made acquainted with the qualifications of a states- 
man, by his father, the instructer of Philopoemen. He fought against 
the Romans in the war of Perseus, but was taken and brought pri- 
soner to Rome, where he was befriended by the younger Scipio. 

Polybius acquired an intimacy with the powerful Romans, and 
was present at the taking of Carthage and Numantia. After the death 
of Scipio, he retired to Megalopolis, where he died in his 82d year, 
about 124 years B. C. He wrote a universal history in Greek, divi- 
ded into 40 books, which began with the first Punic war, and finished 
with the conquest of Macedonia, by Paulus. 

The greatest part of this valuable history is lost. Five books, and 
numerous fragments, remain. It is highly authentic and accurate. 

2. Apollodorus flourished about 115 years B. C. He wrote a his- 
tory of Athens, besides other works. But of all his compositions no- 
thing is extant, except his Bibliotheca, a valuable work, divided into 
three books. 

3. Lucilius was a Roman knight, born at Aurunca, and distinguished 
by his virtuous and inoffensive character. He is considered as the 
first great satirical writer among the Romans, and indeed as the 
founder of satire. He was superior to his poetical predecessors at 
Rome ; he wrote with great roughness and inelegance, but with much 
facility, and he gained many admirers. 

Blackwell says, that he was " a writer of such keennes of temper 
and flowing wit, as fitted him to strike out a new road, never trod by 
poet before." Some, however, admired him beyond his real merits. 
Of 30 satires which he wrote, nothing but a few verses remains. H 
died at Naples in the 46th year of his age, 



128 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. 

4. Marius was born of obscure and illiterate parents, but became 
one of the most powerful and cruel tyrants, that Rome ever beheld 
during her consular government. He became seven times consul. 
He destroyed the Ambrones, Teutones, and Cimbri, who were pre- 
paring to invade Italy, and raised a civil war, to oppose the power ot 
Sylla, as has been narrated in this History. He died B. C. 86, after 
he had filled all Rome with blood. 

Among the instances which are mentioned of his firmness, this 
may be recorded. A swelling in the leg obliged him to apply to 
a physician, who urged the necessity of cutting it off. Marius gave 
it, and saw the operation performed without a distortion of the face, 
and without a groan. The physician asked the other, and Marius 
gave it with equal composure. 

5. Sylla was the inveterate enemy of Marius, between wham, as 
we have seen, the most bloody wars were waged. He was descended 
from a noble family, but was poor in early life. He afterwards be- 
came immensely rich. He first entered the army under Marius, as 
quajstor, in Numidia. He afterwards had the administration of the 
Mithridatic war. 

In his Mars with Marius, Sylla acted the tyrant to a terrible ex- 
tent, and the streets of Rome he filled with devastation and blood. 
As perpetual dictator, he exercised the most absolute authority ; but 
at length abdicated and died at Puteoli of a most loathsome disease, 
in his 60th year, 78 B. C. Mankind have never understood the cause 
of his abdication. He and Marius both sought in their last sickness 
to drown the stings of conscience by continual intoxication. 

6. John Hyrcanus was prince and high-priest of the Jews, after 
his father. He restored his nation to independence, from the power 
of Antiochus, king of Syria, and died 106 years B. C. He was illus- 
trious by his virtues, as well as by being the father of a race of princes. 
He was succeeded on the throne of Judea by a son of the same name. 



period x. 

Tlie period of RomanLiterature, extending from the first 
campaign of Julius Cccsar, 80 years B. C. to the nativity 
of Jesus Christ, or the commencement of the Christian era. 

ROME. 
Sect. I. Rome, at the commencement of this period, had 
greatly extended its dominions, and was fast becoming a uni- 
versal empire. Abroad the Romans triumphed — but at home 
their affairs were in a melancholy and distracted state. The 
form of public liberty remained, but the reality had principally 
departed. The civil dissensions of Marius and Sylla had pros- 
trated many of their most valuable institutions. 



SO b. c. 129 

Before these dissensions were brought to a close, a man be- 
gan to appear on the stage, who was destined to destroy the 
last remnant of the liberties of his country. This man was 
Julius Ceesar. In his first military enterprise, 80 years B. C, 
in the siege of Mytilene, under Thermus, the praetor of Asia, 
his bravery and talents were rewarded with a civic crown. 

Soon after this he returned to Rome to prosecute his studies', 
and for a time refused all interference in the feuds which were 
then prevailing. Before he had finished his studies, however, 
he raised troops to repress the incursions of Mithridates, and 
was successful in saving or rescuing several of the eastern 
provinces from his grasp. 

§ From this time his ambitious views were too apparent, and in seek- 
ing office and popularity, he was but too successful. He had escaped 
with difficulty the proscriptions of Sylla, who was persuaded to let 
him live, though that tyrant dreaded Caesar's abilities. 

Caesar was descended from one of the first families in Rome, and 
had married a daughter of Cinna. His powerful name and connex- 
ions he strengthened, by arts of the most consummate policy and ad- 
dress. His powers of mind were of the highest order, and he excelled 
in whatever branch of pursuit he engaged. 

He was in person slender, tall, and delicate, and was reputed to be 
the handsomest man in Rome. He had a habit of running his finger 
under the nicely adjusted curls of his head, when he appeared in pub- 
lic assemblies : this led Cicero to remark, " that one would hardly 
imagine that under such a fine exterior, there was hatching the de- 
struction of the liberties of Rome." 

Of his feats in war, and the important part he acted in the common- 
wealth, we shall have occasion to speak, in following the order of 
events. 

2. After the death of Sylla, contention broke out anew ; 
for the terror of his power had created a short interval of a 
dreadful repose. 

Catulus and Lepidus settled their difficulties only by arms — 
and the War of Sertorious, and the Servile War ensued. These, 
however, were safely terminated after a few years. The w r ar 
of Sertorius commenced 77 years B. C. The Servile War 
commenced 73 years B. C. 

§ Lepidus, who was consul, wishing to annul all the acts of Sylla, 
was opposed by his colleague Catulus. To carry his point he found 
it necessary to use force, and accordingly he raised an army in his 
government of Gaul, with which he approached, in hostile array, to- 
wards Rome. 

Catulus, to whom Pompey and his forces were joined, met him at 
the Milvian Bridge, two miles from Rome, and gave him battle. Lq- 



130 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. 

pidus was entirely defeated, and escaping into Sardinia, soon died of 
grief. His party, however, did not expire with him. 

A more dangerous enemy still remained in Spain. This was Ser- 
torius, a veteran soldier, who had been bred under Manns, his equal 
m courage — his superior in virtue. Banished from Rome by Sylla, 
he had found a refuge in Spain, whither all, who fled from Sylla> 
cruelty, resorted to him. Having gained the affections of its warlike 
nhabitants, he resisted, during eight years, the Roman power. 

Metellus, and afterwards Pompey, were sent to bring him to sub- 
mission, but he often came off victorious, and was even threatening 
to invade Italy, when he was, suddenly destroyed by the treachery 
of one of his lieutenants. The revolted provinces of Spain quickly 
submitted to Pompey. 

The Servile War took its rise from a few gladiators, who broke 
from their fencing-school at Capua, and having drawn a number of 
slaves after them, overthrew the force that was sent against them, 
and from this success, their number soon increased to an army of 
40,000 men. 

With this strength, and headed by Spartacus, their general, they 
sustained a vigorous war of three years in the very heart of Italy, 
and even talked of attacking Rome ; but Crassus, having assembled 
all the forces in the neighbourhood of the capital, destroyed the 
greatest part of them, and among them Spartacus, fighting bravely 
to the last. 

3. The War which had been carried on against Mithrida- 
tes, and which Sylla had suspended by means of a peace, 
was renewed about this time, 72 years B. O. This was one 
of the most important Avars which the Romans ever waged. 
Mithridates defeated the successor of Sylla, and contracting 
an alliance with Tigranes, king of Armenia, began to be quite 
formidable to the power of Rome. 

Lucullus, however, an experienced general, was sent against 
him, and defeated him in several engagements, with immense 
loss. Tigranes also felt the weight of the Roman arm ; and 
both, doubtless, would have been obliged soon to sue for peace, 
had not Lucullus, by means of intrigue, been deposed from 
his command, and Glabrio appointed in his stead. 

After this, Mithridates met with success again, till Pompey 
was appointed to take the command against this powerful 
enemy of Rome. Under the auspices of this great generol. 
the Roman arms were completely victorious, and the wai 
terminated about 63 years B. C, with the death of Mithri- 
dates. 

§ Mithridates was the undaunted enemy of Rome during 25 years. 
His resources in wealth and soldiers were great, and his bravery and 
talents were equal to his resources. The Roman general with whom 



80 b. c. 131 

he had finally to contend, was an antagonist worthy of him, kn every 
respect. Pompey had already become a favourite hero of the Ro- 
man people. 

He had generally been successful in his military enterprises, and 
in the commission which he had recently received of managing the 
war against the pirates of the Mediterranean, he had shewn equal 
intrepidity and skill. Pleased with his success, the people had en- 
trusted to'him the sole management of the Mithridatic war, with an 
almost unlimited authority. 

His power would have rendered him extremely dangerous to the 
liberties of his country, had he been an enemy to those liberties. But 
though highly ambitious, he was desirous rather of glory than of do- 
minion. He wished to be the first man in the state, and for this rea- 
son entered into a contest with CrassuS for the favour of the people, 
as he afterwards fought against Caesar, in behalf of the republic. 

In the Mithridatic war he manifested his qualities as a general. 
He first proposed terms of accommodation to Mithridates. But 
these were refused ; and the king, collecting an army from the wrecks 
of his former power, was about to carry the war into Armenia. In 
this project, however, he was disappointed, and was obliged to flee. 

Pompey, nevertheless, overtook him before he had time to pass the 
Euphrates. It was then night, but being compelled to engage, it is 
said the moon, shining from behind the Roman army, lengthened 
their shadows so much, that the archers of Mithridates shot their ar- 
rows at these, mistaking the shadow for the substance. 

He was overthrown with great loss ; but he broke through the Ro- 
man army with a few hundred horse, and escaped. Here, after wan- 
dering through the forests several days, leading his horse, and sub- 
sisting on fruits which were found in his way, he met with a few 
thousand of his troops that had survived the engagement, who con- 
ducted him to one of his magazines, containing the treasures deposi- 
ted to support the war. 

After this he sought aid from several princes ; but though lie failed 
in this attempt, and though he was betrayed by his unnatural son, he 
still aimed at great designs, and even in the heart of Asia, he pro- 
jected the invasion of the Roman empire. Upon being apprized of 
his intentions, a mutiny ensued, which was promoted by his son. 

Being obliged to take refuge in his palace, he sent to his son for 
leave to depart, with offers of the remnant of his kingdom to him. 
The monster, however, denied this request, and sternly conveyed a 
message to the old man, intimating that death was now all that he 
could expect. 

This instance of filial ingratitude aggravated all his other calami- 
ties ; and he sought for his wives, children, and himself, a voluntary 
death. They all readily consented to die with their monarch, rather 
than to undergo the horrors of a Roman captivity. 

4. After defeating Mithridates, Pompey made very nume- 
rous and extensive conquests, setting up and deposing kings 
at his pleasure,. He at length marched against Jerusalem, 



132 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. 

and after besieging it three months, took it — 12,000 of its 
defenders having lost their lives. He then returned to Rome, 
enjoying the most splendid triumph that ever entered its 
gates, 61 years B. C. 

§ Darius, king of Media, and Antiochus, king of Syria, were compel- 
led to submit to the clemency of Pompey, while Phraates, king of 
Parthia, was obliged to retire, and send to entreat peace. From 
thence, extending his conquest over the Thurasans and Arabians, he 
reduced all Syria and Pontus into Roman provinces. 

In his conquest of Jerusalem after gratifying his curiosity with the 
holy things of the place, he restored Hyrcanus to the priesthood and 
government, and took Atistobulus with him to grace his triumph. 
This triumph lasted two days. In it were exposed the names of 15 
conquered kingdoms, 800 cities taken, 29 cities repeopled, and 1000 
castles brought to acknowledge the empire of Rome. 

The treasures that were brought home amounted to near 20,000,000 
of our money ($ ;) and the trophies and other splendours of the pro- 
cession, were such, that the spectators seemed lost in the magnificent 
profusion. The glory, rather than the real prosperity of Rome, was 
increased by these victories. While Pompey and the Roman arms 
were triumphant abroad, the city was near its ruin, by means of a 
conspiracy in its very bosom. 

5. Sergius Catiline, a patrician by birth, at this time, (B. C. 
64) plotted the downfall of his country. His object was to 
rise on its ruins to wealth and power ; and accordingly asso- 
ciating with him a number of ambitious, profligate characters 
like himself, he hoped to throw Rome and all Italy into a state 
of tumult and insurrection, and to destroy the lives of the most 
distinguished of the citizens. 

But the vigilance of Cicero, who was consul, frustrated this 
horrible project. Taking the necessary precautions, he secured 
the conspirators that were in Rome, and ordered them to exe 
cution, according to law. Catiline, who had fled, soon raised 
an army, and coming to battle with the forces of the republic, 
he was overthrown, and himself and his whole army were 
given to the sword. 

Cicero, by his abilities, patriotism, and zeal for the public 
good, was raised to the most enviable height of glory and re- 
nown. 

6. Pompey, after his triumphal entrance into Rome, sought 
to be the first man in the republic. His contention was more 
particularly with Crassus, who, on account of his wealth, 
possessed an influence at this time next to that of Pompey. 



80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 133 

Caesar, who was also aspiring after the same distinction, sought 
to accomplish his object by uniting these rivals. 

This union he brought to pass, and thus he avoided making 
himself an enemy to either of them, and enjoyed ttaj favour 
of both. From a regard to their mutual friend, Pompey and 
Crassus agreed to a partition of power with Caesar, and thua 
was formed the First Triumvirate, B. C. 59. 

Caesar was chosen consul. He increased his popularity, by 
a division of lands among the poorer citizens, and strengthened 
his interest with Pompey, by giving him his daughter in 
marriage. The coalition between Pompey, Crassus, and 
Caesar, constituted a power distinct from the senate or the peo- 
ple, and yet dependent on both. It was exceedingly detri- 
mental to the public liberties. 

7. Having divided the empire between them, these three 
individuals prepared for their respective destinations. Caesar, 
however, previously to his departure, had the address to pro- 
cure the banishment of Cicero from Rome, and thus removed 
one of the greatest obstacles to his career of ambition. He ac- 
complished this object by means of his partizans, particu- 
larly Clodius, the tribune, 58 years B. C. 

The pretext for this base act, was the illegality of certain 
measures pursued in the suppression of Catiline's conspiracy. 
Through the interest of Pompey, however, Cicero was at 
length recalled from exile, with distinguished honour. 

§ Cicero continued to be the watchful guardian of the few remaining 
Liberties of his country. He was the greatest man of the Romans, if 
not of all antiquity. His virtues were as conspicuous as his talents. 
He appeared, however, to have one foible, and that was vanity. He 
desired to unite in his character incompatible qualities ; and to be 
thought not only the greatest orator, but the greatest jester in 
Rome. 

In his zeal for the public good, Caesar had reason to fear him. To 
procure his banishment from the city, he favoured the designs of 
Clodius, who was Cicero's inveterate enemy, and in this he was 
joined by Pompey. Clodius, as tribune, caused a law to be passed, 
importing that any who had condemned a Roman citizen unheard, 
should himself be banished. This was designed to have a bearing 
on Cicero, in regard to his proceedings against Catiline. 

Being impeached on this law, Cicero was banished 400 miles from 
Italy, his houses were ordered to be demolished, and his goods set 
up for sale. In vain did he protest against the iniquitous sentence ; 
the people had ungratefully forgotten their benefactor, and sixteen 
months did he spend in solitude and grief, He bore his exile with 
tlte greatest impatience. M 



134 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. 

Pompey, who had concurred in the banishment of Cicero, at 
'ength saw his mistake in the growing reputation and power of his 
rival, Caesar. To prop his own sinking fortunes, he needed the aid of 
Cicero, and interceding in his favour, procured his recall to Rome, 
57 B. C-4 

8. Caesar, wlio had the government of Transalpine Gaul 
and Ulyria, nobly sustained the military glory of his country, 
in the wars which he waged on its account. In Gaul. Ger- 
many, and Britain, he spread the terror of his arms. His 
landing on the British isles, and his success in subduing the 
savage and hardy natives, is a memorable event in history. 

His invasion of Britain took place 55 years B. C; and his 
subjugation of a considerable part of the country was effected 
at two different times, in the course of one year, 54 B. 0. But 
the urgency of affairs at home, delayed the progress of his 
arms in Britain. 

§ Cassar, in the first year of his government, subdued the Helvetii, 
who had left their own country, and attempted to settle themselves 
in the more inviting regions of the Roman provinces. Two hundred 
thousand of their number perished. The Germans, with Ariovistus 
at their head, were next cut off. The Belgae, Nervii, the Celtic 
Gauls, the Suevi, and other warlike nations, were all successively 
brought under subjection. 

At length, urged by the desire of conquest, he invaded Britain. 
But upon approaching the shores, he found them covered with men 
to oppose his landing, and it was not without a severe struggle, that 
the natives were put to flight. Having obtained other advantages 
over them, and bound them to obedience, he passed over to the conti- 
nent during winter quarters, meditating a return in the spring. 

The absence of the conqueror inspired the Britons, naturally fond 
of liberty, with a resolution to renounce the Roman power. But in 
a second expedition, Caesar so intimidated them with repeated victo- 
ries, that they no longer resisted in the plains, but fled to the forests. 
Here, however, they were unsafe, and soon yielded to the necessity 
of suing for a peace. 

In the course of nine years this ambitious general and waster of 
hum^n life conquered, together with Britain, all that country which 
extends from the Mediterranean to the German sea. It is said that 
he took 800 cities ; subdued 300 different states j overcame 3,000,000 
men, 1,000,000 of whom fell on the field of battle, and the remainder 
made prisoners of war. Notwithstanding the plaudits of the world, 
how little glory was there in all this ! 

9. The death of Crassus, which occurred in an expedition 
against the Parthians, 53 years B. C, put an end to the 
Triumvirate. After this event, Ccesar and Pompey, whose 
union was far from being sincere, began each to entertain the 
idea of supreme, undivided dominion, t Both were extremely 



80 B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 135 

powerful ; but Ceesar had superior talents, and an invinciblo 
army devoted to his interests. The main body of the people 
were also in favour of Caesar who had won them by his libe- 
rality. 

The strength of Pompey lay in the favour of the consuls, 
and the good wishes of the Roman senate ; and several legions 
were also at his command. In attitudes so imposing, and 
with resources so vast, it is not surprising that, in those dege- 
nerate times, each should be encouraged to expect the posses- 
sion of supreme power. 

The contest for superiority was not long a contest of plans 
and feelings merely — it soon became a contest of blows. The 
result of this terrible civil war was disastrous in the extreme 
to Pompey and the republic. At Pharsalia, in Thessaly, 
Caesar and Pompey met in battle, in which Pompey was en- 
tirely defeated, with the loss of 15,000 men killed, and 24,000 
taken prisoners, 48 years B. C. Being soon after in the power 
of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, to whom he had fled for protec- 
tion, he was basely murdered. 

§ Near the expiration of the term of his government, Caesar applied 
to the senate to be continued in his authority. This application the 
senate refused. Caesar then determined to appeal to arms for what 
he chose to consider as his right. Having, by the sanction of an 
oath, engaged the services of his army in his favour, he began to draw 
towards the confines of Italy, and passing the Alps with his third 
legion, stopped at Ravenna, from whence he wrote a letter to the 
consuls, declaring that he was ready to resign all command, if Pom- 
pey would show equal submission. 

But the senate being devoted to Pompey, was determined to de- 
prive Caesar of his command, and consequently passed a decree, by 
which he was to be considered an enemy to the commonwealth, if 
he did not disband his army within a limited time. 

Caesar, nothing at all intimidated or deterred from his project, 
marched his army to the Rubicon, a small river which formed the 
boundary between Italy and Gaul. This boundary the Romans 
considered as sacred, and not to be passed with impunity, since they 
had solemnly devoted to the infernal gods, and branded with sacri- 
lege and parricide, any person who should presume to pass it, with 
an aiwy, a legion, or even a single cohort. 

At this spot, he for a moment hesitated, as if profoundly impressed 
with the fearful consequences which must result from the step he was 
about to take. His misgivings, however, subsiding, he said to one of 
his generals, "the die is cast," and putting spurs to his horse, he 
plunged in, and with his soldiers soon gained the opposite shore. 

Terror and indignation seized the citizens of Rome, as the news 
of this transaction reached their ears. Pompey was not in sufficient 



136 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD X. 



force to meet the enemy, and accordingly quitted the city, and led his 
soldiers to Capua, where he had two legions. From that place he 
passed over at length into Macedonia, followed by the consuls, and a 
large body of the senators. At the same time, he caused levies to be 
raised over both Italy and Greece. 

In two months, Caesar having made himself master of all Italy, 
entered Rome in triumph, to the great joy of most of the people. He 
secured to himself the supreme authority and the public treasures 
and having made profession of respect for the citizens and liberties 
of Rome, and adjusted the concerns of the city, he left it in a few 
days, and set out to take the field against his enemies. 

The lieutenants of Pompey having possession of Spain, Caesai 
marched directly thither, leading his army again over the lofty Alps 
In the course of 40 days he subdued the whole country, and return 
ed victorious to Rome, where, during his absence, he had been nomi 
nated dictator. He was soon after chosen consul also. His dictator 
ship he relinquished at the expiration of eleven days. 

In the meantime, Pompey's preparations were such as became th» i 
crisis which was approaching. He had received from the sovereigns 
of the East very considerable supplies, as well as the assurances of their 
friendship. He was master of nine Italian legions, and had a fleet of 
500 large ships, under the conduct of an experienced commander. 

The nobles and most distinguished citizens of Rome, flocked daily 
around his standard ; and he had at one time above 200 senators in 
his camp, among whom were the great names of Cicero and Cato. 
Pompey's party glorying in their numbers and strength, were confi- 
dent of success. 

Caesar, with a courage bordering on rashness, immediately sought 
his rival, and desired to bring him to an engagement. Near Dyrra- 
chium the opposing armies were so situated that it became necessary 
to fight. The result was by no means decisive, though it was favoura- 
ble on the whole to Pompey, who afterwards led his troops to Phar- 
salia. 

Previously to this encounter, a circumstance took place, displaying 
the lofty spirit of Caesar. For the purpose of hastening the arrival 
of a reinforcement, he conceived the design of passing over to Brun- 
dusium in the night, by embarking in a fisherman's boat at the mouth 
of the river Apsus. This he accordingly did with great secrecy, 
having disguised himself in the habit of a slave. 

When they had rowed off a considerable way, the wind suddenly 
changed against them — the sea began to rise in billows, and the storm 
increased to an alarming degree. The fisherman, who had rowed 
all night with extreme labour, was often inclined to put back, but 
was dissuaded b3^ his passenger. At length, however, he conceived 
himself unable to proceed, and yet he was too distant from land to 
hope for making good his return. 

In this moment of despair he was about to give up the oar, and 
commit himself to the mercy of the waves, when Caesar discovering 
himself, commanded him to row boldly — " Fear nothing," cried he. 
" you carry Caesar and his fortune." The fisherman was encourageo 



SO B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 137 

to proceed, but the wind finally forced them to make for land, and 
return. 

Soon after the affair at Dyrrachium, the hostile armies found them- 
selves on the plains of Pharsalia. Caesar invited and provoked a 
battle, by all the arts in his power. Pompey had secured an advan- 
tageous situation, and it was by the artifice of decamping and indu- 
cing the enemy to follow him, that Caesar drew him from it. 

When Caesar perceived the effect of his stratagem, with joy in his 
countenance he informed his soldiers that the hour was come which 
was to crown their glory, and terminate their fatigues. His forces, 
however, were much exceeded by those of Pompey, who led an 
army of 45,000 footmen, and 7000 horse, while the troops of Caesar 
did not number more than 23,000 men, only 1000 of whom were 
cavalry. But they were better disciplined than those of Pompey. 

Awful was the moment of meeting. The armies were both Roman, 
mingled indeed with foreigners, and the first in the world — the leaders 
were consummately brave, and the interest at stake was the dominion 
of Rome. Every heart was fired and every arm nerved. The generals 
both addressed their armies previously to the engagement, and urged 
them to sustain the reputation of their ancient bravery. 

The battle commenced on the part of Caesar. But the cavalry of 
Pompey were too numerous for their adversaries. Caesar's men were 
forced to retire. Their general had foreseen this result, and had made 
the requisite disposition of his forces. Six cohorts in reserve, who 
had been ordered to discharge their javelins at the faces of Pompey's 
cavalry, were, at this crisis, brought up to the engagement. The sin- 
gle circumstance of the manner of their fighting determined the fate 
of the battle. Pompey's cavalry, who consisted of the younger part 
of the Roman nobility, valued themselves upon their beauty, and 
dreaded a scar in the face, more than a wound in the body. They 
were therefore frightened from the field by the unusual mode of at- 
tack, and thus the day was lost to Pompey and the republic. 

The loss of Caesar was inconsiderable, 200 men only being slain. 
His clemency towards his vanquished enemies deserves to be noticed. 
Most of the prisoners he incorporated with the rest of his army, and 
to the senators, and Roman knights, who fell into his hands, he gave 
liberty to retire whithersoever they pleased. The letters which Pom- 
pey had received from several persons who wished to be thought neu- 
tral, Caesar committed to the flames without reading them, as Pom- 
pey had done upon a former occasion. 

Caesar followed up his victory with the greatest energy, and after 
Pompey's flight instantly pursued him. He did not however over- 
take him alive. Pompey had been destined to suffer the extremity )!i 
misery. His fall was from the summit of power to the most abjeei 
dependence, and it was as sudden as it was terrible. Escaping from 
the field of battle, and wandering along the beautiful vale of TemsA. 
in the greatest agony of mind, he finally found the means of sailing 
to Lesbos, where he had left his wife Cornelia. 

Their meeting was tender and distressing to the last degree. The 
news, of her reverse of fortune had caused Cornelia to faint, and for 

M2 



L38 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. 

a considerable time life appeared to be extinguished. At length re- 
covering herself, she ran quite through the city to the sea-side. Pom- 
pey received her without speaking a word, and for some time sup- 
ported her in his arms, with silent anguish. When words found 
their way, the tenderest expressions of affection and grief were mu- 
tually uttered. 

But it became necessary to flee, and sailing to the coast of Egypt, 
they sought the protection of Ptolemy, whose father had formerly 
found in Pompey a benefactor. The ministers of the king wishing 
to court the favour of Caesar, basely proposed to receive and then 
murder their guest, as he approached the shore. This diabolical coun- 
sel prevailing, Achillas, and Septimius, the latter by birth a Roman, 
were appointed to carry it into execution. 

Accordingly, in the very sight of Cornelia, as Pompey arose to go 
ashore, supporting himself upon his freedman's arm, Septimius stab- 
bed him in the back ; when the warrior, perceiving what would be his 
fate, silently resigned himself to it, at the same time muffling his face 
with his robe. 

The freedman of Pompey, after the people had retired, found the 
means of burning the body of his master, from which the head had 
been separated, and over the tomb the following inscription was 
afterwards placed : " He whose merits deserve a temple, can now 
scarcely find a grave." Caesar soon reached Egypt ; but the head of 
Pompey, which was immediately presented to him, and from which 
he turned his face in horror, informed him, that he had now nothing 
to fear from a man who had so lately contended with him for the em- 
pire of the world. 

10. War was Caesar's element. He found an occasion of 
gratifying his ruling passion in Egypt. In a contest between 
Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra, he interposed in behalf of 
the latter, and at length brought Egypt under the Roman 
yoke, 48 B. C. In two years after, he subdued Pharnacesj 
king of Pontus. 

§ Cleopatra, though sister to Ptolemy, was nevertheless married to 
him, and both jointly held the throne. The ambition of Cleopatra 
prompted her to aspire after undivided authority. The charms of 
her person were unequalled, and conquering even the conqueror of 
the world, they engaged him in a war which was alike easy and de- 
sirable. After the reduction of Egypt, Ca3sar, forgetful of the re- 
spect due to his character, abandoned himself to pleasure in the com- 
pany of Cleopatra. 

From such a course, however, he soon broke off, for hearing of the 
revolt of Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, who had seized upon Chal- 
cis and Armenia, he bent his way thither. In the battle of Zela, he 
signally chastised the offending monarch. " I came, I saw, I conquer- 
ed/' is the expressive language in which his report was conveyed to 
the Roman senate. 

11. Leaving the scene of conquest in the East, Caesar lias- 



80 B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 139 

tened to Rome, where his presence was greally needed. An- 
tony, who acted as his deputy, had created disturbances which 
Caesar only could quell. Italy was divided, and the party of 
Pompey was yet extremely formidable. Caesar, however, soon 
restored tranquillity to Rome. 

But at this time the two sons of Pompey, with Cato and 
Scipio, were in arms in Africa, assisted by Juba, king of Mau- 
ritania; thither Caesar hastened, and at Thepsus, meeting them 
in battle, overthrew them with little or no loss on his side. 
Scipio, in attempting to escape into Spain, fell among the 
enemy, and was slain. Cato, confining himself in Utica, at 
first thought of resisting the victorious Caesar, but finding his 
followers irresolute, he deliberately put an end to his own life. 
This event finishing the war in Africa, Caesar returned in 
triumph to Rome, 45 years B. C. By an unparalleled display 
of magnificence and by unbounded liberality, he courted and 
obtained the favour of the great body of the people. Almost 
every honour and title was conferred upon him. He was 
styled father of his country, was created perpetual dictator, 
received the title of emperor, and his person was declared 
sacred. 

§ The story of Cato is deeply tragical. This extraordinary man dis- 
played at once the firmness and the depravity of his nature. When 
he found it in vain to attempt to animate his soldiers against Caesar, 
he resolved to die. After supping cheerfully, he came into his bed- 
chamber, where he laid himself down, and with deep attention, read 
some time Plato's Dialogue on the immortality of the soul. 

Perceiving soon that his sword had been removed from the head of 
his bed, he made inquiries respecting it of his domestics ; but while 
he was like to obtain no satisfaction from them, his son, who had 
caused it to be taken away, entered with tears, and besought him, in 
the most humble and affectionate manner, to change his resolution ; 
but receiving a stern reprimand, he desisted from his persuasions. 

His sword being at length handed to him, his tranquillity returned, 
and he cried out, " Now am I master of myself." He then took up 
the book again, which he read twice over, and fell into a profound 
sleep. Upon waking, he made some inquiry of one of his freedmen, 
respecting his friends, and then shutting himself up in the room 
alone, he stabbed himself; but the wound not being immediately mor- 
tal, with a most ferocious resolution, he tore out his own bowels, and 
died as he had lived, a stoic. By this deed he has blackened his cha- 
racter, to all futurity. */L 

12. The state of affairs in Spain called Caesar again into 
that country, 45 years B. C. Two of the sons of Pompey 
were in arms, and it was not without severe fighting that 



140 ANCIENT HISTORY— PERIOD X. 

tteesar subdued the remnant of his enemies in Spain. He re 
turned to Rome to receive new demonstrations of the almost 
slavish homage of its citizens. 

Finding himself in peace, he tamed his attention more than 
ever to the improvement of the empire. He affected great 
moderation in the enjoyment of his power, though he was evi- 
dently eager of its acquisition. He however turned it to a 
good account He made no discriminations between his 
friends and foes : he was liberal alike to both. He adorned 
the city with magnificent buildings, undertook to level several 
mountains in Italy, and to drain the Pontine marshes, impro- 
ved the navigation of the Tiber, reformed the calendar, and 
meditated distant conquests. 

13. His brilliant course, however, Was destined shortly to 
end. He was suspected of aiming at royalty ; and though 
many of the people felt greatly obliged by his clemency and 
munificence, yet they detested the name of king. This cir- 
cumstance urged 60 of the senators, who were actuated by 
the love of liberty, though some of them seem to have been 
impelled also by private resentment, to league together with 
a view to deprive him of his life. This they accomplished in 
the senate house on the ides (15th) of March, in the 56th year 
of his age, 44 B. C. 

§ Caesar enjoyed all the power of a monarch j and though he might, 
in the first instance, have ambitiously sought it, yet it was conferred 
or allowed by the free consent Of the people. But the name of king 
was not to be endured. The particular occasion of envy or alarm 
among the friends of liberty, was the neglect, on the part of Caesar, of 
rising from his seat, when the senate was conferring upon him some 
Special honours. 

From that time it began to be rumoured that he was about to take 
the title of king. Whether such was his purpose cannot now be de- 
termined, though it cannot be well conceived why he should desire 
that empty honour, when he possessed the reality. The conspiracy 
■Which was formed against him, was headed by Brutus and Cassius, 
the one his friend — the other his enemy. Brutus owed his life to 
the clemency of Caesar, whom the latter spared at the battle of Phar- 
salia ; and he Was not destitute of a strong personal attachment to 
the dictator. 

The conspiracy which had been formed, happened in some way 
or other to be known by two or three individuals ; but the means ta- 
ken to apprize Caesar of it, failed. As he proceeded to the senate, on 
the daj agreed Upon by the conspirators, a slave hastened to carry 
him information, but could not come near him for the crowd. Arte- 
midorus, a great philosopher, who had discovered the whole plot, do- 



80 B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 141 

livered him a memorial, but Caesar gave it, with other papers, to one 
of his secretaries, without reading it. 

As soon as he had taken his place, the conspirators came near him 
under pretence of saluting him ; and Cimber, who was one of them, 
pretending to sue for his brother's pardon, approached in a suppliant 
posture, and so near as to take hold of the bottom of his robe, which 
prevented Caesar from rising. 

This was the signal agreed on. Casca, who was behind, stabbed 
him, though slightly, in the shoulder. Caesar instantly turned round 
and wounded him in the arm. However, the conspirators were now 
all in action, and surrounded him. He received a second stab in the 
breast, while Cassius wounded him in the face. Still he defended 
himself with great vigour, rushing among them, and throwing down 
such as opposed him, till seeing Brutus who had struck a dagger in 
his thigh, he yielded himself to his fate, first exclaiming to his friend, 
in a subdued and languishing tone, " And you, too, my son !" 

He fell, covered with his robe, before him, and pierced with 23 
wounds. 

The character of a despot and conqueror, as such, is to be detest- 
ed. Caesar enslaved his country, and waded to dominion through 
rivers of blood. His elevation cost the lives of 1,200,000 human be- 
ings. We may be permitted to express our abhorrence of such con- 
duct, and to regret that transcendant talents (for such he possessed) 
should have been perverted to so base a purpose. 

The darkness of this picture is however relieved by some lines of 
light — if it were not so, Caesar would have been a monster. Besides 
the splendid endowments of his genius, he was distinguished by 
liberality, clemency, and modesty. He always spared a vanquished 
enemy ; and perhaps no despot, in his personal feelings and private 
character, was ever more amiable. How much then is it to.be lament- 
ed, that such qualities should have been united to an insatiable am- 
bition ! 

14. The death of Csesar produced an unheard of crisis in 
human affairs. There was no longer any tyrant, yet liberty 
was extinct ; for the causes which destroyed it kept it from 
reviving. The senate and people mutually distrusted each 
other. There was a very general feeling of sorrow and in- 
dignation among the latter at the murder of Csesar, nor could 
the senate at all mitigate or repress it. 

Mark Antony, a man of consummate military talents, but 
profligate in the extreme, exposed the bleeding body of Csesar 
in the forum. This sight, together with the bloody robe, pro- 
duced an electric effect on the multitude, which was height- 
ed to an excessive degree, by means of an artful and inflam- 
matory harangue delivered by Antony on the occasion. The 
conspirators were obliged to flee the city in order to save their 
lives. 



142 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD X. 

At this juncture, (43 B. C) a second triumvirate was form- 
ed, consisting of Antony, already mentioned, Lepidus, who 
Was immensely rich, and Octavius, afterwards surnamed Au- 
gustus, who was Caesar's grand nephew and adopted heir. 
This was a most bloody triumvirate. As they divided the 
supreme authority among themselves, by concert, they stipu- 
lated that all their respective enemies should be destroyed, 
though those might happen to be the best friends of each as- 
sociate who was required to sacrifice them. 

§ Lepidus gave up his brother Paulus to the vengeance of one of his 
colleagues. Antony permitted the proscription of his uncle Lucius ; 
and Augustus, to his eternal infamy, sacrificed the great Cicero. 
Three hundred senators, and 2000 Roman knights, besides multitudes 
of worthy citizens, were included in this horrible proscription. 

15. The conspirators were not suffered long to escape the 
vengeance of the friends of Ceesar. Octavius and Antony 
now marched against them in Thrace, where they had a for- 
midable army of 100,000 men, commanded by Brutus and 
Cassius. An engagement took place at Philippi, 42 years 
B. C, which decided the fate of the empire. It was won by 
Octavius and Antony, or rather by Antony alone, for Octa- 
vius was destitute not only of military talents, but even of 
personal bravery. 

The death-blow was now given to Roman liberty. The 
republican party w T as entirely subdued, and Brutus and Cas- 
sius, its leaders, escaped the hands of their enemies, only by a 
voluntary death. 

§ The loss of the battle at Philippi by the republicans, was occasion- 
ed principally through the hasty despair of Cassius. Brutus, on his 
part, had been victorious, — Cassius had suffered a severe loss, but 
would have been relieved by Brutus, had he not ordered himself to 
be killed in the meantime, in consequence of having mistaken a body 
of Brutus's cavalry, who was approaching him, for that of the enemy. 

When Brutus was informed of the defeat and death of Cassius, he 
seemed hardly able to restrain the excess of his grief for a man, whom 
he called " the last of the Romans." He bathed the dead body with 
his tears. Antony offered him battle on the ensuing day ; but it was 
the policy of Brutus to delay, and even to attempt to starve his ene- 
my ; he probably might have done it. 

The soldiers of Brutus, however, urged a battle, nor would they 
submit to a refusal. After a respite of a few days, Brutus took the 
field. He fought with the resolution to conquer, but some unhappy 
movement of a part of his troops turned the fortune of the day, and 
fill was lost. He followed the fate of Cassius. 

Retiring out of the way of the enemy, with Strato, his master in 



80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 14$ 

oratory, he requested the latter to put an end to his life. After much 
solicitation Strato reluctantly assented, and averting his face, pre- 
sented the sword's point to Brutus, who threw himself upon it, and 
immediately expired. 

Octavius being sick at this time, took no part in the battle of Phi- 
lippi Indeed his presence, had it been afforded, would have been of 
little service to the combatants, since he possessed neither skill nor 
courage. He had, however, gained a large share of popularity with 
the Roman people, partly on account of his name, and his relation- 
ship to Caesar, and partly on account of his personal appearance, and. 
accomplishments. These were in the highest degree prepossessing. 

He was destined, as will soon appear, to be much more successful 
than the other Triumviri, and even at length to place himself at the 
head of the empire, 

16. The power of the Triumviri being- established upon 
the ruins of the commonwealth, they began to think of enr 
joying the homage to which they had aspired. Lepidus, howr 
ever, was soon deposed and banished. Antony took his way 
to the East, where, at Athens, he spent some time in philoso* 
phic retirement, and afterwards passed from kingdom to king^ 
dom, attended by a crowd of sovereigns, exacting contribu? 
tions, and giving away crowns with capricious insolence* 
While Octavius, with consummate art, was increasing his fa? 
vour with the people by his munificence, and contriving the 
means of attaining to supreme power, 

§ It may be necessary to observe here, that there were properly 
four individuals at this period, who were the masters of the Roman 
empire. Some time after the formation of the second triumvirate, 
Sextus Pompey, son of Pompey the Great, was admitted to a share 
of the authority and possessions of the state, in connexion with, the 
triumviri. 

An occasion of war soon occurring, Octavius had the good fortune 
to defeat Pompey in a naval engagement, through the skill and in? 
trepidity of Agrippa, his friend and associate in war. This event oc? 
curred 32 years B. C. Augustus had now no competitor for the em? 
pire of the world, save Mark Antony. 

17. Antony having summoned Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, 
to answer for her disaffection to the Roman cause, was caught 
in the toils of love by the artifices of the beautiful queen, In 
his infatuation he forgot ambition and empire, in devotion to 
the object of his guilty passion. Octavius saw in this mad? 
ness the presage of his ruin. 

On Cleopatra, her lover had lavished the provinces of the 
empire for which he was declared a public enemy, and as for 
ber sake he had divorced Octavia, the sister of Qctaviu^ th£ 



144 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD X. 

latter embraced the opportunity, which he had eagerly de- 
sired, of declaring war against him. 

An immense armament, principally naval, (the land for- 
ces being merely spectators,) came to an engagement near 
Actium, on the coast of Epirus, 31 years B. 0. The conflict 
was decisive. Cleopatra, who attended Antony, deserted him 
with her galleys, in the midst of the engagement. 

Such was his infatuation, that he immediately followed 
her, leaving his fleet, which after a contest of some hours, 
yielded to the squadron of Octavius. The conqueror pursued 
the fugitives to Egypt ; and the infamous Cleopatra proffered 
terms to Octavius, including the surrender of her kingdom 
and the abandonment of Antony. 

After an unsuccessful attempt at resistance, Antony antici- 
pated his doom by falling on his sword. Cleopatra also soon 
after saw fit to frustrate the design of Octavius, which was to 
carry her in chains to Rome as an ornament to his triumph, 
by seeking a voluntary death. 

Octavius was now left without a rival, with the government 
of Rome in his hands. Egypt, which had existed a kingdom 
from immemorial ages, from this time became a province of 
Rome, 30 years B. C. 

§ The story of Cleopatra will be briefly told under the history of 
Egypt for this period. Antony, her lover, had few superiors in war, 
and he was the idol of his army. He was, however, profligate in the 
extreme, and his infatuated conduct in relation to the Egyptian 
queen, while it showed the native strength and tenderness of his pas- 
sions, has imprinted an indelible stain on his character as a hero. 
His weakness in this respect was the cause of his ruin, and prevented 
the acquisition of universal empire, which he might perhaps have 
otherwise obtained. 

In the struggle between Antony and Octavius, the strength of the 
East and of the West were arrayed against each other. Antony's force 
composed a body of 100,000 foot, and 12,000 horse ; while his fleet 
amounted to 500 ships of war. The army of Octavius mustered but 
80,000 foot, but equalled his adversary in the number of his cavalry ; 
while his fleet was only half as large as Antony's ; but the ships 
were better built and better manned. 

The fortune of the day in the battle of Actium, was determined by 
the flight of Cleopatra with 60 galleys. Yet with this diminution of 
the fleet, and with the abandonment of it by Antony himself, it fought 
with the utmost obstinacy for several hours, till partly by the con- 
duct of Agrippa, and partly by the promises of Octavius, it submitted 
to the conqueror. The land forces of Antony soon followed the ex- 
ample of the navy, an^ yielded to Octavius without striking a blow. 



80 B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 145 

18. The Roman empire had now become the largest 
which the world had ever seen : and Octavius, now named 
Augustus, holding the principal offices of the state, was, in 
effect, the absolute master of the lives and fortunes of the Ro 
man people. During a long administration he almost effaced 
the memory of his former cruelties, and seemed to consult 
only the good of his subjects. j 

His reign constituted the era of Roman taste and genius, 
under the auspices of Mecaenas, his chief minister, who was 
the most eminent patron of letters recorded in history. 

Seventeen years before the close of his life and reign, ac- 
according to the true computation, (not the vulgar era,) our 
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ was born in Judea — an 
event more important than any other that ever took place in 
our world. 

§ Augustus pursued a pacific course, and restored order to the state 
During the period of his administration of the government, the tem- 
ple of Janus, which was shut only at the prevalence of general peace, 
was closed for the first time since the commencement of the second 
Punic war, and only the third time from the building of Rome. Itwas 
precisely at this happy and singular crisis of human affairs, that the 
birth of our blessed Saviour happened. 

The administration of Augustus was however fatal to liberty; 
though that circumstance itself tended to general tranquillity, since 
the corruption of manners required the most absolute restraint. By 
masterly strokes of policy, he united all interests and reconciled a 
differences. He disguised his new despotism, under names familiar 
and allowed by that constitution which he had destroyed. 

He claimed to himself the title of emperor, to preserve authority 
over the army ; he caused himself to be created tribune, to managv 
the people ; and prince of the senate, to govern that body. After he 
had fixed himself in the government, he long hesitated whether he 
should restore to Rome its liberty, or retain his present situation. The 
examples, and the differing fortunes of Sylla and Caesar, were before 
him, and operated on his hopes and fears. 

Disclosing his feelings to Agrippa, who had assisted him in gaining 
the empire, and to Mecaenas, his principal minister and adviser, the 
former suggested the wisdom of his resigning it — the latter dissuaded 
him from taking such a step. The opinion of Mecaenas, as it was on 
the whole more agreeable to Augustus, was followed, and perhaps 
mankind have little reason to regret it, considering what was the 
awful corruption of the times. 

Through the counsels of this great minister, Augustus fostered 
learning and the arts to the highest degree, and specimens of human 
intellect then appeared, which have rarely been equalled among man- 
kind. Genius enjoyed all the rewards and all the consideration that 
it could claim. 

N 



146 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. 

The authority which Augustus usurped, he, from policy, accepted 
only for a limited period, sometimes for ten, and sometimes for oiily 
five years ; but at the expiration of the term, it was regularly be- 
stowed upon him again. 

His situation, which was above all equality, generated virtues to 
which, in all probability, he was naturally a stranger. He sometimes 
condescended to plead before the proper tribunals, for those he de- 
sired to protect, for he suffered the laws to have their proper course. 
One of his veteran soldiers entreated his protection in a law-suit. 
Augustus, taking little notice of his request, desired him apply to an 
advocate. " Ah !" replied the soldier, " it was not by proxy that J 
served you at the battle of Actium." 

This reply p eased Augustus so much, that he pleaded his cause in 
person, and gained it for him. 

He was so affable, that he returned the salutations of the meanest 
person. One day a person presented him with a petition, but with 
so much awe, that Augustus was displeased with his meanness. 
" What ! friend," cried he, " you seem as if you were offering some- 
thing to an elephant, and not to a man : — be bolder." 

A part of his long reign of more than 40 years belongs to modern 
history, but we may here speak of it as entire. During the whole of 
it he cultivated the arts of peace. The wars which were carried on 
in the distant provinces aimed rather at enforcing submission, than 
at extending dominion. He was however successful in almost all of 
them. The defeat of his general, Varus, in Germany, was the most 
serious disaster which he experienced. The choicest troops of the 
empire constituted the army of Varus, and they were entirely cut off 
in the forests of that country. 

In his domestic life, Augustas was less happy and fortunate, than 
as master of the Roman peopie. His wife, Livia, was an imperious 
woman, and controlled him at her pleasure. Her son, Tiberius, who 
at length succeeded to the empire, possessed a suspicious and obsti- 
nate temper, and gave him so much uneasiness, that he banished him 
for five years at a distance from Rome. But his daughter, Julia, by 
his former wife, afflicted him more than all the rest, through her ex- 
cessive lewdness The very court where her father presided, was 
not exempt from ner debaucheries. 

Augustus lost a favourite son, who, it is supposed, was taken off by 
poison, lest he should supplant Tiberius. The emperor was often 
heard to exclaim, " How happy should I have been had I never had 
a wife or children !" He died during an absence from Rome, at Nola, 
of a dy sentery , in the 76th year of his age, after rei gnin g 4 1 years, 14 A. C. 

19. Little is to be said, separately, of the history of other 
nations during this period, as they were mostly swallowed up 
in the Roman empire. We can notice only two or three, an " 
these are very much blended with the Roman history, bein 
included in the number of the Roman provinces before tl 
end of the present period. First, Judea comes under reviev 



'P 

I 



RO B. C CHRISTIAN ERA. 14? 

JUDEA. 

The Jews at this time were ruled by the sacerdotal and 
royal family of the Maccabees, under the title of the As- 
monean dynasty, but they were in the last stages of their 
independent existence. When Pompey came to Jerusalem 
to settle the affairs of Judea, he restored Hyrcanus with the 
title of Prince of the Jews, and conferred the government of the 
country on Antipater, an Tdumean proselyte, 63 years B. G. 

§ In the civil wars between Caesar and Pompey, the former sent 
Aristobulus, whom Pompey had carried captive to Rome, into Judea, 
to engage the Jews in his (Caesar's) cause, but he was poisoned by his, 9 
enemies. At the same time Pompey ordered his son Alexander to" 
be beheaded. 

20. After one other revolution in the person of Hyrcanus, 
the family of the Herodians was seated on the throne of Ju- 
dea. Herod, called the Great, son of Antipater, was declared 
king of that country, by a decree of the Roman senate, 37 
years B. C. His reign was splendid, but distinguished by a 
singular degree of profligacy. 

§ Some time after his establishment on the throne, Herod, in order 
to please Mariamne, the daughter of Hyrcanus, whom he had married t 
appointed her brother, Aristobulus, High Priest ; but perceiving that 
he was much beloved by the Jews, he caused him to be drowned 
while bathing. After the battle of Actium he went to Rhodes to 
meet Augustus, who confirmed his title of king of Judea. Upon his 
return he condemned to death his wife, Mariamne, and her mother, 
Alexandra. 

From this hour his life was a continual scene of misery and fero- 
city. At the instigation of his third son, he sentenced to death Aris- 
tobulus and Alexander, his children by Mariamne, and the next year 
Antipater himself experienced the same fate. His last moments also 
were stained with the blood of the children of Bethlehem and the 
neighbourhood, whom he ordered to be slain, in the hope that the 
infant Jesus Christ would fall among them. 

EGYPT. 

21. The family of the Lagidse, continued to rule Egypt 
Alexander II. was on the throne at the commencement of this 
period. Cleopatra was the last sovereign. The intermediate 
sovereigns were Ptolemy Auletes, Berenice, and Ptolemy 
Dionysius, who reigned for a time jointly with Cleopatra. 

With the death of this queen ended the family of the La- 
gidae, after having ruled in Egypt about 294 years. Egypt 
was now reduced to a Roman province, and governed by a 
Praetor sent thither from Rome. 30 years B, C, 



148 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD X. 

$ Ptolemy Dionysius was 13 years old at the time of his father's 
death, by whose will he was nominated to the succession, on condi- 
tion of his marrying his sister Cleopatra, then 17 years of age. The 
Romans were appointed guardians of these children. Cleopatra 
married her brother, and they reigned jointly, till, dissatisfied with 
the Roman ministry, she retired to Syria and Palestine, where she 
raised an army, and advanced under the walls of Pelusium, to give 
battle to, the ministers of her husband. 

At this moment, as we have before learned, Pompey, vanquished at 
Pharsalia, took refuge in Alexandria, and was assassinated by order 
of Ptolemy. Julius Caesar, pursuing his rival, aTrived soon after- 
wards, and endeavoured to compromise the differences between the 
king and the queen. For a short time they were reconciled ; but 
Ptolemy, renewing the war not long afterwards, was defeated and 
drowned in the Nile. 

Cleopatra then married her youngest brother, a boy of eleven years 
of age, and already affianced to his sister Arsinoe. Him, however, 
she soon poisoned, 43 B. C. ; and assumed the sole government. After 
the arrival of Mark Antony in Egypt, and his captivation by Cleo- 
patra, her character became still more remarkable for corrup- 
tion. The beauties of her person were incomparable ; and in polite 
learning, in brilliancy of wit, and in tunefulness of voice in her con- 
versation, she was as irresistible as in her personal charms. These 
qualities, joined to an extreme profligacy of manners, rendered her 
one of the most dangerous foes to virtue that ever lived. 

When summoned to present herself before Antony for the first 
time, her appearance was so splendid and fascinating, that the Ro- 
man warrior rather adored than judged her. Every decoration was 
employed to heighten the most consummate loveliness of features, and 
gracefulness of motion. Holding Antony in ' the chains of a base 
passion, she ruled him at her pleasure. 

The profusion of riches displayed at her feasts was astonishing. 
Antony hoiding the wealth of plundered provinces, with his utmost 
efforts could not equal the queen in the sumptuousness of her enter- 
tainments. It was at one of these feasts that the incident mentioned 
by Pliny occurred. 

Cleopatra, having laid a considerable wager that she could expend 
more than 50,000/. upon one repast, caused one of the pearls that she 
wore in her ears, which was valued at the above named sum, to be 
dissolved in an acid, and then swallowed it. She was then preparing 
to melt the other in a similar manner, but some one had the address 
to divert her from her design. 

After the battle of Actium, Octavius used every effort to secure the 
person of the queen, and to effect the death of Antony, by her means. 
He promised her his protection and friendship if she would kill him 
This she peremptorily refused to do, but consented to deliver his 
person and the kingdom of Egypt into the enemy's hand. 

Antony, who had before meanly sought his life of Octavius, open- 
ing his eyes to his danger, and to the perfidy of Cleopatra, at first 
made some faint and ineffectual attempt at resistance, and then in his 



80. E. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 149 

fury attempted to avenge himself of the queen. She, howevei, 
eluded his purpose by taking flight to a monument, which she had 
erected for her safety, and gave out a report that she had killed her 
self. 

Upon this news, Antony forgot his resentment — his former affec- 
tion rushed into his heart, and his cup of calamity was full. He 
resolved to follow her example, and die a Roman death. At the mo- 
ment he had fallen upon his sword, the news of the queen's death 
was contradicted, and Antony, weltering in his blood, and stil 
breathing, consented to be carried to see the queen. 

After being pulled up to the top of the monument where Cleopa- 
tra was, by means of ropes let down and fastened l<* him, a scene of 
anguish and affection was presented which can scaxcely be conceived. 
Suffice it to say, he died in her arms, bedewed with her tears, and 
almost stifled with her caresses. 

The queen, though at length taken by Octavius, and apparently 
secured by the strict guard which he placed over her, found an op- 
portunity of poisoning herself by means of an asp, which she applied 
to her arm, the sting of which instantly threw her into a fatal lethargy. 
J n such a miserable end were these victims of guilt involved. 

PARTHIA. 

22. Under the Arsacidse, Parthia continued to enjoy some 
consequence during this period. Its principal sovereigns 
were Phraates III. Orodes I. and Phraates IV. 

§ Orodes I. was no sooner on the throne, than he was attacked by 
Crassus, the Roman consul, to whom Syria was allotted in the par- 
tition of the provinces of the empire between him, Caesar, and Pom- 
pey, 53 B. C. The Parthian armies were commanded by Surena, a 
general of extraordinary wisdom and valour. Crassus being led by 
the king of Edessa into a barren country, his army was completely 
defeated, and himself taken and killed. 

Orodes, jealous of Surena's glory, caused him to be put to death soon 
after, and entrusted the command of his army to Pacorus, his own 
son, who made great conquests in several countries, but who was 
soon after defeated and killed by Ventidias, the Roman general. 
Orodes, overwhelmed with grief, became insane; but having recovered 
in some degree, he associated his eldest son Phraates his partner in 
the throne. 

The infamous wretch first attempted to poison his father, but that 
only curing him of the dropsy, he stifled the old man in bed, and 
murdered all his brothers. When Augustus came into Asia, he 
obliged Phraates to restore the ensigns taken from Crassus, and after* 
wards from Antony, and to deliver four of his sons as hostages. 
Divine Providence punished him in a remarkable manner, as he 
was killed by a conspiracy of his concubine and his own son, 
13 A. C. 

Distinguished Characters in Period X, 

1. Lucretius, a Roman didactic poet. 

N2 



150 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. 

2. Julius Caesar, a successful warrior and elegant writer. 

3. Cicero, the prince of Roman orators and philosophers. 

4. Catullus, a Roman epigrammatic poet. 

5. Sallust, the first philosophical Roman historian. 

6. Varro, the most learned of the Romans. 

7. Cornelius Nepos, an eminent Roman historian. 

8. Virgil, the prince of Roman poets. 

9. Horace, the greatest of the Roman lyric poets. 

§ 1. Lucretius was early sent to Athens, where he studied philo- 
sophy. He embraced the tenets of Epicurus. In his poem of the 
Nature of Things, he is the advocate of atheism and impiety, and 
earnestly endeavours to establish the mortality of the soul. His mas- 
terly genius and unaffected elegance are, however, every where con 
spicuous. 

He wrote Latin better than any man ever did before him, and had 
he lived in the polished age of Augustus, he would have been no 
mean rival of Yirgil. He wrote his poem while he laboured under 
a delirium, occasioned by a philtre, administered by means of the jea 
lousy of his wife or mistress. He died, some say he destroyed him 
self, in his 44th year, about 54 B. C. 

2. Julius Caesar was the son of Caius Caesar, who was descended 
from Julius, the son of iEneas ; in his 16th year he lost his father j 
and Sylla, aware of his ambition, endeavoured to remove him ; his 
friends, however, interceded, and obtained his life ; but Sylla warned 
them to be upon their guard against that loose-girt boy, alluding to 
Caesar's manner of wearing his tunic, or coat, loosely girded ; " for ii» 
him," said he, " are many Mariuses." 

He procured many friends by his eloquence, and obtained the office 
of high priest ; after passing through different dignities, he was sent 
governor into Spain ; and, upon his return, being elected consul, he 
entered into an agreement with Pompey and Crassus, that nothing 
should be done in the state without their joint concurrence. After his 
consulship, he had the province of Gaul assigned him ; which, with 
wonderful conduct and bravery, he subdued in 10 years, carrying the 
terror of his arms also into Germany and Britain, till then unknown 
to the Romans. 

Pompey now became jealous of his power, and induced the senate 
to order him to lay down his command ; upon which, he crossed the 
river Rubicon, the boundary of his province, and led his army to- 
wards Rome, Pompey and all the friends of liberty fleeing before 
him. 

Having subdued Italy in sixty days, Caesar entered Rome, and 
seized upon the money in the public treasury: he then went to 
Spain, where he conquered the partisans of Pompey under Petreius, 
Afranius, and Varro ; and, at his return, was created dictator, and 
soon after consul. Leaving Rome, and going in search of Pompey, 
the two hostile generals engaged on the plains of Pharsalia ; the army 
of Caesar amounted only to 23,000 men, while that of Pompey 






80 B. C— CHRISTIAN ERA. 151 

amounted to 45,000 ; but the superior generalship of the former pre- 
vailed; and he was victorious. 

Making a generous use of his victory, he followed Pompey into 
Egypt, where he heard of his murder, and making the country tri- 
butary to his power, he hastened to suppress the remainder of Pom- 
pey's party in Africa and Spain. Triumphing over all his enemies, 
he was created perpetual dictator, received the names of imperator 
and father of his country, and governed the people with justice. His 
engrossing all the powers of the state, and ruling with absolute au- 
thority, created general disgust ; a conspiracy was therefore formed 
against him, by more than sixty senators, the chief of whom were 
Brutus and Cassius. He was stabbed in the senate house, on the 15th 
of March, B. C. 44, in the 56th year of his age } he at first attempt- 
ed to make some resistance, but seeing Brutus, his intimate friend, 
among the conspirators, he submitted to his fate, and covered with 
23 wounds, fell at the foot of Pompey's statue. 

Caesar is perhaps the must distinguished character in history. His 
talents in war and literature were equally great. Amidst his military 
enterprises he found time to be the author of many works, none of 
which remain except seven books of commentaries, or memoirs of his 
wars ; these are much admired for their elegance, as well as correct- 
ness of style. He spoke in public with the same spirit with which 
he fought, and had he devoted himself to the bar, would doubtless 
have rivalled Cicero. 

3. Marcus Tullius Cicero was the father of Latin eloquence, and 
the greatest orator that Rome ever produced. He was the son of a 
Roman knight, and having displayed promising abilities, his father 
4 rocured for him the most celebrated masters of his time. He served 
one campaign under Sylla, and returning to Rome, appeared as a 
^leader at the bar, where the greatness of his genius, and his superior 
eloquence, soon raised him to notice. 

Having passed through the lower honours of the state, he was 
made consul in his 43d year. Catiline, a profligate noble, with many 
dissolute and desperate Romans, conspired against their country ; but 
all their projects were baffled by his extreme vigilance ; Catiline was 
defeated in the field ; and Cicero, at Rome, punished the rest of the 
conspirators with death. 

He received the thanks of the people, and was styled the father of 
his country and the second founder of Rome ; but his refusal to 
agree to the arbitrary measures of Caesar and Pompey, caused him 
to be exiled ; he did not bear his banishment with fortitude ; and was 
overjoyed when, after 16 month's absence, he was restored with ho- 
nour to his country. After much hesitation, he espoused the cause of 
Pompey against Caesar ; and when the latter was victorious at Phar- 
salia, Cicero was reconciled to him, and treated with great humani- 
ty ; but as a true republican, he approved of Caesar's murder, and 
thus incurred the hatred of Antony, whe wished to succeed in 
power. 

Octavius, afterwards called Augustus Caesar, Antony, and Lepidus, 
having formed a third triumvirate, agreed on a proscription of their 



152 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X. 

enemies ; Octavius struggled two days to preserve Cicero from the 
vengeance of Antony, but at last gave him up ; in his attempt to 
escape, he was overtaken by a party of soldiers, who cut off his head 
and right hand, and brought them to Antony ; this happened B. C. 
43 ; in the 64th year of his age. 

He is to be admired, not only as a great statesman, but as an ora- 
tor, a man of genius, and a scholar, in which united character, he 
stands unrivalled ; his conduct was not always that of a patriot, and 
he is frequently accused of timidity. 

4. Catullus was a poet of Verona, whose compositions are the off- 
spring of a luxuriant imagination. He directed his satire against 
Caesar, whose only revenge was to invite the poet, and hospitably en- 
tertain him at his table. Catullus was the first Roman who imitated 
with success the Greek writers, and introduced their numbers among 
the Latins. 

Though the pages of the poet are occasionally disfigured with in- 
delicate expressions, the whole is written with great, purity of style. 
He died in the 48th year of his age, B. C. 40. 

5. Sallust was educated at Rome, and made himself known as a 
magistrate, in the office of quaestor and consul. He was a man of 
depraved and licentious manners. He married Terentia, the divorced 
wife of Cicero, and hence the immortal hatred between the historian 
and orator. 

Of his Roman history little remains ; but his narrative of the Ca 
tilinarian conspiracy, and the wars of Jugurtha, are extant. 

His descriptions, harangues, &c. are animated and correct, and the 
author is greatly commended for the vigour of his sentences. He 
died in his 51st year, 35 B. C. 

8. Varro wrote 300 volumes, which are all lost, except a treatise, 
De Re Rustica, and another De Lingua Latina. The latter he wrote 
n his 80th year, and dedicated to Cicero. In the civil wars, he was 
taken by Caesar and proscribed, but escaped. His erudition and ex- 
tent of information were matter of wonder to Cicero and St. Augus- 
tine. He died in his 88th year, B. C. 28. 

7. Cornelius Nepos enjoyed the patronage of Augustus. He was 
the intimate friend of Cicero and Atticus. He possessed a most deli 
cate taste and lively disposition. He composed several works, but his 
lives of illustrious Greeks are all that remain. He has ever been ad- 
mired for the clearness and precision of his style, and the delicacy 
of his expressions. He died 25 years B. C. 

S. Virgil was born at Andes, a village near Mantua, about 70 years 
B. C. Having lost his farms in the distribution of lands to the sol 
diers of Augustus, after the battle of Philippi, he repaired to Rome, 
where he obtained an order for the restitution of his property through 
the interest of Mecaenas. When he showed this order to the centu- 
rion who was in possession, he nearly killed Virgil, and the latter 
escaped only by swimming across a river. 

Virgil, in his Bucolics, or Pastorals, celebrates the praises of his 
illustrious patrons. He undertook his Georgics in order to promote 



80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 153 

the study of agriculture ; and the design of the iEneid is thought to 
have been to reconcile the Romans to a monarchical government. 

By his talents and virtues he acquired the friendship of the empe* 
ror Augustus, and the most celebrated personages of his time. He 
died at Brundusium, in the 51st year of his age, B. C. 19, leaving his 
immense possessions to his friends, and was buried in the neigh- 
bourhood of Naples, where his tomb is still to be seen. 

9. Horace was born at Venusia ; his father, although poor, took 
him to Rome when a boy, and educated him with great care. At 
the age of twenty, he went to Athens to study philosophy, and then, 
with the rank of military tribune, attended Brutus to the civil wars. 
In the battle of Philippi he saved himself by flight, and returned to 
Rome. 

Finding his father dead, and his fortune ruined, he applied himself 
to writing verses ; and his talents soon recommended him to the 
protection of Virgil, Mecaenas, and Augustus, with whom he after- 
wards lived on terms of the greatest intimacy and friendship. He 
died in the 57th year of his age, B. C. 8. 



GENERAL VIEWS 

OF THE GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, POLITICS, RELI- 
GION, MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS, ARTS, LITERA- 
TURE. MANNERS, CUSTOMS, SOCIETY, &c. OF ANCIENT 
NATIONS. 



ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 

The few notices which the Bible has transmitted to us, respecting 
the Antediluvian world, being mostly confined to the moral history 
of its inhabitants, leave us greatly in the dark in respect to its phy- 
sical and geographical facts, the state of the arts, political institutions, 
and similar subjects. We are here chiefly guided by analogy, and 
conjecture. 

Sect. 1. Surface of the Earth. — The earth's surface, there 
is reason to believe, at that period, differed somewhat from its 
present state. Concerning this subject, however, there are dif- 
ferent opinions. We incline to that which supposes that there 
were not those inequalities in the surface of the earth which 
now appear — at least in so great a degree, and that it was 
thus more uniformly adapted to the purposes of culture, and 
to the support of its inhabitants. 

§ The opinion of Dr. Burnet, that the primitive earth was no more 
than a crust investing the water contained in the abyss, is somewhat 
plausible. This crust breaking into innumerable pieces, at the time 
of the deluge, would naturally sink down amidst the mass of waters, 
to various depths, and thus cause the mountains and valleys which 
now exist. 

The convulsions occasioned oy that terrible event, would be likely 
to disfigure the earth's surface in a measure, and render it less plea- 
sant as the abode of human beings. Indeed the mountains and hills, 
the valleys and plains, in many instances, appear as if they had been 
shaped and fashioned by some " war of the elements." Their form 
and appearance are precisely such, as we should conjecture would be 
produced from the force of the retiring waters, in vast eddies and 
whirlpools. 

2. The Seasons. The seasons might have been different 
from what they are at present. Conjecture has assigned to 
the Antediluvian world but one season, and that an " eternal 



ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 155 

spring." This would be the fact, if, as some philosophers 
suppose, the plane of the earth's orbit was then coincident 
with that of the equator. They now make a considerable 
angle with each other, and this alteration is concluded to 
have taken place at the time of the deluge. Besides, the va- 
riety of the seasons is never mentioned in scripture, till after 
the flood. 

§ On this supposition an ingenious, but fanciful French writer,* 
has accounted for the production of the deluge itself. He imagines, 
that in consequence of this change, whatever might be its cause, the 
vast masses of ice which had collected for ages in the cold regions of 
the globe, being acted upon more immediately by the heat of the sun, 
suddenly melted, and overflowed the earth. 

3. Population and Longevity. Nothing can be deter- 
mined with certainty respecting the extent of population. 
Some imagine that it was very great, far exceeding what it is 
at present. This is inferred from the surprising length of men's 
lives, and from the numerous generations that were then con- 
temporary. But from various circumstances, the probability is. 
that it was much smaller, and that mankind were not widely 
diffused over the earth. 

§ If any thing on this subject may be ascertained or fairly conjec- 
tured, from the discoveries of geology, the opinion of Cuvier, a great 
adept in that science, is probably correct, viz. that previously to the 
last considerable convulsion of our globe, the human race inhabited 
only some narrow districts. It is well known that while shells, fos- 
sils, and the bones of animals, have been found in the earth's surface, 
in great abundance, thus exhibiting the ruins of the deluge, few or 
no human remains have been discovered, under such circumstances. 

If these latter exist, they must be in some circumscribed parts of 
the earth, such as Asia or Africa, where the labours of the geologist 
have not been so particularly bestowed, or they may lie buried under 
some mass of waters. Of course the population of the antediluvian 
world must have been mostly confined to those quarters of the globe, 
or to one of them. 

The longevity of the antediluvians was remarkable. The contrast, 
in this respect, of that age of the world and the present times is so 
great, as to have given rise to many conjectures assigning the cause 
or causes of their longevity. We need not interest ourselves in these 
conjectures, as nothing can be known with certainty, except it may 
be remarked, that the air immediately after the flood was most likely 
much contaminated and rendered unwholesome. 

How far this circumstance should have affected the pristine con- 
stitution of the human body, thus shortening the life of man in suc- 
cessive ages, down to the present common standard, is left to the cu- 

* St, Pierre. 



156 GENERAL VIEWS. 

rious to inquire. If there were no physical causes of this change, 
God could have effected it without them. It is his own record that 
the life of man was abridged. 

4. Religion. In regard to the religious rites of the prime- 
val race of men, it can only be affirmed, that they offered sa- 
crifices, both of animals and of the fruits of the earth. The 
Sabbath, we know, was instituted immediately after the crea 
tion, and it is not likely that its observance was ever wholly 
discontinued. 

§ The descendants of Seth, the son of Adam, were for some time 
distinguished by their worship of God and observation of religious 
rites, while those of Cain were notorious for their irreligion and pro 
fligacy. These lived separately till intercourses by marriage were 
formed between them ; and then the pure religion and morals of the 
descendants of Seth were corrupted, and the whole world became 
alienated from God. 

5. Arts and Sciences. These must have been cultivated 
in a degree, and in some of their branches might have been 
more than we are aware. If Ave consider that human life 
was several hundred years in extent, there was space for vast 
improvements in those arts and sciences that were once disco 
vered. It is much to be doubted, however, whether many oi 
them were known. 

The last generation of Cain's line found out the art of 
working metal ; and music seems to have been invented about 
the same time. A knowledge of agriculture, architecture, and 
perhaps of astronomy, was possessed. 

§ Some suppose that man, in the infancy of the world, was aided by 
inspiration ; but even if left to the ordinary operation of his faculties, 
he might have been no stranger to knowledge and mental improve- 
ment. Still, from the difficulty of originating knowledge, and from 
the vices of the antediluvians— their probable devotion to gross sen- 
sual pleasures, they seem not to have been as extensively acquainted 
with the more intellectual objects of human pursuit, as their descend- 
ants were a few ages after the flood. 

We have some accounts, though not from an authentic source, of 
discoveries made in astronomy by the posterity of Seth. These dis- 
coveries, it is said, were engraved on two pillars, the one of brick, 
and the other of stone. The latter, it is affirmed, existed after the 
deluge, and remained entire in the time of Josephus, that is, nearly a 
century after Christ. If this were a fact, it is singular that no other 
memorial of their intellect should have appeared. It is here given, 
however, as it is found on historic record. 

6. Government. On the topic of government, there is 
hardly a foundation for conjecture. The most probable, is 
the patriarchal form of government ; that is, the government 



ANTEDILTjVIAN WORLD. 157 

which was held by the heads of separate families. A num- 
ber of these might perhaps combine, and place them- 
selves under the direction of some common ancestor. This 
is the most natural form of government, and indeed no men- 
tion is made in the Bible of kingly authority until after the 
deluge. 

§ Still, as some suppose, this form of government might have been 
set aside by tyranny and oppression ; and the change would proba- 
bly take place, much sooner among the descendants cf Cain, than 
those of Seth. It is thought that after the union of the families of 
Cain and Seth, all mankind constituted but. one nation, divided into 
several disorderly associations, and living in a c *ate of anarchy, which 
C ir cumstanees would have hastened the progress of wickedness. 

7. Commerce. The intercourse of the antediluvians might 
have been easy, because they probably lived contiguous to each 
other. Yet it is evident that they had no idea of navigation, 
for had vessels been in use, some families might have escaped 
the disasters of the flood, besides that of Noah. 

§ It is likely that there was not that necessity for commerce, as there 
has been since. For this opinion, reasons might be given, but the 
subject is not sufficiently important . 

Assyria, {including Babylonia.) 

8. Extent and Cities. Assyria generally comprehended 
the territory lying between Armenia, Babylon, Mesopotamia, 
and Media. The Assyrian dominion, at times, extended over 
many parts of Asia; its capital was Nineveh, on the Tigris, 
built by Ashur. The country is now called Curdistan. 

§ Nineveh was built on a very spacious plain. It was 15 miles in 
length, 9 broad, and 47 in circumference, according to Diodorus 
Siculus and Strabo. On the walls, which were 100 feet high, three 
chariots could pass together ; they were defended by 1500 towers, 
each 200 feet high. From the number of infants which it contained, 
as mentioned in the book of Jonah, it is computed that the inhabitants 
amounted to more than 600,000 at that time. 

Its situation is indicated, as some suppose, by vestiges on the Tigris, 
opposite Mosul, retaining the name of Nino. 

Babylonia, which was afterwards united to Assyria, was 
made up principally of Mesopotamia, the modern Diarbec. Its 
capital, Babylon, at length the capital of the whole empire, 
was bisected by the Euphrates, from N. to S., and formed a 
sqrare, whose sides subtended the four cardinal points. The 
city stood on a large plain. Its walls were in thickness 87 
feet, in height 350 feet, and in compass 60 miles. These 
were drawn about the city in an exact square. 



158 GENERAL VIEWS. 

§ As a more particular description of Babylon, it may be stated, that 
on each side of this great square were 25 gates of solid brass. Be- 
tween every two of these gates were three towers ; four others were 
at the corners ; and three more between those on the corners and the 
gate on either side. 

The other parts of the city, some of which we will describe, cor- 
responded with the magnitude of the walls. The streets, bridge, quays, 
the lake, ditches T canals, palaces, and hanging gardens, and above all, 
the temple of Belus, were so many wonders. From the 25 gates 
ran as many streets, in straight lines, so that the whole number of 
streets was 50, crossing each other at right angles. There were also 
four half streets, round the four sides of the city, next the walls, each 
of them 200 feet wide ; the rest being about 150 feet. 

The whole city was thus cut into 676 squares, each of which was 
two and a quarter miles in circumference. Round these squares, on 
every side towards the street, stood stately houses three or four stories 
high, with large spaces between them, and the areas within the squares 
filled up with yards, gardens, and pleasure grounds. 

The celebrated hanging gardens were composed of several large 
terraces, one above the other. The ascent from terrace to terrace 
was by stairs ten feet wide, and the whole pile was sustained by vast 
arches, strengthened by a massy wall of great thickness. On the tops 
of the arches were first laid prodigiously large flat stones. Over these 
was a layer of reeds mixed with bitumen, upon which were two tiers 
of bricks, closely cemented together with plaster. The whole was 
covered with thick sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould of the 
garden. This mould was so deep that the largest trees might take 
root in it, and covered with these and other plants, and every variety 
of flowers; nothing could be conceived more grand and picturesque. 

The temple of Belus, at its foundation, consisted of a square, each 
side of which was a furlong in length ; it consisted of eight towers, 
built one above another, decreasing gradually to the top, and was a 
furlong in height. 

9. Government and Laws. The government both of 
Assyria and Babylonia was strictly despotic, and its sceptre 
hereditary. The whole centered in the person of the king ; 
all decrees issued from his mouth ; he even affected the power, 
and claimed the worship which belonged only to the divinity. 

§ The great conquerors of the East always courted retirement, as 
being too glorious to be beheld by vulgar eyes. Thus they contrived 
to keep in subjection a number of nations of different languages and 
manners, to a person who must have been a stranger to almost all of 
them. They adminstered their government by officers of various de- 
scriptions, civil and military. 

Of the three classes of efficers, the first had the charge of the vir- 
gins, and were expected to judge of all matters relating to the connu- 
bial state ; the second took cognizance of theft ; and the third of all 
other crimes. 

The laws of the empire were in general vague and uncer- 



ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 159 

tain, depending wholly upon the will of the sovereign ; but 
one was fixed and irrevocable, which obliged all, especially the 
poorer sort of people, to marry. 

§ Their punishments were unfixed and arbitrary, according to the 
disposition of the sovereign. We read of beheading, cutting to pieces, 
turning the criminal's house into a dunghill, and burning in a fiery 
furnace. 

10. Religion. The Chaldeans, properly so called, were 
both the priests and the literati of the country. They were 
devoted to the bushiest of religion, and pretended to skill in 
the prediction of future events. They dealt in charms, incan- 
tations, and explanations of dreams, and of the extraordinary 
phenomena of nature. They built temples to the stars, as be- 
ing the subordinate agents of the divine power, and by wor- 
shipping them, they expected to obtain the good will of the 
deity. From this they descended, by a natural process, to the 
worship of objects on earth, as the representatives, or favour- 
ites of the stars, or of the deity, through them. Thus idola- 
try arose not long after the flood, among the earliest of nations 
— the people left on the plains of Shinar, subsequently to the 
dispersion at Babel. 

§ It is evident that this was the origin of image worship, since the 
names of the principal gods of the heathen in general, are those of the 
sun, moon, and five primary planets, Saturn, J upiter, Mars, Mercury 
and Venus. 

The norrid custom of sacrificing human victims to conci- 
liate their gods, was first practised by the Babylonians, and 
from them it was communicated to the superstitious of the sur- 
rounding nations. 

§ There are traces of their ancient cruelty to be discerned in the 
worship and rites of the Assyrian goddess of Hierapolis, to whom 
parents, without remorse, sacrificed their children, by throwing them 
down a precipice in her temple. 

11. Customs. The principal and. most singular of their 
customs, was the manner in which they disposed of their 
women in marriage. No man had any power over his own 
daughters, but as soon as they were marriageable, they were 
put up to auction ; and the price obtained for the more beau- 
tiful was assigned as a dowry to the more homely. 

§ The consequence of this practice was, that all their young women 
were disposed of in marriage— the beautiful for their charms, the 
homely for their wealth. 

Another singular custom was their festival called Sacca. 



160 GENERAL VIEWS. 

During this festival, which lasted five days, the servants com 
manded their masters, one of them being, for the time, con- 
stituted chief over the house, and wearing a kind of royal 
garment, called Zogana. 

§ They had other extraordinary customs, but some of these are too 
indecent to be named. In general, they were the most sensual and 
abandoned people on the face of the earth. 

12. Learning. The Babylonians were famed for learning, 
particularly the Chaldeans, who were their priests, philoso- 
phers, astronomers, soothsayers, &c. As in many other coun- 
tries after them, they were divided into several sects, distin- 
guished by their peculiar characteristics. 

They were the first who cultivated astronomy, discovered 
the exact motions of the planets, and pretended to understand 
the influence these had over things below, and from that to be 
able to foretel future events. The latter was embodied into a 
kind of science, called astrology. 

§ From this origin of astrology, fortune telling, and similar arts, 
we perceive at once their opposition to religion and rectitude. 

The learning of the Chaldeans was not acquired after the manner 
of the Greeks, but by tradition from father to son. The only busi- 
ness of the learned was to apply themselves to the instructions they 
received. They never departed from early principles, and hence 
made no great advances in the sciences. 

13. The Arts. The Babylonians, properly so called, ap- 
plied themselves to the useful arts. Their immense buildings, 
which could not have been erected without much skill in ge- 
ometry, prove that they must have been good mathematicians 
and mechanics. 

They never attained to any superior excellence in painting 
and statuary. Music and poetry were probably but little at- 
tended to; and in physic they had no regular science. 

§ They exposed their sick in the streets, to be cured by any who, 
passing by them, saw fit to prescribe for their diseases. 

The Babylonians were great architects, ingenious in casting metals 
and in their manufactures— particularly in their manufactures of 
embroideries, magnificent carpets, and fine linen. So superb were 
some of their articles of dress, that we read, in the Roman history, of 
Cato selling a Babylonian mantle, which had been left him by inhe- 
ritance, as being what he was ashamed to wear. And it is said that 
at Rome more than 6000/. had been paid for a suit of Babylonian 
hangings. 

China. 

14. Geography. China, in ancient times, included nearly 
the same territory that it does at present, so far as we can now 



CHINA. 161 

ascertain. The Greeks and Romans, through whom most 
of our acquaintance with antiquity is derived, had no imme- 
diate knowledge of that country ; only they mention Serica, 
and another nation of northern Sinee, as constituting its west- 
erly provinces. 

As, however, the Chinese are not at all given to foreign 
conquests, and have for many centuries remained the same 
people in their government and institutions, we may conclud 
that the ancient territory Avas the same, or nearly the same, as 
their modem. It is not our design to state its boundaries or 
extent, except to say, that it constituted a considerable portion 
of eastern Asia, and was separated from Tartar y, on the north, 
by its prodigious stone wall of 1500 miles in length. 

§ But few general views of this country in other respects can be 
here given, since we have been presented, in this work, with only a 
small portion of its civil history ; and since from the unchangeable 
character of the people, these views will answer for an interesting 
article in modern history. 

15. Government. The original plan c£ the Chinese go- 
vernment was patriarchal. Obedience to the father of each 
family was enforced in the most rigorous manner, and the 
emperor was considered as the father of the whole. Every fa- 
ther was absolute in his own family, and might inflict any 
punishment short of death ; and every mandarin of a district 
had the power of life and death over all its members, though 
the emperor's approbation was requisite to the execution of a 
capital sentence. 

§ Since the invasion of the Tartars, as we shall hereafter learn, the 
government is called an absolute monarchy, though its great funda- 
mental principles from the beginning have been preserved. 

16. Religion. The ancient Chinese adored a supreme be- 
ing, under the name of Changti, or Tien ; they also wor- 
shipped subaltern spirits, supposed to preside over kingdoms, 
provinces, cities, rivers, and mountains. Their worship was 
by prayer and thanksgiving, without any mixture of idola- 
trous practices. 

§ There are now different sects, whose characteristics belong to 
the details of modern history. 

17. The /Sciences and Arts. The Chinese understood 
some of the sciences, but seemed to make no progress in them 
from age to age. Of mathematics, astronomy, and physics, 
they appear to have been quite ignorant for so civilized a peo- 

02 



Ift2 GENERAL HEWS. 

pie. The knowledge of medicine was very limited among 
them. 

In the arts, at an early age, they attained to a certain point 
of advancement, which they never exceeded. It is affirmed 
that they manufactured glass 200 years before the Christian 
era ; that they knew gunpowder from time immemorial , 
and that they invented printing in the time of Julius Caesar; 
but these and other inventions were in a very imperfect state, 
and have remained so to this day. In agriculture, however, 
and a few other arts, they seem, from a very early period, to 
have been highly distinguished. 

§ On the whole, considering their ancient state, and knowing the 
agreement of their present state with it, no people whatever appear 
to have been so singular and mysterious, and possessed of such a 
mixture of wisdom and imbecility. 

Egypt 
§ A little before the Christian era, Egypt was one of the most dis- 
tinguished countries of the ancient world, and enjoyed, from the ear- 
liest times, a large share of celebrity, on account of its learning and 
its magnificent public works. In commercial importance, at the 
time first spoken of, it was much superior to contemporary nations. 

18. Situation, Name, and Division. Egypt was an ex- 
tensive country, bounded on the east by Arabia and the Red 
Sea, and by Lybia on the west, and was properly a long val- 
ley, following the course of the Nile from S. to N. 

The ancient name was Mitzraim, and is now retained in 
that of Mesr, under the Turks. 

Egypt was divided into three principal parts, distinguished 
by the appellations of the Upper Egypt, or Thebais ; the Mid- 
dle Egypt, or Heptanomis ; and the Lower Egypt, which in- 
cludes the Delta. 

19. Cities. There were many cities in this country, whose 
ruins attest their almost unparalleled magnificence. Among 
these were Thebes, Memphis, Arsinoe, Heliopolis, and Alex- 
andria, besides many others. 

§ Thebes was situated in Upper Egypt, on both sides of the Nile. 
It was called by the Greeks, Diospolis, and was one of the most il- 
lustrious cities in the world. It is distinguished in Homer by the epi- 
thet of Hecatompylos, or having a 100 gates. In the time of its splen- 
dour, it could send into the field, by each of its gates, 200 chariots, 
and 2000 fighting men. 

Its extent is said to have been 52 miles ; and so great was its wealth, 
that after it had been plundered by the Persians, 300 talents of gold 
and 2300 of silver, were found among the remains of the pillage. 



EGYPT. J.63 

The ruins of this astonishing city occupy a circumference of 27 
miles on either side of the Nile, and contain several villages, the chief 
of which is Luxor. Habon, on the western side, contains many stu- 
pendous monuments. Thebes was severely treated by Cambyses, by 
Ptolemy Philopater, and under Augustus, for its rebellion. In the 
adjacent mountains are hewn sepulchres of the ancient kings. 

A remarkable feature of these ruins is their size. Every thing is 
colossal. The smallest pillars of the temples are between 7 and 8 
feet in diameter, and some of the largest are 11. Obelisks, Sphinxes, 
and other monuments of huge dimensions, in different positions, as- 
tonish the modern traveller, as he gazes on these wonders of human 
power and art. 

Memphis, supposed to have been founded by Menes, the first Egyp- 
tian king, was for several ages the metropolis of the whole kingdom. 
It contained many beautiful temples, the most splendid of which is 
said to have been that of the god Apis. This city stood on the western 
bank of the Nile, 15 miles south of the Delta. 

Strabo saw its palaces in ruins. Vestiges of it were apparent in the 
fifteenth century, but are no longer in being. The Nile may have co- 
vered them. 

Alexandria was reckoned next to Rome for the grandeur of its 
buildings, and richness of its materials. It stood on the western side 
of the Delta, and was built by Alexander the Great, 332 B. C. It was 
the capital of Lower Egypt, and the metropolis under the Ptolemies. 
The ancients assert that it was built in the form of a Macedonian 
cloak, and occupied about 15 miles. The royal palace constituted a 
fifth part of the city. 

Alexandria rose to the first rank in the ancient world, as the great 
mart for exchange between the east and west. Its commercial ad- 
vantages continued for a number of ages. It was further distinguished 
by schools for philosophy, physic, theology, astronomy, and general 
learning. 

20. Monuments and Works of Art. Many of these are 
magnificent beyond conception, and show to what a high state 
of improvement the inhabitants, at a remote period, had car- 
ried the arts. They still excite the admiration of every tra- 
veller. 

Besides the cities that have been named, the most celebra- 
ted of these works of ancient grandeur, are Lake Mceris, the 
Labyrinth the Catacombs, or Mummy Pits, and the Pyra- 
mids. 

§ The lake Mceris has been affirmed to be the most wonderful of 
all the works of the kings of Egypt, the pyramids not excepted. The 
ancients described it as measuring 3600 stadia in circumference; but 
modern travellers assure us that its breadth does not exceed half a 
league ; that it is about a day's journey in length, and that its circum- 
ference is about 12 or 15 leagues, which will be found sufficiently 



164 GENERAL VIEWS, 

prodigious, when we consider that it was performed by human la- 
bour. 

This lake, in the deepest part, has fifty fathoms of water, and is 
fed from the Nile, by means of a channel cut for that purpose. It 
was built by a king of the name of Mceris, whose object was to cor- 
rect the irregularity of supply in the waters of the river, receiving 
its superabundance, or making up its deficiency. 

The Labyrinth was an enormous structure of marble, built partly 
under the ground. It was designed as a pantheon of all the Egyptian 
deities, and as a place for the assembly of the magistracy of the whole 
nation. It contained no less than 3000 chambers, 1500 of which were 
subterraneous, and set apart for the sepulchre of the kings who built 
the labyrinth, or for the abodes of the sacred crocodiles. 

These were never shewn to strangers ; but Herodotus informs us 
that he viewed every room in the upper part, in which he found suf- 
ficient to fill him with astonishment. Innumerable exits by different 
passages, and infinite returns, -afforded him a thousand occasions of 
wonder. The highest decorations in polished columns and exquisite 
sculptures, were every where seen. 

The Catacombs were subterraneous galleries of prodigious extent, 
appropriated to the reception of the dead. These sepulchres of the 
ancient kings are hewn in free-stone rock, and apparently formed 
upon one general plan, though differing in the construction of their 
respective parts. These contain the generations that are gone. Some 
of the embalmed bodies are perfectly preserved, though they have 
been dead 3000 years. 

The Pyramids were deservedly classed by the ancients among the 
wonders of the world. There are said to be twenty of them in differ- 
ent parts of the country ; but there are three superior to the rest in 
size and magnificence. These are on the western side of the Nile, in 
the neighbourhood of the ancient Memphis. 

The largest of them is 481 feet in height, measured perpendicularly, 
and the area of its basis comprehends eleven English acres of ground. 
This is a size which would exceed all belief, had it not been actually 
and repeatedly measured by modern travellers. It has steps entirely 
round it, made with polished stones, so large that the breadth and 
depth of every step is one single stone. The smallest stone is 30 feet 
in length. The number of steps amounts to 208. 

These works are proved, by modern researches, to have been royal 
sepulchres, but their foundation is lost in antiquity. They are sup- 
posed, however, to have been erected between one and two thousand 
years B. C. It is asserted by Pliny and Diodorus, that no less tnan 
360,000 men were employed in erecting the largest pyramid. It is 
said also that twenty years were spent in the work. 

21. Government and Laws. The Egyptians were 
among the earliest nations, if not the very earliest, who had 
regular established governments and civil regulations. Their 
government was a despotic, hereditary monarchy, yet so mo- 
dified by prescribed usages, as to promote the public welfare. 



EGYPT. 165 

§ Their monaxchs were restricted to a certain mode of living, and 
even their time seems to have been portioned out, and set apart for 
particular employments, by the sacred Egyptian books. They were 
confined to exactness, not only in public transactions, but in their 
private life. They could neither bathe, take the air, nor converse 
with their queens but at certain times. The choice of their provisions 
was not left to themselves, but their tables were furnished with the 
most simple food, (generally veal or goose,) and their allowance of 
wine was extremely moderate. 

These restraints were entirely acceptable to the Egyptian monarchs, 
and during the period in which they prevailed, the country greatly 
flourished, and was filled with works of incomparable magnificence 

In the administration of public affairs, each nome, or pro- 
vince, had its respective governor, who ordered all things with- 
in his jurisdiction. The lands were divided into three parts, 
of which one was allotted to the maintenance of the priests, 
and to religious uses ; the second was appropriated to the 
king, for defraying the charges of his wars, &c ; and the 
third part was designed for the soldiers. The husband- 
men, taking the lands at an easy rent from the king, priests, 
and soldiers, devoted the whole of their attention to agricul- 
ture ; and the son continually succeeded the father in his oc- 
cupation. They thus became the most famous for tillage of 
any in the world. 

22. Mythology. The boasted laws of the Egyptians sink 
in our estimation, from the influence which a knowledge of 
their base idolatry and superstitions produces in the reflecting 
mind. They had a vast number of gods of different ranks, 
but their two principal ones were Osiris and Isis, supposed to 
have been the sun and moon. From Egypt the stream of 
idolatry flowed over the nations. 

§ The idolatry of this people was so gross, that exclusive of the 
worship they paid their pretended gods, they actually bestowed di- 
vine honours on animals, insects, birds, and even vegetables, as 
leeks and onions. Their sacred animals were, during their lives, kept 
in consecrated enclosures; fed with most delicate food, washed and 
anointed with frequency, and their burial, after death, attended with 
the heaviest expense. We are credibly informed that in the reign 
of Ptolemy, the Apis dying of old age at Memphis, his keeper ex- 
pended in his funeral, about 13,0007. above all his substance. 

23. Education. In the education of their children, the 
Egyptians exercised great care, and the children were brought 
up with the strictest frugality. The priest instructed them in 
arithmetic, geometry, and other branches of useful literature ; 



166 GENERAL VIEWS. 

and their fathers, or nearest relations, taught them as early as 
possible, their paternal art or profession. 

24. Domestic Habits, Manners, and Customs. The 
usual drink of the people was the water of the Nile, which 
was very palatable and fattening. They used also a superior 
he vera ge made of barley, so that we are possibly indebted to 
them for the first invention of beer. Cleanliness was a particu- 
lar characteristic of this people, who scoured their drinking 
vessels every day. 

§ As great singularities among them, we may notice the inconsistent 
employments of the men and women ; the former being engaged in 
spinning and domestic concerns, while the latter were employed in 
trade and business ; the kneading of dough with their feet ; the tem- 
pering of mortar with their hands; and the promiscuous residence of 
men and beasts in the same apartment 

At their principal feasts, it was a very singular custom to bring in 
the coffin of a friend after supper, with the image of a dead man 
carved in wood and painted, which was carried to all the company 
with this strange admonition : " Look upon this, and be merry j for 
such as this now appears, thou shalt be, when thou art dead." 

25. Literature and Arts. Egypt was the parent of 
learning and philosophy. According to the scriptures, Moses 
was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. Geometry 
is generally believed to have been found out in Egypt, in con- 
sequence of the measurement of those lands that were annu- 
ally overflowed by the Nile. The science, however, was most 
probably but little extended by them. 

§ Arithmetic, astronomy, and a kind of algebra, were also cultivated 
in Egypt ; and it is certain this nation first adjusted the length of the 
year to the annual revolution of the sun, by adding to their twelve 
months of thirty days each, five additional days and six hours. Medi- 
cine and the art of embalming were early cultivated among them, 
particularly the latter. They were very famous also in magic. 

In architecture, painting, sculpture, &c. they must have made great 
proficiency, as is evident from the astonishing works of art wnich 
yet remain. 

26. Trade. Egypt early engaged in commerce, as its 
situation was peculiarly favourable for that object. We read 
in scripture that the Midianites and Ishmaelites traded thither, 
so early as the time of Jacob. It is certain also that Solomon 
established a very considerable trade in those parts. 

27. Language. The Egyptian language is one of the 
most ancient in the world, and probably an original tongue. 
It is, in some measure, preserved in the Coptic, even to this 
time, though that language is hut little understood. 



HEBREWS. 16? 

THE HEBREWS. 

28. Country. The country in which this ancient and di- 
vinely favoured people lived was Palestine. It extended from 
Coelo-Syria, to Arabia Petrea ; on the west it had the Medi- 
terranean, and on the east Arabia Deserta. Its territory was 
very limited. 

The country of the Hebrews is also called by several other names, 
as the Land of Canaan, the Holy Land, Judea, &c. ; and the people 
themselves were variously called, as the People of God, Israelites, 
Jews ; the last more commonly in the latter period of their history. 

Upon the entrance of the Israelites into Palestine, it was 
divided into twelve different portions, which were assigned to 
the twelve several tribes into which they were separated. 

29. Remains of ancient Works. Among these are Ja- 
cob's Well ; the Pools of Solomon, Gihon, and Bethesda ; and 
the Sepulchral Monuments. 

§ Jacob's well is highly venerated \yv Christian travellers on ac- 
count of its antiquity. It is hewn out of the solid rock, about 35 
yards in depth, and three in diameter, and is at present covered with 
a stone vault. 

The Pools of Solomon, supposed to have been made by order of 
that monarch, appear to have been a work of immense cost and labour. 
They are three in a row, and disposed in such a manner, that the 
water of the uppermost may fall into the Second, and of the second 
into the third. They are of equal breadth, viz. about 90 paces ; their 
length varies, the longest being 220. They are all walled and plas- 
tered, and contain a large quantity of water. 

The Pools of Gihon and Bethesda are similar works, and may be 
ranked among the most stately ruins. 

The Sepulchral Monuments are scattered all over the country. 
The most magnificent pieces of antiquity of this kind are the royal 
sepulchres without the walls of Jerusalem. They are all hewn out of 
the solid marble rock, and contain several spacious and elaborate 
apartments. 

30. Cities. Of these there were not many that were large. 
Jerusalem, the metropolis of the country, and the centre of the 
Jewish worship, was the most celebrated, and indeed no place 
on the globe has been more celebrated, taking into view its 
sacred associations. Hebron, Gaza, and Ascalon. were also 
noted. 

Jerusalem was built on several hills, the largest of which 
was Mount Zioti ; it formed the southern part of the city. 
On the east of the second, or lower city, was mount Moriah, 
on which stood the magnificent temple of king Solomon. 



.t>8 GENERAL VIEWS. 

§ Jerusalem, when enlarged by David, Solomon, and other kings, 
became a most renowned city, and as such is mentioned by the Greek 
historian, Herodotus, under the name of Cadytis. The city with its 
temple was destroyed by the Chaldeans, about 600 years B. C. The 
second temple, which had begun to decay, was rebuilt by Herod the 
Great. 

The destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, was A. D. 70. Under Adri- 
an, a new city, altogether Roman, and called iElia, was built, but 
there was an alteration of its site. Zion, the principal quarter of the 
ancient city, was not comprised within the new city. It subsists at 
present, but in a deplorable condition, inhabited by a motley group 
of Turks, Jews, and Christians. 

Hebron was a place of high antiquity, and the sepulchre of Abra- 
ham and his family. In the time of the crusades, it bore the name of 
St. Abraham : and the Arabs, who always respect their primitive 
names, call it Cabr-Ibrahim, or the Tomb of Abraham. 

Gaza and Ascalon, on the coast, preserve their names, as also 
others. Gaza was remarkably strong, and surrounded with walls and 
towers, after the Philistine manner. It was taken by Caleb, but soon 
after regained by the ancient inhabitants, who kept possession ot it 
to the time of Samson. It pissed into various hands, till finally it 
was pillaged by Alexander, and a second time destroyed by the Mac- 
cabees. 

Ascalon was also a maritime town of great strength, but was soon 
reduced, after the death of Joshua, by the tribe of Judah. It was once 
adorned with several magnificent edifices ; but it is now dwindled 
into an inconsiderable village. 

31. Religion. The history of the religion of this people, 
which was called Judaism, is the history of true religion in the 
ancient world. It is now eclipsed by the radiance of the 
Gospel, which has come into its room, abrogated what was 
ritual in it, and confirmed its great general principles and 
truths. 

§ Religion flourished variously among the people, according to the 
piety or irreligion of their priests, leading men, or sovereigns. In ge- 
neral, though they had a succession of wise and holy prophets, the 
nation, as such, was peculiarly obstinate and rebellious, and continu- 
ally inclined to forsake the worship of God, and to fall into the idola- 
trous practices of its heathen neighbours. 

On this account repeated and severe judgments were sent amon^ 
them. They were visited, at various times, with all the ministers ot 
divine vengeance— they were conquered, pillaged, and carried into 
captivity, and soon after the Christian era, ceased to exist indepen- 
dently, and were scattered among all nations. 

They are now known, particularly the tribes of Judah and Benja- 
min, wherever they are dispersed, as the descendants of Abr mam, 
preserving still their national name and peculiarities. Concerning 
the other ten tribes we have no certain knowledge of their separate 



HEBREWS. 169 

existence, at this day. Prophecy has been remarkably fulfilled in the 
case of this peopie. 

The great general truths of religion were revealed to this 
people, and to them alone of all the nations of the earth. The 
being, perfections, and government of God, the moral law, 
prescribing the duties man owes to God, to his fellow men, 
and to himself, the awards of eternity, with a thousand par 
ticular precepts of a spiritual kind, were explicitly declared t 
this nation. 

The peculiarities of their ritual worship rendered them 
also a most favoured community. By these they were de- 
signed to be preserved a people distinct from all the rest of 
the world, to be kept from idolatry, and to be prepared for the 
great salvation, which was to be accomplished not only for 
them, but for all nations, in " the fulness of the time." 

§ The peculiar rites of Judaism were admirably adapted to honour 
their Creator, and to render themselves completely happy. Its sacri- 
fices were at once calculated to convince them of their sins, and to 
shadow forth the vicarious sacrifice of the Son of God. 

32. Government. The government of this people was pro- 
perly a Theocracy, as being under the immediate direction of 
God. In this they were distinguished from all other nations. 
He was considered as the sole dictator of every important 
transaction, and supreme monarch of the Israelites. 

33. Manners and Customs. The most interesting of 
these related to the rite of circumcision, to their diet, diver- 
sions, high places, mourning for the dead, and burials. 

§ The rite of circumcision has distinguished them as a people, 
from the beginning. It was always accompanied with great feasting, 
and other demonstrations of joy. At this time the child was named 
in the presence of the company assembled, among whom bread and 
wine were distributed. 

Their diet, except on festivals, seems to have been extremely plain. 
Bread, water, and vinegar, were in common use. Honey was es- 
teemed a peculiar delicacy, and the milk of goats was reckoned ex 
cellent for food. 

Their diversions seem to have consisted chiefly in social repasts, 
music, and dancing. The two latter partook of a religious character. 
Games were never introduced into their commonwealth. 

Their high places were of two sorts; those where they burned in- 
cense and offered sacrifices to the true God ; and those where they 
committed various abominable idolatries. 

Their mourning for the death of friends was expressed by rending 
their garments tearing their hair, heaping dirt or ashes upon their 

p 



170 GENERAL VIEWS. 

heads, wearing sackcloth next their skin, and lying upon the bare 
ground. 

As to their burials, it is known that they denied sepulture to none 
but such as were guilty of suicide, and not even to these, but till after 
sunset. From the pains which the patriarchs took to provide a place 
of burial for themselves and their descendants, it is evident they con- 
sidered it a heavy calamity, to be denied a burial, and a favour to be 
interred among their ancestors. Their sepulchres were on their own 
lands, and, where practicable, cut into a rock. 

34. Learning. The Israelites excelled in the knowledge 
of theology, and they had places of public instruction called 
the schools of the prophets. They seem to have had but little 
knowledge of astronomy. 

Their language was the Hebrew, the genius of which is 
pure, primitive, and natural ; and it is highly probable that 
they had the art of writing very early. The materials on 
which they wrote were tables of stone ; but mention is made 
also of rolls, which were doubtless more in use. These rolls 
are supposed to have been made of skin, or some other pliable 
substance. 

35. Arts. The arts in which the Israelites made the 
greatest proficiency were those of war, husbandly, poetry, and 
music. 

§ Their situation made them a warlike people, surrounded as they 
were by enemies. Their arms of offence were broad crooked swords, 
javelins, slings, bows and arrows, and two-edged swords. Their 
arms of defence were shields, helmets, coats of mail, breast plates, 
and targets. 

Their attention was much confined to their lands and domestic 
avocations, and few trades or manufactures were carried on among 
them before the reign of Solomon, except such as were absolutely ne- 
cessary. After Solomon's time, pride and luxury increased with great 
rapidity. The causes of a change from great economy and simplicity, 
to their opposites, were laid indeed in the reign of David. 

Poetry is said to be the only fine art in which they were peculiarly 
excellent ; and in that they are inimitable. Their inspired produc- 
tions, in poetry, if not in prose, as to native energy and felicity, are 
unrivalled. 

36. Commerce. With respect to commerce, it appears that 
they received rich stuffs, linen, gold, &c. from Tyre, in ex- 
change for their corn, balm, and other excellent commodi- 
ties ; but they were totally ignorant of navigation. Solomon 
employed foreign sailors in the ships which he sent to foreign 
countries. 

Canaanites. 
§ The country of the Canaanites has been already described, as it 



GREECE. 171 

was the same with that of the Hebrews, who, some time after they 
left Egypt, drove out the ancient inhabitants of the Land of Canaan. 

37. Customs, Manners, Arts, and Sciences. In these, as 
well as in language, they may be supposed to have differed 
widely' from each other, according to their different situations. 
It is easy to discern the different classes of merchants, artifi- 
cers, soldiers, shepherds, and husbandmen. 

§ Those who resided on the sea-coasts were merchants, in which 
capacity they will be considered when spoken of as Phoenicians 
Those who resided in fixed abodes and walled places, cultivated the 
land. Shepherds and soldiers led a more wandering life. As to war, 
they were by no means deficient in courage, craft, or policy. 

38. Religion. Their religion seems to have been undefiled 
to the days of Abraham, when Melcbisedek among them was 
a priest of the Most High God ; but after this period they 
must have degenerated apace. They compelled their chil- 
dren to pass through fire to Moloch, and their wickedness be- 
came extreme. 

Greece, 

39. Appearance and Face of the Country. This country, 
rendered illustrious by the intellectual elevation of its inhabi- 
tants, was a region of enchanting beauty. Its mountains 
and valleys, lakes and rivers, sufficiently diversified the sur- 
face, while their grandeur or their softness imparted an inef- 
fable charm to every prospect. It enjoyed a delightful cli- 
mate and exuberant soil. 

§ The classical reader need not to be reminded, that among a 
thousand other spots endeared to association, were Pindus and Par- 
nassus, the seats of the muses ; Athens, filled with the monuments ol 
art and genius ; woody Arcadia, sacred to Pan, and the haunt of shep- 
herds ; and Thessaly with its fields of pleasure, where 

" The smooth Peneus from its glassy flood 
Reflects purpureal Tempe's pleasant scene." 

40. Situation, Extent, and Division. Greece occupied a 
large peninsula between the south of Italy and Asia Minor, 
about 400 miles long and 150 broad. It had Epims and 
Macedonia on the north, the Mediterranean on the south, and 
the Ionian and iEgean seas washed, the one its western, and 
the other its eastern borders. 

§ In subsequent times, Epirus and Macedonia were considered as 
parts of Greece, and then the northern boundary was constituted by 
Iliyricum, Moesia, and Thrace. 

Greece consisted of two principal divisions — -Greece, pro 
perly so called, and Peloponnesus. 



m.7% GENERAL VIEWS. 

§ Greece proper included the following states; 1. Attica. 2. Bceo 
tia. 3. Acarnania. 4. iEtolia. 5. Locris. 6. Doris. 7. Phocis. 8. Thes- 
sah. 9. Epirus. 10. Macedonia. 

Peloponnesus included the following states; 1. Achaia. 2. Elis. 
3. Arcadia. 4. Messenia. 5. Laconia. 6. Argolis. 

Connected with Greece were many islands in the seas 
which surrounded it, the principal of which singly, or in clus- 
ters, were Eubcea, Lemnos, the Cyclades, Crete, Cythera, Za- 
cynthus, Cephalonia, Corcyra, Tenedos, Lesbos, Scio, Samos, 
and Patmos. 

41. Names. Greece was called Hellas by the natives, and 
its inhabitants Hellenes. From their different tribes they were 
denominated by the poets, Achivi, Danai, Argivi, Pelasgi, 
Iones, Dores, and iEoles. 

42. Interesting Localities. Almost every considerable 
place in Greece is marked by some circumstance in its natu- 
ral features, or by some achievement or event in its history, 
which connects it in the minds of scholars with the most de 
lightful associations. Several of these localities may be 
grouped together, as below. 

§ Peloponnesus took its name from Pelops, who reigned there. 
Mycenae was the city of Agamemnon. At Nemea. games were insti- 
tuted in honour of Hercules, for killing the Ne.nean lion. In Epidau- 
rus, iEsculapius was worshipped. Lerna gave name to the Le*naean 
Hydra, a monster destroyed by Hercules. 

Amyclae abounded in trees, and was honoureu with a splendid 
temple of Apollo. Helos was a place which the Spartans took, redu- 
cing the inhabitants to slavery, and hence all their slaves were called 
Helotes. Near Taenarus, the most southern point of Europe, was a 
cave through which Hercules is fabled to have dragged Cerberus from 
the infernal regions. On the mountain Taygetus, the Spartan women 
celebrated the orgies of Bacchus. 

Elis, was famous for its horses. At Olympia, the Olympic games 
were celebrated in honour of Jupiter— they date from B. C. 776, and 
form the epoch of Grecian chronology. Corinth was famous for its 
brass, a mixture of copper with some small quantity of gold and 
silver. 

Arcadia was the country of musicians and shepherds, and sacred 
to Pan, the rural deity. Mercury was born on mount Cyllene. Her- 
cules destroyed the harpies of the river and lake Stymphalus. At the 
Isthmus, games were celebrated in honour of Neptune. 

Eleusis was famous for the celebration of the mysteries of Ceres, 
in which secrecy was enjoined to the votaries, and the breach of it 
punished with death. In Attica were mount Hymettus, celebrated foi 
its honey, and mount Pentelicus, for its quarries of marble. The Boeo- 
tians were reckoned characteristically dull, though there were som» 
pplendid exceptions. 



GREECE. 173 

Chaeronea was the birth-place of Plutarch, and remarkable for the 
defeat of the allied states of Greece, by Philip, which ruined that ce- 
lebrated nation. Not far from this, was the cave of Trophonius, where 
oracles were delivered, and which rendered such as entered it me- 
lancholy for the rest of their lives. Thespia was sacred to the Muses. 
Tanagra was infamous for its cock-fighting exhibitions. At Deiium 
stood a temple of Apollo ; and the mountain of Helicon, and the 
fountain Aganippe, were consecrated to the Nine. 

Phocis, the Greeks conjectured, was not only the centre of Greece 
but of the whole earth. Delphi was rendered illustrious for the tern 
pie and oracle of Apollo, whose responses were always delivered by 
a priestess. Parnassus, and the fountain of Castalia at its foot, were 
the haunts of the Muses. Anticyra was famous for the production oi 
hellebore, once reputed a specific in maniacal cases. 

Narix was the native place of Ajax. Thermop3^1ae was a famous 
pass, justly reckoned the key of Greece, and is immortalized from the 
self-devotion of Leonidas. Where narrowest, there was room only 
for a single carriage, a ridge of impassable mountains being on the 
west, and the sea on the east, with d?ep and dangerous morasses. 

The iEtolians constituted the best cavalry in Greece. Naupactus 
was so called from the number of ships built there, but its site is now 
overflowed by the sea. Acarnania was famous for its horses. On the 
promontory Leucate, was the rock from which disappointed lovers 
sought either death or a cure, by leaping into the sea. 

Through the lake of Acherusia ran the river Acheron, and into the 
latter flows the Cocytus, both of which, on account of their muddi- 
ness, were feigned by the poets to be rivers of hell. In the interior oi 
Epirus, was the most ancient oracle of Greece, the grove, or vocal 
oaks of Dodona, sacred to Jupiter. 

Chaonia received its name from Chaon, the companion of Helenus, 
the son of Priam, who was inadvertently killed in hunting. Pindus 
was holy to Apollo and the Nine. The Acroceraunian mountains 
were so called from their tops being struck with thunder. 

The vale of Tempe was reckoned the most delicious spot on earth, 
five miles in lenglh, but in general very narrow. It had mount Olym- 
pus at the north, and Ossa at the south. These mountains, with Peli- 
on, according to story, were piled one upon another, by the giants in 
iheir war with the gods, to scale heaven. The celebrated spear of 
Achilles, which none but himself could wield, was cut down on Peli- 
on ; Thessaly was renowned for excellent horses. 

Larissa was the city of Achilles. Heraclea was so called from Her- 
cules, who is said to have consumed himself in a burning pile, on the 
top of OEta, near this place. Othrys was the abode of the Centaurs. 
On the banks of Amphrysus, Apollo used to feed the flocks of Adme- 
tus. Pierus, towards the confines of Macedonia, was sacred to the 
Muses. The women of Thessaly are said to have possessed remark- 
able skill in magic. 

Athos was a mountain through which Xerxes caused a canal to be 
cut for the passage of his army. Several towns stood upon it whose 
inhabitants were remarkable for their longevity. Stagira was the 

P2 



174 GENERAL VIEWS. 

birth place of Aristotle, whence he is called the Stagirite. Apollonia 
was a place where learning was much cultivated. Strymon was the 
river along the banks of which Orpheus is imagined to have lament 
ed his lost Eurydice. 

In the island Corey ra were the celebrated gardens of Alcinous, 
which produced fruit twice a year. Ithaca was the residence of Ulys- 
ses. Cicero compares it to a nest in a rock. The Strophades were a 
cluster of islands fabled to be infested by harpies. The inhabitants 
of JEgina. were famed for being the first people that coined money. 

Delos was the birth place of Apollo and Diana. It was said to be 
a floating island. Paros was the birth place of Phidias and Praxi- 
teles, and celebrated, moreover, for the finest marble. Naxos was fruit- 
ful in vines, and therefore sacred to Bacchus. Crete was celebrated 
for its hundred cities, and for the laws of Minos established there. 
The Cretans were celebrated archers. 

Rhodes was famous for its brazen colossus, or image of the sun, 
about 105 feet high. The metal which composed it loaded 900 camels 
Patmos was the island to which the apostle John was banished, and 
where he wrote the book of revelation. Scio was famous for its wine 
and earthen wares. Lemnos was sacred to Vulcan. In the forum of 
its principal town was the statue of an ox, made by Myron, the back 
of which, at the winter solstice, was overshadowed by mount Athos, 
though 80 miles distant. 

43. Cities. Of these there were several, the capitals of the 
different states of which Greece was composed, as Athens, 
Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Argos, and others. But of these, 
Athens and Sparta were by far the most renowned. 

Athens, the capital of Attica, was so called from Athenae, 
one of the names of the goddess Minerva, the protectress of 
the city. It was called by the ancients, for its glory in the arts 
and sciences, the learned city, the eye of Greece, the school of 
the world. 

It was situated in a large plain, about five miles from the 
sea, having in the midst of it, a mount. In its most flourish- 
ing state, according to Dio Chrysostom, it was 25 miles in cir- 
cumference. It was divided into the upper city or citadel, and 
the lower city. Both contained 440,000 inhabitants, the far 
greater part of whom were slaves. 

§ The citadel was built on the rocky mount already mentioned. It 
was called the Acropolis, or the upper city. When from the increase 
of its inhabitants, the lower grounds were occupied by buildings, 
these constituted the lower city. 

The upper city was 16 miles in circumference, and was surround- 
ed by a strong wall, beautified by 9 gates, to one of which, called the 
grand entrance, the Athenians ascended by steps, covered with white 
marble. 



GREECE. I?;? 

The lower city contained all the buildings that surrounded the ci- 
tadel, and was encompassed with strong walls. 

In the citadel were several magnificent edifices, the chief of 
which were the temple of Neptune, and the beautiful temple 
of Minerva, called Parthenon. These still continue. The lat- 
ter is justly esteemed one of the noblest remains of antiquity. 
It is 229 feet long, 101 broad, and 69 high. 

In the lower city, the most magnificent structure of Athens, 
and scarcely paralleled in the ancient world, was the temple 
of Jupiter Olympus. It was supported on marble columns, 
and was half a mile in circuit. 

In both portions of Athens there were many other splendid 
structures, and monuments without number, some of the 
proudest efforts of art and genius that the world ever beheld. 

§ Athens had three harbours on the Saronic gulf, which were joined 
to the city by two walls, called the long walls. The length of one 
of these was five miles, that of the other nearly the same. 

There were several Gymnasia, or places of exercise, in and near 
Athens, the principal of which were the Academy, the Lyceum, and 
the Cynosarges. 

A Gymnasium was a large edifice designed to accommodate many 
thousands of people together, with places for the exercises of the 
youth, and with apartments for philosophers, rhetoricians, &c. to de- 
liver their lectures. A garden and sacred grove were attached to this 
edifice. 

Sparta, called also Lacedsemon, was built upon the banks 
of the river Eurotas, and at the foot of mount Taygetus. It 
was the capital of the province of Laconia. It was of a ciicu- 
lar form, and about 6 miles in circumference. The houses 
were not built close together, but divided into different villa- 
ges, according to the ancient manner of the Greeks. It was 
destitute of w 7 alls, till it fell under the dominion of tyiants, 
after the time of Alexander. The bravery of its citizens was 
its defence. 

§ Sparta was divided into different villages, according to the ancient 
manner of the Greeks. Of these villages there were five, built round 
an eminence at different distances, each of which was occupied by 
one of the five tribes of Sparta. 

The prevailing manners were hostile to external splendour, and 
therefore the houses of the Spartans were destitute of ornaments. The 
great Square, or forum, however, in which several streets terminated, 
was embellished with temples and statues. It also contained the pub- 
lic edifices, in which the assemblies of the various bodies of magistrates 
were held. 

Sparta was also adorned with a large number of monuments, in 



176 GENERAL VIEWS, 

iionour of the gods and ancient heroes. Religious respect was shown 
to the memory of Hercules, Tyndarus, Castor, Pollux, Leonidas, &c. 
In the environs of the city were courses for horse and foot races, and 
places of exercises for youth shaded by beautiful plane trees. Indeed, 
Sparta was surrounded, to a great extent, with vineyards, olive and 
plane trees, gardens, and summer houses. 

Corinth, the capital of Achaia, was seated on the Isthmus, 
which separates Peloponnesus from Attica. It lay between 
two seas, and had two ports, one on each coast. Its citadel 
stood on the peak of a hill called Acrocorinthus. This city 
was one of the best peopled and most wealthy in G reece. It 
was destroyed by Mummius, the Roman general, during the 
Achaean league. . Corinth was partly rebuilt by Julius Caesar. 

§ The neat order of the pillars which are used at this day, in the 
decoration of all fine buildings, took from this city the name of Co- 
rinthian pillars. Its citizens made high pretensions to politeness, 
philosophy, and learning. 

Corinth enjuy .■.<! its liberty, and immense traffic, till B. C. 146, when 
it was taken and burned by the Romans. It was then deemed the 
strongest city in the world, and was a distinguished seat of opulence 
and the fine arts. Since that period it has been often burned, plun- 
dered, and subjugated, till of late, under the tyranny of the Turks, it 
was so decayed, that the population did not exceed 1500 souls, one 
half Mahometans, and the other half Christians. 

Thebes, the capital of Bceotia, was situated on the river 
Ismenus. It had seven gates, with walls about seven miles 
in ■ circumference. It was demolished by Alexander, and re- 
built by Cassander. Under Epaminondas, the Thebans be- 
came masters of Greece ; but in Strabo's time (15 or 20 years 
A. C.) Thebes was only an inconsiderable village. 

§ In the dreadful period of its demolition by Alexander, 6000 of it? 
inhabitants were slain, and 30,000 sold for slaves. The house in 
which the great lyric poet Pindar was born and educated, was ordei ed 
to be spared, and all the rest to be destroyed. 

44. Government. In general the government of Greece 
partook of a republican character, though it varied at different 
periods, and was in fact different in the several states. In some 
of them it exhibited the features of monarchy or aristocracy. 
They frequently entered into leagues and confederacies with 
each other, and in this respect bore some faint resemblance to 
the present government of the United States of America. 
But on this article we are under the necessity of speaking of 
the respective states of Greece, chiefly Athens and Sparta, 
who were, in general, so superior to the rest. 



OR EEC E. J;, 

Government of Athens. 

§The government of Athens was at first monarchical, but after the 
death of Codrus, it became in a degree democratic. 

Classes of the inhabitants. The Athenians were divided 
into three classes, citizens or freemen, foreigners or sojourners, 
and slaves. Citizens were the privileged class, who held ex- 
clusively the offices of government The privileges of citizen 
ihip were obtained with difficulty, and deemed of great value 
rhey were conferred only by an assembly of the people, except 
where they were inherited by those whose parents were citizens. 

§ The citizens of Athens were divided into ten tribes; but they were 
not limited to the city, a part of them residing in the small boroughs 
of Attica, These tribes were named after certain ancient heroes ; 
each tribe was again subdivided into three parts, and each of these 
into 30 families. 

Sojourners were persons who came from a foreign country, 
and settled with their families in Attica. They were per 
mitted to exercise trades in the city, and were protected by the 
government, but had no vote in the assembly, nor could they 
be raised to any office. 

§ In some instances, when they had rendered important services, 
ihey were adopted into the class of citizens. 

Slaves or servants were distinguished into two sorts. The 
first consisted of free born citizens who, through poverty, were 
forced to serve for wages. These could either change their 
masters or release themselves when able to procure a subsist- 
ence. The second sort were wholly at the disposal of their 
masters, and in general placed beyond the hope of procuring 
their own freedom, or leaving it as a legacy to their children. 

§ Sometimes slaves obtained their freedom by fighting for the re- 
public, or purchased it by means of their savings. 

Magistrates. The Athenian magistrates were divided into 
three sorts, distinguished by the different methods of their 
election. These were, 1. the Chirotoneti, chosen by the people 
in a lawful assembly, in which they voted by holding up their 
hands. 2. The Cleroti, first approved by the people, and then 
drawn by lot. 3. The Ereti, extraordinary officers appointed 
by particular tribes, to take care of any business. 

§ The poorer citizens were eligible to office ; yet it was seldom that 
any but the most distinguished persons, were actually appointed as 
magistrates. The candidates were required to give an account of 
their past life in the public forum. 

Magistrates, while in office, were liable to be tried on an accusation 
of neglect of duty ; and after their term of office had expired, they 



178 GENERAL VIEWS. 

were obliged to render an account of their conduct. During thirty 
days, any man who chose might bring a complaint of mal-adminis- 
tration. 

The usual government of Athens was carried on by the 
Archons, the Senate of 500, and assemblies of the people. 

The Archons held the supreme executive power. They 
were elected annually, and by the second method above 
named, viz. by lot. They wore garlands of myrtle, were pro- 
tected from violence and insult, and were exempted from 
certain taxes. 

§ The archons were nine in number. The first was called archon, by 
way of eminence. He decided on causes between married persons, 
also concerning wills, divorces, and legacies. He was the general 
guardian of orphans. ' Some other important concerns were assigned 
to him. 

The second archon was styled Basileus, and wore a crown. The 
third archon was called Polemarch. The six remaining archons 
were named Thesmothetae. Their respective duties need not be de- 
scribed. Suffice it to say, that the concern of the archons, as such, 
was the execution of laws and the general superintendence of the 
republic. Subordinate magistrates regulated minor details in the 
police. 

The Senate of five hundred was elected annually by lot, 
from the different tribes. The business of this body was to 
consider all proposals intended to come before the people, and 
to see that nothing improper should be submitted. 

§ The power of this senate was considerable. They debated a J 
measures of public interest and welfare, examined the acounts of 
magistrates, took care of the fleet, and could punish for offences not 
prohibited by any law. 

Assemblies of the people were convened for the purpose of 
consulting on what was most beneficial to the commonwealth. 
The right of attending them was enjoyed by all the freemen 
of Athens. Strangers, slaves, women, and persons who had 
received an infamous punishment, were excluded. They 
were held four times every 35 days, and also in cases of pecu- 
liar emergency. 

§ The smallest number of which an assembly could legally consist 
was 6000 citizens. The assemblies decided respecting peace or war ; 
received ambassadors ; confirmed or abrogated laws ; nominated to 
almost every important office, &c. 

Here was the field in which the good or the bad influence of the 
orators of Athens was exerted ; in which their talents were elicited 
and their fame acquired ; in which Pericles "thundered," iEschines 
charmed, and Demosthenes ruled the hearts of men. 

There were also other bodies of men occasicnallv concerned 



GREECE. 179 

in the government of Athens, as various courts, particularly 
that celebrated one called Areopagus. 

The name of this court was taken from the place where it was held, 
viz. Mars' Hill. It was in the greatest repute throughout Greece 
for the wisdom and justice of its proceedings. It took cognizance of 
crimes, abuses, and innovations either in religion or government. It 
inspected the laws and public manners. 

The strictest propriety of conduct was required of the members. 
Expulsion followed any act of gross immorality. To laugh during 
the sitting of the court, was thought a very blameable levity. 

There was an absurd peculiarity in the government of 
Athens, which should not be omitted. It was ostracism, a 
kind of popular judgment so call from ostrakon, a shell, or tile, 
on which votes were written. 

§ The following was the process in this condemnation. The people 
being assembled, each citizen writing on a shell the name of the 
individual most obnoxious to him without the allegation of a crime, 
carried it to a certain part of the market place fixed for this purpose, 
and deposited it there. These shells were numbered in gross by the 
archons. If they did not amount to 6000, the ostracism was void. 
If they amounted to this number, the archons, laying every name by 
itself, pronounced him, whose name was written by the major part, 
banished for ten years, with leave to enjoy his estate. Hence it was 
that so many eminent citizens suffered from the ingratitude or the 
spleen of the Athenians. 

Government of Sparta. 

Classes of the inhabitants. The inhabitants of Sparta 
consisted of citizens and slaves, or Helots. The citizens were 
divided into two classes, the Homoii, and the Hypomiones. 
The privileges of these varied ; the former were eligible to 
office ; the latter consisting of the poorer citizens, the freed- 
men and their sons, were allowed only to vote at the elections. 

The slaves, or Helots, were much more numerous than the 
citizens. Their services were similar to those of servants 
in general, though less severe than those of servants elsewhere 
in Greece. 

Kings. The republic of Sparta had two magistrates, called 
kings, but they differed from those of most other nations. 
They formed a check upon each other, and their power 
otherwise was very limited. 

§ Every month they took an oath that they would rule according to 
the laws ; one of them commanded the army, while the other usually 
remained at home to administer the laws. As first citizens of the 
state, they presided in the senate, but their peculiar prerogative was 
to superintend the religion of the state. 



180 GENERAL VIEWS. 

Senate. This body consisted, together with the two kings, 
of twenty-eight members, who were above sixty years of age. 
and elected to the office for life, and on account of their virtue. 
Their duty was to consider all questions respecting peace cr 
war, and other important affairs of the republic. 

Ephori. The Ephori were five magistrates, elected annu- 
ally by the citizens, to inspect the education of the youth, and 
the administration of justice. 

Assemblies. The public assemblies were held to decide on 
matters laid before them by the Senate. There were two of 
these bodies ; one was called the general assembly, attended 
by all the freemen of Laconia ; the other, the lesser assembly, 
composed of the Spartans alone, who exceeded thirty years of 
age. 

It is to be noticed, that the kings, as well as the other magistrates, 
constituted a portion of these bodies. 

Government of the other States of Greece. 

Like Athens and Sparta, the government* of the other 
sovereignties of Greece was, for the most part, republican. 
In some of them there was a preponderance of aristocracy, in 
others of democracy. Thebes was more nearly a monarchy. 

§ Many of the sovereigns of Thebes were celebrated for their mis- 
fortunes, such as Laius, (Edipus, Polynices, &c. 

Pertaining to the government of the Greeks, as a confede- 
rated body, was the Amphictyonic Council. This was an as- 
sembly composed, at first, of a few states in the northern parts 
of Greece, but afterwards of twelve states, the object of which 
was the decision of all differences between cities, and to try 
such offences as openly violated the laws of nations. 

§ The number of deputies usually sent to this council was two from 
each state. It met twice a j^ear. The vernal assembly was held at 
Delphi, and the autumnal at Thermopylae. 

45. Military Affairs. The armies of the different slates 
of Greece consisted, for the most part, of citizens, whom the 
laws of their country obliged at a certain age to appear in 
arms, at the summons of the magistrate. 

§ The main body of the Grecian armies was composed of infantry. 
The rest rode in chariots, upon horseback, or upon elephants. 

The Greek arms were at first made of brass, and the boots, 
and some other parts, of tin. Iron became afterwards the 
chief material. The defensive arms were a helmet, a breast 



GREECE. 181 

plate, and a plate for the back, greaves to defend the legs, 
guards for the hands, a sort of belt which covered a part of 
the body in front, and a shield. 

The offensive arms were the spear, or pike, the sword, the 
pole axe, a club of wood or iron, the bow and arrow> darts or 
javelins, and slings. 

§ The Greeks, however brave in the field, were very inefficient in 
undertaking the siege of Walled towns. Their armies were generally 
;he militia of the country, called out to temporary service. 

The severest punishments were inflicted by the Lacedaemonians 
on deserters, or cowards, who fled from battle. They forfeited all the 
privileges and honours of citizens ; it was a disgrace to intermarry 
with them ; they might be beaten by any who met them, without 
the liberty of self-defence ; and they wore some distinguishing dress 
as a mark of infamy. 

Archilochus, the poet, was banished Sparta for writing an epigram, 
in which he jestingly related the loss of his shield. 

46. Naval Affairs. The Greek ships consisted chieily of 
three sorts : ships of war, those of burthen, and those of pas- 
sage. 

§ Ships of passage were used as transports ; ships of burthen served 
as tenders, and were usually of a round form ; ships of war contained 
the men and the weapons by which the naval engagement was car- 
ried on, and were distinguished by the several orders or banks of 
oars which they possessed. These were not fixed in a vertical line 
over each other, but back of each other, ascending gradually in the 
form of stairs. 

47. Religion. The Greeks, who were heathens, wor- 
shipped great numbers of gods and demi-gods, whom they 
divided into three classes : — celestial, marine, and infernal. 
They were all subject to Jupiter, who was considered the 
father of gods and men. The above classes are according to 
their degrees of dignity. 

§ The gods of Greece are described by the poets according to tradi- 
tion, and with such embellishments as poetic genius could invent. 
As the Greeks had no sacred books, these fictions, sanctioned also by 
the priests and legislators, were the only authority for the popular 
belief. 

The account we here give of the mythology of the Greeks is to be 
regarded as a description only of their principal deities, and under the 
forms in which the poets, sculptors, and painters, represented them. 
If this article should appear to be somewhat particular, compared 
with the others respecting Greece, it is because the mythology of this 
country is the same nearly with that of the whole ancient world, and 
is necessary to be known in reading the Grecian and Roman classics. 

The celestial deities were Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, Mercury 

Q 



182 'SEKERAL VIEWS. 

Bacchus, Vulcan, Juno, Minerva, Venus, Diana, Ceres, dfc^ 
Vesta. 

Jupiter was the son of Saturn and Cybele ; and born at the same 
birth with Juno, on mount Ida in Crete. He deposed his father, and 
divided the world between himself and his brethren, Neptune and 
Pluto. Neptune had the jurisdiction of the .sea, and Pluto that of the 
infernal regions. The sovereignty of heaven and earth he reserved to 
himself, 

One of his great exploits was the conquest of the Titans, or giants, 
who heaped mountains upon mountains to scale heaven. Jupiter 
was guilty of indulging the basest lusts, although he is generally re- 
presented as the father of men and gods, as shaking heaven with his 
nod, and governing all things, except the Fates, by his power as su- 
preme. His altars were never defiled with human sacrifices. 

He is generally represented as a majestic personage, seated on a 
throne, with a sceptre in one hand, and thunderbolts in the other, 
and at his feet an eagle with expanded wings. 

Apollo was the son of Jupiter and Latona, and born in the island 
of Delos- He presided over music, medicine, poetry, divination, the 
fine arts, and archery. For his offence in killing the Cyclops, he was 
banished from heaven, and obliged to hire himself as a shepherd to 
Admetus, king of Thessaly, in which employment he remained nine 
years. 

His adventures on earth are represented as extraordinary. Among 
others he flayed Marsyas alive for contending with him in music ; he 
caused Midas to receive a pair of ass's ears for preferring Pan's mu- 
sic to his ; he turned into a voilet the beautiful boy Hyacinthus, whom 
he accidentally killed with a quoit ; and his mistress Daphne he me- 
tamorphosed into a laurel. 

He is represented as a tall, beardless youth, with rays round his 
head ; sometimes he holds a lyre in his hand, sometimes he has a 
bow, with a quiver of arrows at his back. 

Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He was the god of war, 
and patron of all that is bloody, cruel, and furious. The horse, the 
wolf, the magpie, and the vulture, were offered to him. He had his 
temples in all nations, as well as among the Greeks and Romans. 
During the Trojan war Mars was wounded by Diomedes, and hastily 
retreating to heaven, complained to Jupiter, that Minerva had direct- 
ed the weapon of his antagonist. 

He is represented as an old man, armed and standing in a chariot, 
drawn by two horses, called Flight and Terror ; his sister Bellona, 
was his charioteer. Discord goes before him in a tattered garment 
with a torch, and Anger and Clamour follow. 

Mercury, the son of Jupiter and Maia, was the messenger of the 
fMjris, the patron of travellers, shepherds, orators, merchants, thieves, 
and dishonest persons. His exploits abundantly support this charac- 
ter. Mercury was doubtless some enlightened person in a remote 
age, who,- on account of his actions or services was worshipped after 
his death. His Greek name, Hermes, signifies to interpreter explain, 
and he appears to have taught men the arts of civilization. 




Mars. 





Mercury. 



Bacchus. 




Yen us. 



Dicu 



GREECE. 183 

iflc is represented as a naked youth, standing on tiptoe, having a 
winged cap on his head, and winged sandals on his feet ; in one hand 
he held a rod, and in the other a purse. 

Bacchus was the son of Jupiter and Semele, and the god of wine. 
flis festivals were celebrated by persons of both sexes, who dressed 
themselves in skins, and ran about the hills and country shouting, 
and accompanying their shouts with drums, fifes, and flutes. These 
solemnities were attended with disgusting scenes of drunkenness and 
debauchery. The fir, yew, and fig tree, the ivy and vine, were sacred 
to him. 

Bacchus is depicied as a corpulent and ruddy youth, crowned with 
ivy and vine leaves; holding in his hand a small javelin bound with 
vine leaves ; his chariot is drawn by lions. 

Vulcan, the god of fire, and patron of those who wrought in the 
metallic arts, was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He was kicked out 
of heaven by Jupiter, for attempting to deliver his mother from a 
chain by which she was suspended. He continued to descend nine 
days and nights, and lighted on the island of Lemnos, but was crip- 
pled ever after. 

Vulcan was the artificer of heaven \ he forged the thunderbolts of 
Jupiter, also the arms of gods and demi-gods. Though deformed, 
squalid, and sooty, he is made the husband of Venus and father of 
Cupid. 

Vulcan is represented as working at a forge. One hand raising a 
hammer ready to strike, the other holding a thunderbolt with pin- 
cers on an anvil. An eagle waits to carry it to Jupiter when 
finished. 

Juno, styled the queen of heaven, was both the sister and wife of 
Jupiter. She was born at Argos, or as some report, in Samos. In 
her character she was haughty, jealous, and inexorable, though the 
ancients held her in great veneration, inasmuch as she presided over 
power, empire, and riches, and was the special protectress of mar- 
riage and child birth. 

She was lofty, graceful, and magnificent in her face, figure, and 
motion, and of all the pagan divinities her worship was the most so- 
lemn and general. 

She is represented seated on a throne, or in a chariot drawn by 
peacocks, with a diadem or fillet adorned with jewels on her head 
and a golden sceptre in her hand. Iris, displaying the rich colours of 
the rainbow, is her usual attendant. 

Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, sprang completely armed from 
the head of Jupiter. She was the most accomplished of all the god- 
desses, and the only divinity that seemed equal to Jupiter. She was 
a benificent goddess, and instructed in ship building, navigation, spin- 
ning, and weaving, fier worship was universally established, but 
Athens claimed her particular attention. 

She is represented as a majestic female, of commanding aspect^ 
armed with a helmet, breastplate, shield, and spear. By her side, or 
on her crest, is an owl, the bird which is sacred to her. 

Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, was the daughter of Jupi' 



184 GENERAL VIEWS. 

ter and Dione, or as some say, she sprung from the froth of the sea. 
She was licentious in a high degree, and her worship was celebrated 
with the most disgraceful ceremonies. The most beautiful of her 
temples were those of Paphos, Cnidus, Cythera, and Idalia. The 
island of Cyprus was her favourite residence. 

She is represented as a beautiful woman, elegantly attired, and girt 
about the waist with a cestus, or girdle, that had the power of inspi- 
ring love. 

Diana was the queen of the woods and the goddess of hunting. 
She devoted herself to perpetual celibacy, and had for her attendants 
80 nymphs, all of whom abjured the rites of marriage. Among 
plants, the poppy and dittany were sacred to her. 

She is represented as a tall, majestic woman, lightly clad, with a 
crescent on her forehead, a bow in her hand, a quiver on her shoul- 
ders, her legs bare, and buskins on her feet. 

Ceres the goddess of corn and harvest, was the daughter of Sa- 
turn and Cybele, and the first who taught to cultivate the earth. She 
was a beneficent goddess, but led a licentious life. To her honour the 
Eleusiman mysteries were celebrated. 

She is represented as a majestic and beautiful woman, crowned 
with ears of corn ; in one hand she held poppies and ears of corn, 
and in the other a lighted torch. 

Vesta was the goddess of fire, and guardian of houses and hearths. 
She ever remained a virgin, and received the first oblations in sacri- 
fice. 

She was represented in a long, flowing robe, a veil on her head, a 
lamp in one hand, and a javelin in the other. 

The marine deities were .Neptune, and his wife Amphi- 
trite, Oceanus and his wife Thetys, Triton, Proteus, Nereus, 
*ind his sister and consort Doris, <fcc. 

Neptune, the brother of Jupiter, was second in rank among the 
gods, and reigned over the sea. Conspiring against Jupiter, he was 
defeated, banished from heaven, and for one year made subject to 
Laomedon, king of Troy, where he assisted to build the walls of that 
city. 

Neptune is represented seated in a chariot made of a shell and 
drawn by dolphins and sea horses, surrounded by tritons, nymphs, 
and sea monsters. On his head he wears a crown, and in his hand 
holds a trident, or sceptre, with three prongs. 

Oceanws, a sea god, was the son of Ccelum and Vesta. He was 
called the father, not only of rivers, but of animals. He and his wife 
Thetys are said to have had 3000 sons. 

Triton, also a sea god, was the son of Neptune and Amphitrite; 
he was his father's companion and trumpeter. 

Half of him resembles a man ; the other part is like a fish ; his two 
feet are like the fore feet of a horse ; his tail is cleft and crooked like 
a half moon ; and his hair resembles wild parsley. 

Nereus, a sea god, the son of Oceanus, was the father of fifty daugh- 
ters by his wife Doris, who were called Nereids. 





Ceres. 



Vesta. 




Neptune* 




Oeeanus* 



Triton 




Fates. 



Cupid. 



Graces. 



GREECE. 185 

Proteus, fhe son of Oceanus, a god of the sea, could foretell future 
events, and change himself into any shape. 

The infernal deities were Pluto and his consort Proserpine, 
Plutus, Charon, the Furies, Fates, and the three judges, Mi- 
nos, vEacus, and Rhadamanthus. 

§ Pluto, who exercised dominion over hell, was the brother of Ju- 
piter. The goddesses all refusing to marry him on account of his de- 
formity and gloomy disposition, he seized Proserpine, the daughter 
of Ceres, in Sicily, opened a passage through the earth, carried hei to 
his residence, married, and made her queen of hell. No te^nples w r 3re 
raised to his honour. 

He is represented seated on a throne of sulphur, from beneath 
which flow the rivers Lethe, Phlegethon, Cocytus, and Acheron. His 
countenance is stern; on his head is a radiated crown j in one hand a 
sceptre with two teeth, called a bident, and in the other, two keys. 

Plutus, an infernal deity, was the god of riches. He was lame, blind, 
injudicious, and timorous. 

Charon was the ferryman of hell, an old man with white hair, a 
long beard and garments, deformed with filth, in speech morose, and 
ill-tempered. Every ghost paid a small brass coin for his fare. 

None could enter Charon's boat without a regular burial ; without 
this, they wandered a hundred years, amidst the mud and slime of 
the shore. By him departed souls were ferried over the four rivers ol 
hell, and carried to Pluto's palace. 

The Furies were three in number, Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megara. 
They have the faces of women, their looks are full of terror, they 
hold lighted torches in their hands, and snakes lash their necks and 
shoulders. Their office is to observe and punish the crimes of bad 
men, and torment the consciences of secret offenders. 

The Fates were three daughters of Jupiter by Themis. Their 
names were Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos. They decided on the 
fortunes of mankind. Clotho drew the thread of life, Lachesis turned 
the wheel, and Atropos cut it with her scissors. 

Minos, ^Eacus, and Rhadamanthus, were the three judges of the 
souls of the dead. They assigned various punishments to the wick- 
ed, adapted to their crimes ; to the good they gave a place in the de- 
lightful realms of Elysium. 

There were many other divinities of various characters and 
descriptions : as, Cupid, the god of love; the Muses, who pre- 
sided over poetry, music, dancing, and the liberal arts ; the 
Graces, &c. 

§ Cupid, representing the passion of love, was a beautiful winged 
boy, with a bow and arrows, and often with a bandage over his eyes. 
Sometimes he is bestriding the back of a lion, playing on a lyre ; 
sometimes he appears mounted on a dolphin ; at others, breaking the 
winged thunderbolt of Jove, or amusing himself with childish diver- 
sions. 

The Muses were the daughters of Jupiter by Mnemosyne. They 
were nine in number viz. 

Q2 



186 GENERAL VIEWS. 

1st. Calliope, who presides over eloquence and heroic or epic pod* 
try, such as Homer's Iliad. 

2d. Clio, who presides over history. 

3d. Erato, the muse ol elegiac or lyric poetry. 

4th. Euterpe, presiding over music. 

5th. Melpomene, the inventress and muse of tragedy. 

6th. Polyhymnia, the muse of singing and rhetoric. 

7th. Terpsichore, who presides over-dancing. 

8th. Thalia, the muse of pastoral or comic poetry. 
^9th. Urania, who presides over hymns and sacred subjects, and is 
the muse of astronomy. 

The Graces were the daughters of Bacchus and Venus, and three 
in number. They were supposed to give to beauty its attractions, and 
to render even homeliness pleasing. 

They are usually represented as young and blooming virgins, 
Jightly clad, and holding each other by the hand, to show the mutual 
affection that subsisted between them. 

Besides these, there were rural deities, as Pan, Sylvanus, 
Priapus, Ari-( . us, Terminus, and others. There were also 
the Sirens, Gorgons, Harpies, Dryads, Naiads, Nereids, Tri- 
tons, Lares, Penates, Fauns, Satyrs. Pales, and a vast number 
of Nymphs. 

§ Pan was the principal among the inferior deities, and was the god 
of hunters, shepherds, and country people generally. 

Sylvanus was next to Pan, and presided over woods. Priapus pre- 
sided over gardens. Aristaeus invented the art of extracting oil from 
olives, and found the use of honey. Terminus was considered as 
watching over the boundaries of lands. 

The Sirens were three fabulous persons, who were said to have the 
faces of women, and the lower parts of their bodies like fish. They 
had such melodious voices, that mariners were often allured by them 
to their own destruction. 

The Gorgons, three sisters, had the power of transforming those 
into stones who looked at them. 

Tne Harpies are said to have been winged monsters which had the 
face of a woman, the body and wings of a vulture, claws on the hands 
and feet, and the ears of a bear. 

The Dryads were nymphs who presided over the woods. 
' The Naiads were nymphs of springs and fountains. 

The Nereids were nymphs of the sea, and daughters of Nereusand 
Doris. 

The Tritons were sea gods, with their upper parts like a man, and 
their lower parts resembling a fish. 

The Lares and Penates were inferior deities who presided over 
houses and families. 

The Fauns and Satyrs were rural demi-gods, the one attending on 
Pan, and the other on Bacchus. 

Pales was the goddess of shepherds and pastures. 

The Nymphs were celestial and terrestrial ; the former guided the 





Caliope* 



Clio. 



Erato. 





Euterpe. 



Melpomene* Polyhymnia. 




'leipsichore. 



Urania. 



Thalia. 



GREECE. 187 

heavenly bodies, the latter presided over the woods. They are repre- 
sented as beautiful creatures, inhabiting every forest and glen. 

The worship of these divinities was conducted by priests 
dressed in costly habits, who offered sacrifices of animals, 
fruits, perfumes, &c. These sacrifices were sometimes ac- 
companied by prayers, music, dancing, &c. Human victims 
were occasionally sacrificed. 

§ The Greeks derived their religion principally from Egypt ; but 
by degrees the legislators, poets, and priests, extended it, till the 
multitude of gods was almost innumerable. Thirty thousand ob- 
jects of worship have been enumerated among them. These deities 
were supposed frequently to mingle in the affairs of men, and are re- 
presented as being stained with almost every vice. 

Temples were erected, festivals instituted, games celebrated, and 
sacrifices offered, with more or less pomp to all these gods, as also to 
the souls of departed heroes. 

The religion of the common people consisted chiefly in the exter- 
nal honours paid to their gods, and an attendance upon sacrifices and 
ceremonies, though these were performed with great reverence. 
With respect to a future state of existence, the philosophers seem to 
have been in doubt. The poets inculcated a belief in Tartarus, or 
Hell, and Elysium, or Paradise. Women were not encouraged with 
any hope of immortality. 

Of Hell they have drawn a picture in the most gloomy 
and horrific colours, where men who have been remarkable 
for wickedness are tortured with a variety of miseries adapted 
to their crimes. 

The prospect of Elysium is described by Homer, Hesiod, 
Pindar, and others, as beautiful and inviting in the highest 
degree. In that delightful region, there is no inclement 
weather, but soft winds blow from the ocean to refresh the 
inhabitants, who live without care or anxiety ; there reigns 
perpetual sunshine and serenity of sky ; and the f rtile earth 
produces thrice in a year delicious fruits for their sustenance. 

With the religion of the Greeks were connected their tem- 
ples, oracles, games, &c. 

The principal temples of the Greeks were those of Diana, 
at Ephesus, of Apollo, in the city of Miletus, of Ceres and Pro- 
serpine, at Eleusis, and that of Olympian Jove, at Athens. 
These were all built of marble, and adorned with the finest 
ornaments. The most celebrated Grecian temple, however, 
was that of Apollo at Delphos, which was revered and resort- 
ed to by all the surrounding nations. 

§ Statues of the gods, to whom these structures were dedicated, 
were erected in or near the centre of the building, and enclosed by 



188 GENERAL VIEWS. 

railing. Sacrifices of various kinds were made before these statue* 
the ceremonies of which were generally conducted by the priests. 

Temples among the heathen most probably owe their origin to 
the superstitious reverence paid by the ancients to the memory of 
their deceased friends and benefactors. As most of their gods were 
eminent men, who were consecrated after death ; so the first heathen 
temples, we naturally infer, were stately monuments erected in ho- 
nour of the dead. 

Oracles were consulted by the Greeks on all important oc- 
casions, and their determinations were held sacred and invio- 
lable. There were certain temples, in which future events 
were made known to those who devoutly sought to know the 
will of superior powers. Certain priests or priestesses commu 
nicated this supposed will. 

§ Well have they been called lying oracles, in comparison with 
the clear predictions of the prophets of Jehovah in the scriptures . 
The most celebrated oracles were those of Apollo, at Delphi and De 
los, the oracle of Jupiter, at Dodona, and that of Trophonius. 

The public and solemn games in Greece were the Olym- 
pic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian — four in number. The 
contests at these games were running, leaping, throwing the 
quoit, boxing, and wrestling. Horse races and chariot races 
were also in repute. Besides these, there were contests in 
which musicians, poets, artists, and philosophers, engaged for 
victory. 

These occasions drew together people from all parts of 
Greece, and even strangers from foreign countries. The ut- 
most emulation obtained to secure the prizes, which were 
wreaths of various evergreens ; and the highest honours and 
respect were shown towards the victors. Their praises were 
universally celebrated. The effect of these games on the 
national spirit was remarkable. 

§ The Olympic Games were instituted by Hercules in honour of 
Jupiter Olympius, 1222 years B. C, and renewed after a long period, 
first by Lycurgus, 884 B. C, and next by Corcebus, 776 B. C. The 
last period is the era of the first Olympiad. An Olympiad was the 
space (which was four years,) intervening between one celebration 
and another— the Greek method of computing time. The victors 
were crowned with olive. 

The Pythian Games were celebrated every fifth year, in the second 
year of every Olympiad, near Delphi, in honour of Apollo. The vic- 
tors were crowned with laurel. The exercises were nearly the same 
as at the Olympic. 

The Nemean Games, which were instituted by Hercules, were ce- 
lebrated every third year at the town of Nemea, with the usual ex 
ercises. The victors were crowned with parsley. 



GREECE. 189 

The Isthmian Games were celebrated near the Isthmus of Corinth, 
whence they derived their name. Their occurrence was every third, 
and afterwards every fifth year. The victors were crowned with gar- 
lands of pine leaves. 

48. Literature. In literature, Greece was the glory of 
the whole earth. No nation, ancient or modern, has ever 
surpassed the Greeks in literary taste and genius. Since 
their time, great advances have indeed been made in the sci- 
ences, strictly so called, and in some branches joi polite learn- 
ing ; yet in chaste and beautiful composition, in liveliness of 
fancy, in sweetness of periods, in the various forms of intel- 
lectual effort under the names of poetry, oratory, and history, 
they are still unrivalled, in mere human productions. 

§ The Greeks derived a part of their learning from Egypt and 
Phcenicia, but they originated much of it, and here consists then pe- 
culiar glory. The praise of invention belongs to them, and even of 
perfection in some departments. 

Cadmus taught them the alphabet 1519 years B. C. It then con- 
tained but 16 letters, and the method of writing was from left to 
right, and from right to left alternately. This circumstance essenti- 
ally contributed to the rapid advances made by the Greeks in civili- 
zation and knowledge. 

Poetry, in Greece, was extremely ancient. It was cultivated 
even before the introduction of letters. In the various forms 
under which it is usually arranged, there are specimens of 
surpassing excellence, and names that can never be forgotten 

§ In epic poetry, we find the sublime Homer, and the moral Hesi- 
od. In lyric poetry, shine the gay Anacreon, the sweet Sappho, and 
the fanciful and daring Pindar. 

In the drama we meet the names of the wild iEschylus, the pa- 
thetic Euripides, the pure and grand Sophocles, and the delicate Me- 
nander. In pastoral poetry, we read of the easy Bion and the ele- 
gant Moschus ; and every classical scholar knows, that Theocritus is 
only another name for simplicity and nature. 

Oratory was greatly cultivated among the Greeks, parti- 
cularly in Athens, whose institutions were rather more free 
than was elsewhere the case in Greece. It became an object 
of attention soon after the Persian invasion, about 480 years 
B. C. It was cultivated with singular success— -was bold and 
vehement at first, but afterwards more refined and elegant. 

§ Here Pericles awed, by the majesty of his expressions ; Thucy- 
dides, who was an orator, as well as a historian, arrested the thoughts 
of others, by the force of his own. Here Isocrates soothed the ear by 
harmony of periods, and Demosthenes flashed conviction and im- 
pelled tc action, by the united energy of his gesture, voice, and ar- 
guments 



190 GENERAL VIEWS. 

History, after those earlier ages in which poetry was the 
vehicle of recorded evente, was cultivated with an interest and 
success demanded by its importance. The Greeks possessed 
several most distinguished historians. 

§ Such were Herodotus, who was characterized by a simple and 
elegant style and engaging manner ; Thucydides, whose reflections 
were profound, and fidelity unequalled ; Xenophon, who combined 
simplicity of style with sagacity of observation. ■ 

Philosophy among the Greeks, was divided into various 
schools or sects. The professors of philosophy arose from the 
early Rhapsodists — men who recited the poems of Homer and 
others at the public games, commenting at the same time 
upon them, and who, having established schools, were digni- 
fied by the name of sophists, or teachers of wisdom. The 
Grecian philosophy, was, however, merely speculative, and 
seldom based upon facts. 

§ The principal sects of philosophy in Greece were the Ionic, the 
most ancient, founded by Thales ; the Italian, by Pythagoras ; the 
Socratic, by Socrates; the Cynic, by Antisthenes; the Academic, by 
Plato; the Peripatetic, by Aristotle; the Sceptical, by Pyrrho; the 
Stoic, by Zeno ; the Epicurean, by Epicurus. 

These sects were distinguished by certain peculiarities of doctrine, 
as for instance, the Italian taught the transmigration of souls ; the 
Socratic insisted on the excellence of virtue ; the Cynic condemned 
all knowledge, society, and the arts of life ; the Academic dealt in 
ideal forms, and mystical theogony ; the Peripatetic exhibited the 
model of a perfect logic; the Sceptical inculcated universal doubt; the 
Stoic decried all weakness, and made insensibility a virtue ; and the 
Epicurean pointed to pleasure as the supreme good. 

The Peripatetic sect, or the school of Aristotle, has exerted the 
greatest influence over the human mind. It reigned in the schools 
through 1600 years. 

The principle of all things was a subject of special research by the 
philosophers of Greece. It may be curious to know their opinions 
on this topic. 
Anaximenes, taught that this principle consisted of - - Water. 

Thales, - Water. 

Anaxagoras, -------- Infinite air. 

Archelaus, ------- - Matter and Spirit. 

Heraclitus, ---- Fire. 

Democritus, --------- Atoms. 

Pythagoras, --------- Unity. 

Plato, -.---__ God, Idea, and matter. 

Aristotle, ----- Matter, Form, and Privation. 

Zeno, - - God and Matter, (the only things without beginning.) 
Epicurus, Matter and empty Space. 

The seven wise men of Greece, who are found in the ranks of phi 



GREECE. 191 

fosophy, were Thales,of Miletus ; Solon, of Athens; Bias, of Priene; 
Chiio, of Lacedaemon ; Cleobulus, of Lindos; Pittacus, of Mitylene; 
and Periander, of Corinth. 

49. The arts. Greece, in the age of Pericles, about 430 
B. C, abounded in architects, sculptors, and painters. It was 
then in the zenith of its glory in literature, as well as the arts. 
Tndeed this was the taste of the public mind, until after the 
death of Alexander. Even to this day, Greece, particularly 
Athens, is the instructress of the world in those monuments 
of its arts and genius that yet remain. 

In the useful and necessary arts of life, the Greeks nevei 
made any great improvement. Agriculture, manufactures, 
and commerce, were left for other nations to perfect. But in 
the fine arts, appropriately so called, Greece was superior to all 
ancient nations, and probably not excelled by any modern. 
Indeed, we ma} r say that the Greeks carried architecture, 
sculpture, and painting, to perfection. 

§ This people invented that system of architecture, which is univer- 
sally considered the most finished and perfect. 

The Greek architecture consisted of three distinct orders, the Doric, 
the Ionic, and the Corinthian. The Doric possessed a masculine 
grandeur, and sublime plainness. The Ionic was marked with 
gracefulness and elegance. The Corinthian affected the highest mag- 
nificence and ornament, by uniting the characteristics of all the orders. 

In sculpture, the Greeks excelled no less than in architecture. 
Specimens of their art in this respect are perfect models. The Dying 
Gladiator, the Venus, and the Laocoon, of the Greek sculptors, have 
an imperishable fame. 

In painting, though very few specimens have descended down to 
us, they are supposed also greatly to have excelled. The works of 
Zeuxis, Apelles, Parrhasius, Protogens, and Timanthes, which have 
perished, were highly extolled by the writers of antiquity. 

In music, the Greeks appear to have been less conspicuous than 
several modern nations. 

50. Private and domestic Life. The dress of the Greeks, 
as well as of other ancient nations, differed much from that of 
most modern nations. 

The men wore an inner garment called tunic, over which 
they threw a mantle ; their shoes, or sandals, were fastened 
under the soles of their feet with thongs or ropes. 

The women, particularly in Athens, wore a white tunic, 
which was closely bound with a broad sash, and descended in 
waving folds down to the heels ; also a shorter robe, confined 
round the waist with a ribbon, bordered at the bottom with 



192 GENERAL VIEWS. 

stripes of various colours ; over this they sometimes put on a 
robe, which was worn gathered up like a scarf. 

In the earlier ages of Greece, its inhabitants used no cover- 
ing on their heads ; but in after times they wore hats, that 
were tied under the chin. Women, however, always had 
their heads covered. 

$ The Athenians wore in their hair golden grasshoppers, as em- 
blems of the antiquity of their nation, intimating that they were sprung 
from the earth. 

In Sparta, the kings, magistrates, and citizens, were but little distin- 
guished by external appearance. The military costume was of a red 
colour. 

The Greeks, in general, set a high value on scarlet colour, and a 
still greater on purple. 

The meals of the Greeks were usually four in number : 
ISreakfast was taken about the rising of the sun ; the next 
meal at mid-day ; then came the afternoon repast ; and lastly 
the supper, which was the principal meal, as it was taken aftei 
the business of the day. 

§ At Sparta they ate together at public tables, and the chief par,t of 
their food consisted of black broth. 

In the earliest ages, convivial entertainments were generally acts 
of public devotion, but afterwards we find them in use in private life 

There were also political feasts, in which a whole city, tribe, 01 
other subdivision, met together. 

Water and wine were used for drinking. Perfumed wines were 
introduced at the tables of the rich. Every thing capable of sustain- 
ing life was used as food. The Greeks generally were very fond offish. 

Hot baths were very numerous, and bathing in them, and anoint- 
ing the body, with a change of clean clothes, were usual in preparing 
for a feast. When guests were invited, men and women were never 
invited together. 

Seats, on which persons sat upright, were employed ; but, as luxury 
prevailed, couches were introduced, on which the guests reclined 
while feasting. 

The marriages among the Greeks were lawful only as the 
consent of parents or other relatives could be obtained. This 
institution was greatly encouraged in all parts of Greece. Want 
of esteem, and sometimes the infliction of punishment, attended 
the failure of entering into the connubial state. 

§ Polygamy was allowed only after times of great calamity, such as 
war or pestilence. Sociates married a second wife on this account. 
Violations of the marriage contract, though the punishment was se- 
vere, were often committed. 

The Grecian women seldom or never appeared in strange company 
but were confined to the remote parts of the house, into which no male 



PHOENICIANS. 193 

visitants were admitted. When they went abroad, they wore veils 
to conceal their faces. It was disreputable, however, to appear much 
abroad. 

In some parts of Greece, parents might expose their children, in 
certain cases. Children were required to maintain their parents in 
old age ; but by the laws of Solon, if a person did not bring up his 
Children to some useful employment, they were to be exempted from 
such an obligation. 

The funerals of the Greeks were attended with many ce 
remonies, showing that they considered the duties belonging 
to the dead to be of the highest importance. In their view, it 
was the most awful of all imprecations, to wish that a person 
might die without the honours of a funeral. 

Phoenicians. 

51. Country. Phoenicia was little more than a narrow slip 
of ground situated between mount Libanus and the sea. It 
had Syria on the north and east, Judeaon the south, and the 
Mediterranean on the west. 

52. Cities and Remains. Sidon was the capital, and a 
maritime town of considerable extent, and provided with an 
excellent harbour. It was distinguished by a high degree of 
opulence and refinement. 

Tyrus, called the daughter of Sidon, was built upon an 
island south of Sidon, and 25 miles distant. It was ornament- 
ed with many magnificent buildings. 

§ Sidon is often mentioned by Homer, but Tyrus never. Tyrus 
was joined by Alexander to the main land, and time has consolidated 
his work. 

The walls of Tyre were 150 feet high, with a proportionate breadth. 
Old Tyre, on the continent, was destroyed by the Assyrians. It was 
new Tyre that Alexander took after a siege of seven months. A few 
fishermen's huts are among its ruins. 

Other principal cities were Aradus, Tripoli, Byblus, Sarepta, and 
Berytus. 

Some vestiges of the splendour of this ancient land are still 
in existence. The ruins of Sidon exhibit many fine columns 
and other fragments of marble. 

§ A double column of granite, consisting of one entire block, 80 
feet long, has been noticed among the ruins of Tyre. 

53. Navigation and Colonies. The Phoenicians, con- 
fined between the sea and mountains, acquired power and 
aggrandizement by navigation. Their navigators were fa- 
mous for their still and intrepidity. They engrossed the 

ommerce of the western hemisphere. 



194 GENERAL VIEWS. 

They formed establishments on both sides of the Mediter- 
ranean, and even on those of the western ocean. In the time 
of Abraham, they were known to be a commercial and enter - 
prising people. 

§ Carthage, Utica, Gades, &c. were colonies founded by the inha- 
bitants of Tyre. 

54. Sciences, Arts, and Manufactures. From the earliest 
periods, the Phoenicians were addicted to philosophy. The 
sciences of arithmetic and astronomy were invented or im- 
proved by them, and they are known to have introduced let- 
ters into Greece. 

§ Before the time of the Trojan war, Moschus, a Sidonian, ex- 
plained the doctrine of Atoms. In latter ages, we read of some emi- 
nent philosophers ; among them was Boethius, Antipater, Diodatus, 
and Apollonius. 

In manufactures they were skilled. Glass, purple, and fine 
linen, were products of their own invention. 

In architecture they were so versed, that Solomon sought 
their aid in erecting his magnificent temple. 

55. Religion. As the Phoenicians were so nearly connect- 
ed with the immediate descendants of Noah, they were pro- 
bably instructed in the worship of the true God ; but they be- 
came at length immersed in idolatry and superstition. 

The principal objects of their mistaken adoration were Beelsmen, 
or the sun, Baal, Astarte, the " queen of heaven," Hercules, Adonis, 
and the Pataeci, certain small statues, which being venerated as the 
tutelar gods of sea-faring men. were always carried about in the 
prows of their vessels. 

One of these idolatrous objects Milton describes in mellifluous 
verse. 

" With these in troop 
Came Ashtoreth, whom the Phoenicians call'd 
Astarte, queen of heaven, with crescent horns ; 
To whose bright image, nightly by the moon 
Sidonian -virgins paid their vows and songs." 

Lydians. 

56. Country. The country of the Lydians had Mysia on 
the north, and Caria on the south. It constituted an inte- 
resting portion of Asia Minor. 

§ The inhabitants on the coast, who were Ionians divided into 
twelve small states, gave their name te a dialect of the Greek lan- 
guage — Ionic. 

57. Cities. The principal cities were Ephesus, illustrious 
in classic and in christian antiquity ; Sardis, the ancient me- 



ROMANS. 195 

tropolis ; Philadelphia, in which were celebrated the common 
feasts of all Asia ; and a few others. 

§ Ephesus was famous for the temple of Diana, one of the seven 
wonders of the world, completed 220 years after its foundation. This 
temple was 425jfeet in length, and 200 in breadth. The roof was sup- 
ported by 127 columns 60 feet high, placed there by so many kings. 
The rich offerings brought into it were immense. 

This temple was burnt on the night that Alexander was born. 
Erostratus perpetrated this villany merely to eternize his name. It 
rose, however, from its ruins, with augmented splendour. 

Ephesus was famous also as the place where a flourishing christian 
church was planted by the apostle Paul ; and it now stands a monu- 
ment of the fulfilment of our Saviour's threatening: " Thy candle- 
stick shall be removed out of his place." 

The city is now a mass of ruins. The whole contains only 40 or 
50 Turkish families, who live in cottages of dirt. Not a single family 
here exists to invoke the name of Jesus. Says Gibbon, "The deso- 
lation is complete. The temple of Diana, or the church of Mary, will 
equally elude the search of the curious traveller." 

58. Character. The Lydians, under Croesus, and some of 
his predecessors, were a very warlike people ; but after the 
introduction of the Persian luxuries, they became indolent, vo- 
luptuous, and effeminate. 

59. Customs. They are said to be the first people that in- 
troduced the coinage of gold and silver to facilitate trade ; the 
first that sold by retail ; that kept taverns and eating houses ; 
and invented public games, which were therefore called ludi 
by the Romans. 

Romans. 

60. Country — its name, situation, and division. The 
country of this renowned people, from their having ruled over 
a great part of the civilized world, becomes an interesting ob- 
ject to the scholar or reader. They inhabited that part of 
Europe which is now called Italy, and their beginning was at 
Rome, its capital. From the latter they were denominated 
Romans. 

§ Italy had other names, as Hesperia, Ausonia, (Enotria, and Sa- 
turnia. 

It had the Alps on the north, the Tyrrhene sea on the 
west, the Adriatic on the east, and the Grecian sea on the 
south. 

The whole territory was divided into Cisalpine Gaul, Italy 
Proper, and Magna Graxia. 

$ Its principal districts were Cisalpine Gaul, Etruria, Umbria, Pi- 



190 GENERAL VIEWS. 

cerium, Latium, Campania, Samnium, the Hirpini, Apulia, Calabria, 
Lucania, and the Brutii. 

61. Interesting localities of Italy. Italy as well as Greece 
furnishes many recollections of this kind, that are so pleasing 
to the student of antiquity. 

§ Andes, near Mantua, was the birth-place of Virgil, Comum that of 
the younger Pliny, Verona of Catullus, and Patavium of Livy. Ra- 
venna was the residence of the emperors of the west when driven 
from Rome. The river Po is famous for the death of Phaeton, who, 
as the poets mention, was thrown down into it by the thunder-bolts 
of Jupiter. 

Padusa, one of the mouths of the Po, was said to abound in swans. 
Rubicon was a mountain torrent, which it was forbidden to pass with 
an armed force, under dreadful imprecations. The inhabitants of 
Etruria were famous for their skill' in augury, early civilization, and 
resolution, and were conquered by the Romans, only after much 
bloodshed. 

Circeii was the residence of the fabled enchantress Circe. Tusculum 
was the villa of Cicero. Capua was celebrated for its wealth, volup- 
tuousness, and soft climate. Near the promontory of Cumae was the 
residence of the Sibyl. At Nola, east of Naples, bells were first in- 
vented. The eruption of Vesuvius, A. C. 79, overwhelmed the cities 
of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae.and destroyed the life of Pliny. 

The city of Arpi was founded by Diomedes. Venusia was the 
birth-place of Horace. The country of Apulia was celebrated for its 
wool. Brundusium w r as the port for passing from Italy to Greece. 
Rudiae was the birth-place of Ennius. Tarentum was founded by the 
Lacedaemonians. 

Paestum in Lucania was famous for its roses. On the coast was 
Metapontum, the school of Pythagoras. Thurium was also called 
Sybaris, from the effeminacy of its inhabitants. Petilia was built 
by Philoctetes, after the Trojan war. 

Sicily was famous in antiquity for the birth of Ceres, the rape of 
Proserpine, the giant Enceladus, mount ./Etna, and the Cyclops, with 
the whirlpool Charybdis, opposite to Scylla on the Italian coast, ob- 
jects of terror to mariners. Sicily was the storehouse of Italy. 
Mount Eryx was celebrated for its temple of Venus. The plains of 
Enna, where Proserpine was carried away by Pluto, abounded in 
honey. 

Lipara was famous for its fruits : its raisins are still in high repute. 
Vulcan had forges here. Sardinia was called by the Greeks, Ichnu- 
sa, from its resemblance to the print of a foot It was famous for 
wormwood and bitter herbs, and its air was unwholesome. Corsica 
was celebrated for its box and yew trees. Urcinium, founded by a 
son of Ajax, is now Ajaccio, and celebrated in modern times as the 
birth-place of Napoleon Buonaparte. 

62. Capital of Italy, and Seat of the Roman Empire. 
The great city of Italy and the Romans was Rome. Hero 



Rf MANS. 197 

Was the beginning of this celebrated people. The city was 
email and mean at first, but in the course of ages became 
magnificent beyond conception. 

The city was built on seven hills, Mount Palatinus, Capi- 
tolinus, Q,uirilinus, Viminalis, Esquilinus, Coelius, and Aven- 
tinus. The Palatine hill was the residence of the kings and 
emperors. On mount Capitolinus, were the Capitol and 
Tarpeian rock. 

§ The seven hills on which Rome was built are not very distinctly 
marked, particularly now that the rubbish of so many ruined buildings 
has, in the course of more than 2500 years, filled up the spaces be- 
tween them. In any place the ground is about 20 feet deep above 
the old pavement. The summit of the Capitoline hill is only about 
120 feet above the level of the Tiber. 

In the times of the republic were built the most magnificent aque- 
ducts, which conveyed water from a vast distance for the service of 
the city, and some of which supply modern Rome ; whilst the vast 
ruins of others excite wonder and astonishment. The Circus Maxi- 
mus was of an oval shape, and afforded accommodation for 150,000 
people to see the chariot races and other games. 

The ruins of the theatres of Pompey and Marcellus still remain. 
The Coliseum, built by Vespasian and Titus, for shows of gladiators 
and wild beasts, was capable of containing 100,000 people, and its 
magnificent remains are still the most remarkable object at Rome. 

The Pantheon or Temple of all the gods, was built by Agrippa } 
in the time of Augustus, and its solid construction promises it a dura- 
tion for many centuries yet to come. 

The columns of Trajan and Antoninus excite the admiration of all 
beholders. Baths of immense number and extent were made chiefly 
in the times of the emperors, and the ruins of those of Titus, and Ca- 
raealla, still remain. The vast tomb of Adrian is now the castle of 
St. Angelo. The catacombs are very extensive, but it is uncertain for 
what purpose they were used. Several vast tombs still remain, one 
of which was used as a fortress in the middle ages. The triumphal 
arches of Severus, Titus, and Constantine, still adorn the ancient 
Forum. 

The extent of the walls is stated by Pliny to have been 13 miles 200 
paces. A somewhat larger space was enclosed by Aurelian. The 
modern city encloses also within the walls, the Vatican hill. More 
than three fourths of the space within the walls are now covered 
with vineyards, and the modern city is built chiefly in the ancient 
Campus Martins. Every where are seen magnificent ruins. Egyp- 
tian obelisks, blocks of oriental granite, ancient and modern buildings, 
which still render Rome the most interesting city of the whole earth. 

The principal public place in the city was the Forum. — This was 
a large, open space of oblong shape, where the people held their as- 
semblies, justice was administered, and public concerns were trans- 
acted. It was surrounded in its whole extent with arched porticoes. 

R2 



198 GENERAL VIEWS. 

which included spacious halls, where courts of justice sat and decided 
the affairs of individuals. 

The Campus Marti us was a large plain without the city, along the 
river Tiber, where the athletic exercises and sports of the Roman 
youth were practised. It was adorned with many noble structures, 
and monuments commemorating the deeds of their ancestors. 

63. Political State. The political state, or government 
among the Romans, varied very much during the successive 
periods of their existence. At first it was a monarchy : next 
it became a republic with a preponderance of aristrocratic 
power, which gradually gave way to the influence of the people. 
A state almost of anarchy followed, which soon settled down 
into a despotism. That portion of history which we call ancient, 
includes and ends with the commencement of Roman des- 
potism under Augustus. 

The kings of Rome were not absolute or hereditary, but 
limited and elective. They could neither enact laws, nor 
make war or peace, without the concurrence of the senate 
and people. 

§ They wore a golden crown, and carried an ivory sceptre. They 
sat in a curule chair, which was made or adorned with ivory, and 
they were attended with twelve lictors, carrying fasces, which were 
bundles of rods with an axe placed in the middle. They convened 
the senate, assembled the people, conducted the army, and ap- 
pointed the quaestors or treasurers of the public money. 

The Roman people were divided into four classes. 1. The 
Senate or Patrician order. 2. The Equestrian order or knights. 
3. The Plebeians or mass of the people. 4. The Slaves. 

The Senate was composed of 100 old men, and afterwards 
of 200 or more, who were the council of the king. By them 
most of the business of the state was transacted. They were 
called Patres, that is, Fathers. The Patrician families were 
descended from these fathers. They constituted not an he- 
reditary nobility, but were accounted noble, because the mem- 
bers had filled high offices. 

§ For some centuries, the senate consisted of 300 members, and in 
the time of Julius Cresar, of 900. Augustus reduced the number to 
COO. They were first chosen by the kings, afterwards by the consuls, 
and last by the censors. They were distinguished by a particular 
dress, and had separate seats at the public spectacles. 

In their official character, this body was usually assembled three 
times a month, but was frequently called together on other days for 
special business. A senatus consultum was a decree passed by a 
majority of the senate, and approved by the tribunes of the people. 

The Knights were not originally a separate order, but con- 



ROMANS. 199 

sisted of such citizens as could maintain a horse for the wars. 
They seem to have become a separate order at some period 
under the kings, but afterwards the knights were chosen by 
the censors, and presented with a horse and a gold ring, at 
the public expense. 

§ The knights farmed the public revenues. Every year on the 15th 
July, they went in procession from the Temple of Honour or of Mars, 
without the city, to the capitol, on horseback, bearing wreaths of olive 
in their hands. A certain property (3,229 pounds) was required as 
a qualification to be made a knight. 

The Plebeians, or mass of the people, were the remainder 
of the Roman citizens after the Patricians and Equites or 
knights. They were called Plebs or Populus. Those who 
lived in the country were Plebs rustica, and were considered 
the most respectable. The Plebs urbana consisted chiefly of 
mechanics, or poorer citizens who followed no trade, and partly 
maintained themselves from the largesses of corn, &c., distri- 
buted among them. 

§ The whole body of the people was at first divided into tribes three 
in number, and each tribe was subdivided in ten curiae or wards. 
Other divisions were afterwards made. To the three tribes, Servms 
Tullius added a fourth. Augustus afterwards divided Rome into 14 
wards. 

Besides his addition of a fourth tribe, Servius made a division of 
the people into six classes, and each class into several centuries or 
portions of citizens, so called, because they were required to furnish, 
support and equip 100 men in war. These six classes were formed 
according to their property ; the first composed of the richest citizens, 
and the 6th, which was the most numerous, of the poorest. The 
centuries amounted to 193. 

The slaves constituted a large portion of the population of 
Rome. Their lives were at the disposal of their masters. 
They were not only employed in domestic services, but in 
various trades and manufactures. They were sometimes 
fiighly educated, and instructed in the liberal arts and profes- 
sions, as that of physic. 

§ They were considered as mere property, and publicly sold in a 
market-place — often chained by the leg. If capitally convicted, their 
punishment was crucifixion. 

During the Saturnalia, or Feast of Saturn, slaves were allowed great 
freedom, and masters at that time would wait upon them at table j 
the same license was permitted on the Ides of August. 

Slaves might be set free by various forms of law. Slaves thus 
emancipated had the names of Liberti and Libertini. Their children 
were not equally honourable with other citizens j but their grand- 



200 GENERAL VIEWS). 

children were reckoned Ingenui, or in every respect on an equality 
with them. 

With a view to connect together the different orders, it was 
provided by Romulus, that each plebeian should choose a pa- 
trician to be his patron, whose client the plebeian was called. 

§ The patron was to protect his client, to give him his advice and 
forward his interest. The client was to be ready to assist his patron 
on all occasions. In elections, the clients exerted themselves on be- 
half of their patrons. 

The Romans had usually three names, the Prsenomen, 
Nomen, and Cognomen, as in Publius Cornelius Scipio. 

§Publius is the name of the individual, to distinguish him from 
another of the same family, as Cams Lucius, &c. Cornelius shows 
that he was of a certain family, the gens Cornelia ; and Scipio, that 
he was of a division of the family, the Scipios being one out of many, 
into which the whole stock of the gens Cornelia was divided. 

The Roman citizens were not merely the inhabitants of 
Rome and its environs, but the freedom of the city was granted 
to other parts of Italy, and afterwards to foreign cities and 
towns in the empire, wdiose inhabitants, by this means, en- 
joyed the same rights as the Romans. 

The power of the people in Rome was expressed in their 
public assemblies. The name given to these assemblies, in 
their transactions, was Comitia. The Comitia were summoned 
by some magistrate, to pass laws, to elect magistrates, to de- 
cide concerning peace and war, and to try persons guilty of 
certain heinous offences. 

§ There were three kinds of Comitia, the Curiata, the Centuriata, 
and the Tributa. The Comitia Curiata consisted of an assembly of 
the resident Roman citizens, who were divided into thirty curiae, a 
majority of which decided all matters of importance that were laid 
before them. 

The Comitia Centuriata were the principal assembly of the peo- 
ple. They elected Consuls, Praetors, Censors, and sometimes a Pro- 
consul, also the Decemviri, the military Tribunes, and a priest call- 
ed Rex Sacrorum. They gave their votes, divided into the centuries 
of their classes, according to the census. The place of their meet- 
ing was the Campus Martius, and all Roman citizens, though residing 
in the country, as well as city, had a right to act, in their several 
centuries. 

The Comitia Tributa were an assembly of the people in which 
they voted, as they were separated into tribes, according to their 
wards. At these comitia were created subordinate magistrates, as 
jEdiles, Tribunes of the people, Quaestors, &c. The laws, called 
Plebiscita, were passed at these assemblies. 

Persons who sought offices and preferment were called candid ati, 



ROMANS, 201 

from a white garment which they wore. They canvassed the people 
and solicited their votes. 

After the time of Augustus, the comitia fall into disuse. The for- 
malities were observed, but these were soon after dropped, and the 
annual magistrates were either chosen by the senate or nominated by 
the emperors. 

The Roman magistrates were elective, and divided into 
ordinary, extraordinary, and provincial. The ordinary magis- 
trates, who were stated, and always in the republic, were the 
consuls, censors, tribunes, aediles, and quaestors. The extra 
ordinary, who were temporary magistrates, were the dictator, 
the decemvirs, the military tribunes, and the interrex. The 
provincial magistrates, who were appointed to the government 
of the provinces, were at first praetors, afterwards pro-consuls 
and pro-praetors, to whom were joined quaestors and lieu- 
tenants. 

§ Consuls, after the banishment of the kings, were put in the room 
of the latter, to perform the duties of royalty. They were two in 
number, and held their office for one year. At first they had nearly 
the same badges of authority, except the crown. The eligible age to 
be made consul was forty-three, but extraordinary circumstances 
might justify an earlier age. 

The Tribunes of the people were officers whose duty it was to 
guard and protect the plebeians in their rights, when the patricians 
became oppressive. Their power was contracted at first, but at length 
became very great. Unprincipled men in this office often converted 
the public assemblies into scenes of violence and blood. 

The censors were appointed to take an account of the number and 
fortunes of the people. Their power at first was limited, but after- 
wards, became so great, that it was deemed the most honourable 
office in the state. There were two censors elected every five years, 
and they continued in office only one year and a half. 

The Praetors, whose rank was next to that of the consuls, and 
whose place when vacant they supplied, were appointed to adminis- 
ter justice and convoke assemblies of the senate and people. They 
also presided at certain public games. There was at first but one 
praetor, but afterwards several. 

The Pro-consuls and Pro-praetors usually governed the provinces 
of the empire. To them were joined quaestors and lieutenants. They 
had the highest rank within their province. The power of the pro- 
consuls and pro-praetors was much the same, the former being sent to 
the larger provinces. 

The iEdiles were so named from their having a particular care 
of the eedes or buildings, as the temples, baths, aqueducts, theatres, 
&c. They were distinguished into Curule and Plebeian aediles. The 
curule aediles superintended the public games, and occupied a more 
honourable place in the senate than the plebeian aediles, who were 
assistants to the tribune* 



202 GENERAL VIEWS 

The Quaestors were appointed for the management of the public 
revenues. At first they were two in number, but afterwards, as the 
empire extended, they amounted to many. Two of them, the city 
quaestors, remained at Rome, and the rest, who were military and 
provincial quaestors, accompanied the army and provided for the 
payment of the soldiers, or attended the consuls or praetors into their 
provinces, and regulated the tribute. 

The Dictators were magistrates, with absolute power, appointed on 
extraordinary occasions, or in cases of imminent danger. The term 
of their office was six months. 

Their power was supreme in peace and war. They could raise and 
disband armies, and decide matters, without consulting the senate 
and people. The consuls submitted to their commands. As a check 
to their power, they were liable to be called to an account for the 
abuse of it, after it was resigned. 

The Decemviri were ten men appointed, on particular occasions, 
to collect and promulgate laws, &c. They were chosen for one year, 
but had interest sufficient to be reappointed for another. They pro- 
posed the laws of the twelve tables. 

The Military Tribunes had consular power in publie affairs ; they 
mediated between the patricians and plebeians, at a time when they 
could not agree in the election of consuls. 

An interrex was appointed to hold the elections at Rome, when the 
consuls or dictators were absent. 

64. Religion. The gods of the Romans were nearly the 
game as those of Greece. The priests of their religion did 
not form a distinct order of the state ; but were selected from 
the most honourable citizens for that office. They were of 
two kinds — those that were common to all the gods ; and 
those that were appointed to some one divinity in particular. 

Of the former, the principal were the pontifices. the au- 
gures, the haruspices, the quindecem-viri, and septem-viri. 
These were all subordinate to the pontifex maximus, or high 
priest. 

) The pontifices were judges in sacred things, and prescribed what 
was to be done in cases where there was no law. The pontifex maxi- 
mus was the supreme arbiter. The pontifices were 15 in number. 

The augures, who were the same in number, were expected to pre- 
dict future events, and to determine whether any action would be 
fortunate or not. They divined in various ways, — among others 
by the flight, chirping, or feeding of birds. They had great authori- 
ty in the state, as nothing important in peace or war could be deter- 
mined without them. 

The haruspices were required to inspect the beasts offered in sacri- 
fice, and by them to obtain omens with respect to the future. 

The quindecem-viri were 15 officers who kept the sibylline books, 
in which was written the future history of Rome. These were said 
to have been procured from a woman of extraordinary appearance in 



ROMANS. 203 

the time of Tarquin the Proud, and were kept in a stone chest under 
the capitol. The quindecem-viri consulted these books in times of 
great calamity, to provide what should be done, and thus the popular 
fear was assuaged. 

The septem-viri were seven priests who presided at sacred feasts, 
games, or processions. 

As an instance of the kind of priests that were appropria- 
ted to particular deities, Ave may mention the Vestal Virgins. 
These were consecrated to the worship of Vesta. 

§ The Vestal Virgins guarded perpetually the sacred fire of Vesta. 
They were obliged to observe strict chastity on pain of death. For 
ten years they learned the sacred rites, for ten years they performed 
them, and other ten years they spent in teaching others ; and after 
that they might marry, if they could. 

65. Military Affairs. The Romans were a nation of 
soldiers, and all their institutions had a tendency towards the 
encouragement of a military spirit. It was by discipline, skill, 
and valour, that they conquered the world. 

It was the duty of every citizen to be a soldier, should his 
country call for his services, from the age of 17 to 46. 
Those affected by disease, or exercising public functions, were 
exempted. For 350 years from the building of Rome, no pay 
was allowed to those who served in the army. 

§ No man could be appointed to any honourable magistracy, with- 
out having been ten years in the army. After Latium and the states 
of Italy were subdued or admitted into alliance, troops were raised 
among them in the same manner as at Rome. 

About the time of Marius, a very great change took place 
in the mode of enlisting and supporting the armies. The 
infantry after that time, consisted of the poorer citizens, and 
mercenary soldiers from every part of Italy. The cavalry no 
longer consisted of Roman knights, but of horsemen, raised 
in Italy and in the provinces, serving for hire. 

The Roman legion was a correct display of military ar- 
rangement and discipline. Each legion, when full, contained 
6000 men divided into 10 cohorts or battalions, with other 
subdivisions. Each legion had a wing of 300 horse attached. 
It is to be noticed, however, that the numbers of the legion 
varied at different periods, from 3000 to 10,000 and 11,000. 

The dependence of the Romans was on the strength of 
their infantry. 

§ Their defensive arms consisted of a helmet, a shield four feet 
long and two broad, a coat of mail, and greaves for the thighs. Their 
weapons of assault were two long javelins or pila, and a sword. 



204 GENERAL VIEWS. 

The pilum was a long heavy spear, and a terrible weapon in the 
hand of a Roman. No defensive armour or covering could resist its 
force, when propelled so as to reach its object. Its length was about 
six feet, and its head consisted of a triangular point of steel 1.8 inches 
long. The distance from which it was commonly thrown, varied 
from ten to six yards. When the pila were discharged, the Roman 
soldiers rushed upon the enemy with their swords. 

The Roman sword was a short two-edged blade of fine temper, 
adapted to the purpose of striking or thrusting. The latter was deem* 
ed the most efficacious. 

The legions were usually drawn up in three lines. The first was 
called hastati, and consisted chiefly of young men. The second line 
was called principes, consisting of men of middle age ; and the third 
line triarii, consisting of veterans of tried valour. 

Besides these heavy armed legionaries, there were light-armed 
troops, who were chiefly employed in using slings, bows and arrows, 
and throwing light javelins. They advanced before the rest of the 
army, and annoyed the enemy as much as possible. 

When the army approached the enemy, the light-armed troops 
discharged their arrows and slings, and as they drew nearer, threw 
their darts rapidly, and retreated through intervals between the 
ranks, or by the flanks, and rallied in the rear. The hastati then 
threw their long javelins, and commenced an attack with their swords. 

When repulsed or fatigued, they retired leisurely into the ranks 01 
the principes, or behind them, if necessary. The triarii were a body 
in reserve. If unable to drive back the enemy, a retreat was all that 
could be hoped for. 

In besieging a town, the method of the Romans, and in- 
deed of all ancient nations, differed much from that of the 
moderns, since the use of cannons, and was inferior to the 
latter. 

The principal engines of attack among the Romans were 
the catapultae, which discharged heavy stones ; the balistae, 
which discharged arrows, and the aries or battering ram, 
which was the most effective as applied against the Avail. 

§ The aries was along beam, like the mast of a ship, armed at one 
end, with iron in the form of a ram's head. It was suspended in such 
a manner, that 100 men, who were frequently changed, by violently 
thrusting it back and forth, could break almost any wall, that it could 
be made to reach. 

To protect the soldiers in this work, various contrivances were 
adopted, such as sheds called testudines, or tortoises r from their re- 
semblance to the shell of that fish, and sheds called vineae, con- 
structed of wood and hurdles, and covered with earth and raw hides, 
so that they could not be set on fire. 

The form of a Roman camp of two legions, was a square 
of nearly 700 yards on each side, with tents and quarters, laid 



Olympic Games. — Chariot Race. P. 188. 




Olympic Games, — Boxing. P. 188. 




Battering Ram. P. 204. 



ROMANS. 205 

out in the most regular order. A rampart of 12 feet high 
surrounded this square, and it was enclosed by a deep and 
broad ditch. 

§ This was the effect of caution, an excellent feature of Roman disci- 
pline. No circumstances as to fatigue, or the absence of danger, 
could induce the legions of Rome to neglect a regular encampment. 
When their camps were to be left, nothing could exceed the celerity 
of their movements. Each soldier loading himself with his provi- 
sions and utensils, a weight of 60 pounds, besides his very heavy 
armour, would march by regular step, 20 miles in the space of six 
hours. 

The Roman soldiers were among the best in the world. From the 
constant practice of athletic exercises, they were inured from infancy 
to hardiness and fatigue, and bred to that species of life which a sol- 
dier leads in actual warfare. Their bravery and knowledge in the 
art of war were not exceeded, if they were equalled, by any nation ol 
antiquity. 

The rewards of soldiers who had distinguished themselves 
were various kinds of crowns, ornaments of the persons and 
arms, and donations in money or lands. But the highest 
object of Roman ambition was the honour of a triumph. Tbia 
was a grand, solemn procession through the city to the capi- 
tal, granted to the victorious general and his army by a decree 
of the senate, or by the people. 

§ The procession which constituted a triumph, marched from the 
Campus Martius through the most public streets to the capitol. Mu- 
sicians of various kinds led the way ; oxen, with gilt horns and ribbons, 
intended for sacrifice, followed, with priests in their dresses of cere- 
mony. Then the standards taken from the enemy, the arms, spoils, 
&c. were carried in procession. The captives followed in chains. 

At length came the general in a robe of purple and gold, with a 
crown of laurel on his head, and other personal brilliant decorations. 
He stood in a gilded chariot adorned with ivory, drawn by four milk- 
white horses. His friends and relations accompanied him, and the 
principal officers were on horseback beside his chariot. His victori- 
ous army, crowned with laurel, and singing songs of victory, came last. 

An ovation was a triumph also, but accompanied with less splen- 
dour. 

66. Fleets. The Roman ships were extremely small 
compared with modern vessels. They were quickly con- 
structed and quickly manned. Sailors and rowers were hired 
to navigate. Soldiers were put on board to fight. 

§ The success of the Romans at sea was owing rather to the valour 
of their men, than to their skill as mariners. Their object in sea- 
battles, was to approach the enemy as quickly as possible, fasten the 
ships together, and fight hand to hand. 

Until the first Punic war, the Romans vv ere wholly ignorant of the 



206 GENERAL VIEWS. 

naval military art. A Carthaginian galley was the first model. So 
little skill was required in building their ships, that we find them on 
one occasion, fitting out, and sending to sea, a fleet within 45 days 
after the trees were cut down. 

The size of the ships was reckoned by the number of banks of oars, 
placed in benches on the sides of the ship, called triremes, quadri- 
remes, &c. 

67. Agriculture. In the earliest and best ages of their 
existence, the Roman people were much given to agriculture. 
Except that they were frequently interrupted by war, they 
might be considered as an agricultural people. They were 
at once soldiers and farmers. 

Many of them residing out of the city, and yet denizens of 
Rome, were called from the plough to the army. This was 
the case with several of their most distinguished men and 
generals, as Q,. Cincinnatus, M. Curius, Cato the Censor, and 
Scipio Africanus. 

The pursuits of agriculture were however abandoned, after 
the acquisition of wealth by foreign conquests and commerce. 
Menials and slaves tilled the ground, and the people aban- 
doned themselves to every species of luxury and sensuality. 

§The attention of the early Romans to husbandry was partly the 
effect of necessity. The lands having been divided into equal and 
nrnute portions, each one was obliged to labour for a subsistence. 

The greater number of the farmers visited the city only on every 
ninth day, which was the market day. They went there for the pur- 
poses of barter, the procuring of necessaries, and the examination of 
the new laws which were posted on the capitol and in the market- 
place, some days previously to their adoption by the people. 

We may obtain a better conception of the agricultural turn of this 
people, from knowing a few of their common maxims on this subject, 
than from any description. Those maxims were such as the fol- 
lowing : 

1. He is a thriftless farmer that buys any thing which his farm can 
produce. 

2. He is no husbandman who does any work in the day time, that 
can be done in the night, except in stormy weather. 

3. He is worse who does on work days, what he may do on holy- 
days; and 

4. He is the worst of all who in a clear sky works within doors, 
rather than in the field. 

68. Amusements and Public Spectacles. The drama, 
though the government was long unfriendly to it; became an 
amusement of the Roman people. Comedies were the most 
popular, and very few Roman tragedies remain. 



ROMANS. 207 

On the stage, pantomimes were much in use, and rope 
dancers occasionally diversified the entertainment. 

§ Rude plays, made up with music, dancing, and buffoonery, were 
in use in the earlier periods of the republic ; but the first regular play 
was written by Livius Andronicus, in the year of the city 512. 

The comic actors wore a low-heeled shoe called soccus ; the tragic 
actors wore a mask, a flowing robe, and a high-heeled shoe called co- 
thurnus. Only temporary theatres were used at first. 

The senate correctly judging that theatrical amusements were inju 
rious to the public morals, so late as the year of the city 599, ordered 
a theatre, building under the direction of the censors, to be pulled 
down. Pompey the Great, was the first who built a theatre of hewn 
stone, and the remains of this vast edifice still continue, and are used 
by the present Romans for the baiting of bulls. 

There were various public games, connected however with 
the religion of the Romans, which were sources of much licen- 
tious entertainment. Those of the Circus Maximus were 
most frequented. The shows exhibited in that place were 
chariot and horse-races ; contests of strength and agility ; 
mock-fights on horseback ; combats of wild beasts, and of 
men with wild beasts ; representations of horse and foot bat- 
tles ; and mimic naval fights. 

§ The ferocious taste of the Romans was much gratified with the 
combats of wild beasts, and of men with the latter. Criminals were 
condemned to fight with wild beasts ; others did so for hire, or from 
native ferocity of character. 

For the amusement of the people, lions, leopards, bears, elephants, 
and all kinds of wild beasts, were sent from Africa and the provinces. 
Pompey, on one occasion, treated the people with the spectacle of 
500 lions, which were despatched in five days. 

The gladiatorial shows, however, had superior attractions 
for the Romans. It is painful to observe this most distin- 
guished people finding their chief pleasure in the combats, 
wounds, and death of multitudes of their fellow-creatures. 
Yet not only the populace, but the knights, senators, and 
Roman ladies of distinction, eagerly crowded to the sight. 

§ The first gladiatorial shows were exhibited about the year of the 
city 490, by two brothers called Bruti, at the funeral of their father. 
Afterwards they were exhibited by the magistrates at regular periods, 
and at length they became the chief means of obtaining favour with 
the people. They were not entirely abolished till the reign of Theo- 
dosius the Great. 

Incredible numbers of captives, &c. were destroyed on these occa- 
sions. Trajan exhibited games for 123 days, when 10,000 wild beasts 
were killed, and 10,000 gladiators fought. During the reign of Clau- 
dius was exhibited the spectacle of 19,000 men slaughtering one ano« 
ther on a certain lake, for the amusement of the Roman populace. 



20S GENERAL VIEWS. 

Gladiators consisted chiefly of slaves, captives, and condemned 
malefactors ; but sometimes free-born citizens became gladiators for 
hire. Even persons of noble birth were induced to display their 
skill and courage before the people, in these combats. 

There were various sorts of armour, and various modes of fighting. 
One mode was the use of the net. With that a gladiator would en- 
tangle his opponent, by casting it over his head; and suddenly 
drawing it together, could despatch him with his dart. If he missed 
his aim, he betook himself to flight, preparing his net for a second 
cast, while his opponent in the pursuit endeavoured to despatch him, 
before he could have an opportunity. 

Amphitheatres were erected for the convenience of the spectators. 
The most celebrated was the Coliseum already mentioned. Large 
coverings were drawn over the amphitheatres, as a screen from the 
heat cf the sun, or from rain. 

69. Education. The system of education among the 
Romans, when in their most intellectual state, that is, about 
the time of Cicero, was much to be admired. The utmost 
attention was bestowed on the early formation of the mind 
and character. 

The Roman matrons themselves nursed their children. 
Next to the care bestowed upon their morals, a remarkable 
degree of attention seems to have been given to the language 
of children. The attainment of a pure and correct expression 
was a great object. The honours of the state were the prize 
of eloquence. The politeness which characterized the Romans 
shewed itself particularly in their speech and gesture. 

§ The education of the Romans at first suited their rude state of soci- 
ety and their simple manner of life. But upon their intercourse with 
the Greeks, a more liberal form of education was adopted. Public 
schools were opened for the reception of youth of both sexes. In 
literature and the accomplishments of polished life they were alike 
instructed. 

From the earliest dawn of reason a course of discipline was pur- 
sued by some matron of the family; and as children grew towards 
manhood, they were habituated to all the athletic exercises that 
could impart agility or grace, and fit them for the profession of arms. 

At the age of 17 they were invested with the manly robe, and young 
men of family were placed under the protection of some senator of 
distinguished reputation in jurisprudence. Although he was not con- 
sidered a preceptor, yet under his auspices they were initiated into 
public business. 

Eloquence and the military art were the surest roads to preferment. 
These accordingly were made commanding objects of pursuit with 
the Roman youth. Eloquence was taught as a science at public 
schools. 

From the care which the Romans bestowed upon the education of 



fcOMANS. 209 

their youth, both male and female, arose the large number of great 
men and eminent women which Rome has produced, and the vir- 
tues with which they were adorned, during the brilliant era of the 
republic. Happy, could their history be closed at that epoch ; but the 
tide of luxury afterwards swept away the most valuable of their in- 
stitutions. 

70. Literature. Previously to their intercourse with 
Greece, the Romans, though a sensible and energetic, were 
a rude and illiterate people. Their language for a long tim 
was in a very imperfect state. The very few fragments of 
sentences which have come down to us from an early period,, 
such as are found in the " Fratres Arvales," and " Leges Re- 
giae,' 1 show a great difference between the language then in 
use, and that which was employed during the age of Au- 
gustus. 

After successive improvements, the Romans became re- 
nowned in literature during the last named period. The mas- 
ter-pieces of Greece, kindled the fire of emulation. Roman 
literature, in the Augustan era, was inferior to that of the 
Greeks, only because it was necessarily less original and more 
imitative than theirs. In some respects the Romans improved 
upon their models. Poetry, histoiy, oratory, philosophy, and 
the various kinds of fine writing, were cultivated with great 
success. 

§ The dawning of Roman literature appeared in the writings of 
Livius Andronicus, Plautu-s, Ennius, Csecilius, and Terence. These 
writers improved and polished the language, partly by original com- 
positions, and partly by translations from the Greek. 

Poetry among the Romans, as with most other nations, 
appears to have been the earliest intellectual effort. Of this we 
have an instance in the Fescennine verses, mentioned by 
Livy, which are supposed to have been a rude poetical dia- 
logue. This doubtless proved to be the germ of the stage. 
Other species of poetry naturally followed. 

§ The names that adorned the Roman drama were Livius Andro- 
nicus; Ennius, who more especially improved it; Plautus, who 
wrote with strength and spirit ; CaBcilius, who is reckoned the best 
of the Roman dramatists ; Terence, who excels in simplicity and pu- 
rity; Accius, and Pacuvius, who though rough in style shewed 
strength of genius. All these except the two last were comic wri- 
ters. 

The lyric poetry of the Romans owns the names of Catullus, the 
earliest in this kind of poetry ; and Horace, the greatest among the 
Romans, if not of antiquity, though he is highly to be censured on 
account of his occasional indelicacy. 

S2 



210 GENERAL VIEWS. 

In elegiac poetry. Propertius, and Tibullus poured their tender and 
elegant strains, and Ovid uttered the language of nature and passion. 
The two last especially offend on the score of morals. 

Of satiric poetry, Lucillius is said to be the inventor : Horace also 
excelled in this species of poetic composition. Some other names 
among the Romans, are distinguished as satirists, but they belong tG 
a subsequent era. 

In didactic poetry, Lucretius is a great name ; and of epic poetry 
Virgil is prince among the Romans, Homer among the Greeks, and 
Virgil among the Romans, have come down to us with almost equal 
renown. 

History was cultivated by the Romans with much success, 
particularly during the Augustan age. 

§ The most eminent of their historians were Sallust, who excelled 
in the philosophy of history ; Caesar, who wrote with purity and sim- 
plicity ; hut especially Livy, whose judgment, perspicuity, copious- 
ness, and eloquence, place him at the head of Roman historical wri- 
ters. 

Oratory was a favourite study at Rome, as it led to the 
highest honours of the state. The most distinguished sena- 
tors are said to have exercised their talents in public speak- 
ing, in behalf of the poor and oppressed. The characteristics 
of Roman eloquence were seriousness, copiousness, and ma- 
jesty. 

§ J. Caesar, Hortensius, and particularly Cicero, distinguished them- 
selves as public speakers. Of Caesar it is said that li he spoke with 
the same force with which he fought." Hortensius was eclipsed 
only by Cicero, And Cicero is the rival of Demosthenes in fame. 

Philosophy made its first appearance at Rome, in the in- 
terval between the war with Perseus, and the third Punic 
war. It was derived from Greece. The various systems of 
the Greek philosophy, had their respective partisans at Rome. 
§ A few learned Achaeans, banished from their country, and arriving 
at Italy, diffused a taste for philosophy, polite learning, and the edu- 
cation of youth. Fearing foreign manners with foreign studies, the 
senate banished the Greek philosophers from Rome. But the Athe- 
nian embassy arriving soon after, brought thither Carneades and 
Critolaus, who revived the taste for the Greek philosophy. 

The system of the Stoics was at first more generally received, as 
this comported with the national character. Among the Roman sto- 
ics, were Scipio, Laelius, and the younger Cato. 

The philosophy of Aristotle was little known in Rome till the time 
of Cicero. Cratippus and Tyrannion then taught his system with 
great reputation. 

The Old and New Academy had each its advocates and disciples 
Marcus Brutus, and Terentius Varro, were ornaments of the former. 
Of the New Academy, Cicero must be considered as the principal 



ROMANS. 211 

supporter, though his design seems to have been rather to illustrate 
the Greek philosophy in general. He was, the greatest of the Roman 
philosophers, if not on the whole the greatest man of all antiquity. 

With the introduction of luxury, the philosophy of Epicurus be- 
came fashionable. The poet Horace was a devotee to this system, as 
also Lucretius, and many others, who very liberally indulged their 
appetites, and taught others to indulge them. 

Physics, or natural philosophy, seems to have been little 
cultivated by the Romans or by the Greeks before them. 
Varro is the only, name conspicuous in this department, in the 
annals of antiquity. 

In some instances, splendid libraries were attached to the 
galleries of some affluent patricians, who patronized learning". 
These libraries were open to the inspection of the learned and 
curious, and contributed greatly to the advancement of know- 
ledge at Rome. 

§ Among these, the library of Lucullus was remarkable, not only 
for the number and variety of the books, and specimens of art, but for 
the liberal use to which it was devoted. 

71. Aj'ts. The Romans are not to be compared with the 
Greeks, as to native taste and inventive genius, as the fine 
arts are concerned. They admired and imitated the master- 
pieces of Greece. But in execution, for the most part, they fell 
short of their models. By help derived from Grecian genius, 
they have, however, left many wonderful specimens in the 
arts, particularly in architecture. 

§ Their conquest of Greece secured to them as spoils the noble 
productions of Greece in painting and statuary. With these the 
wealthy Roman citizens adorned the city, its temples, and porticoes, 
and their own private dwellings. 

The names of few Roman artists occur. Vitruvius wrote the only 
book on architecture that is now extant. He shews that he was a 
master of his profession. In great and magnificent works, Rome has 
manifested her unbounded wealth and luxury. 

In the mechanic arts some inventions occur, and a degree 
of perfection was attained among the Romans of ancient his- 
tory. These however have been greatly extended and im 
proved in more recent ages; and many comforts which we 
enjoy, derived from a knowledge of mechanism, were un- 
known to this people. 

§ Such conveniences as glass windows and chimneys in houses, 
not to mention many others, the Romans did not possess : though 
their ingenuity supplied the want, in part, by various expedients. 

72. Domestic Life and Manners. The houses and furni- 
ture of the early Romans were entirely plain in their eon- 



212 GENERAL VIEWS. 

struction. When luxury commenced in Rome, this plainness 
was laid aside, and the decorations of art were assumed in a 
degree. At this latter period, and before luxury reached its 
utmost bounds, each house contained one spacious hall, in 
which the family assembled, and which served all the pur 
poses of society. 

§ Towards the close of the republic, however, various apartments 
were constructed for the reception and entertainment of company, 
and in the time of the emperors, their embellishment was carried to 
the highest point of perfection. The eating rooms were remarkable 
for their grandeur. 

The tables were originally made of ordinary wood, square, and on 
four feet ; but the form was afterwards changed to circular, or oval, 
supported on a single carved pedestal, and they were richly inlaid 
with ivory, gold, or silver, sometimes with the addition of precious 
stones. 

We read of a single table formed of a kind of wood, called citron 
wood, with wV- t we are unacquainted, that cost upwards of eight 
thousand pounds sterling. A canopy was suspended over the table, 
to guard it, as it is said, from dirt of the ceiling. This, however it 
may have added to the decoration of the apartments, does not convey 
a very favourable idea of the cleanliness of the Romans. 

Originally, the Roman villa was nothing more than a farm-house 
of a very humble description ; but at length the word lost its original 
signification, and was used to denote the abode of luxury and opu- 
lence. We have fortunately a complete and beautiful description of 
one, and that his own, in the works of Pliny the younger. They 
were very numerous about Rome, and very magnificent. 

The meals of the earlier Romans were very simple and 
frugal. The articles of food, and the furniture of the table, 
were coarse. But afterwards they became costly and luxuri- 
ous to the highest degree. The epicurism of the later Romans 
was enormous. 

At first they sat upright on benches, but at last adopted 
the habit of reposing on couches. Their principal meal was 
their supper, taken a little before four o'clock, P. M. Theii 
breakfast was not a regular meal ; it was taken by each one 
separately and without order ; and their dinner was a very 
slight repast. Their supper was their last regular meal, 
though it was sometimes followed by a collation, called com- 
missatio. 

§ The diet of the earlier Romans consisted of milk and vegetables, 
with a coarse kind of pudding which served in the room of bread. 
They rarely indulged in meat, and wine was almost unknown to 
them. They banished epicures from among them. 

The change which took place in the latter days of the republic 



ROMANS. 213 

and in the beginning of the empire, was very striking. Notwithstand- 
ing sumptuary laws, epicurism advanced with great rapidity, till 
finally it reached such a height, that viands were esteemed only in 
proportion to their cost. 

Thus, Maltese cranes, peacocks, and rare singing birds, although 
hardly eatable, were esteemed great delicacies, and their tongues and 
brains still greater ; oysters from the coast of Britain were more 
prized than their own, though the former would never have been 
eaten fresh ; and we are told of a singular sur-mullet, which had 
reached a size somewhat larger than common, having been sold for 
a sum equivalent to fifty guineas. 

The Romans used wine of the most costly kinds at their feasts. 
The age of it was often very great. We read of some that was 200 
years old. The Grecian wines were in greater estimation than even 
the Italian. They used also mead, metheglin, and other fermented 
liquors. Such was their depravity, they contrived that even water 
should contribute to inebriate them. 

Gluttony was indulged to such a disgusting excess, that emetics 
were used to enable the stomach, already gorged with a full meal, to 
bear a further load. This doubtless was not a universal practice, 
neither, however, was it confined to a few individual instances. 

The services of the tables were at first only of earthen-ware, or 
wood. The use of plate was then almost unknown. At a later peri- 
od plate became so general, that it was as common, as it had been 
previously rare, and in the time of the emperors, it was frequently 
of gold. 

The couches on which they lay down at supper were somewhat 
similar to the modern sofa. The ladies at first did not adopt this 
practice, and the indulgence was never extended to young people of 
either sex. 

Each couch could accommodate three or four, but seldom five 
persons, who laid in a reclining posture, on the left arm, having 
the shoulders elevated with cushions, and the limbs extended be- 
hind whoever was next ; so that the head of the one was opposite 
to the breast of the other, and in serving themselves, they made use 
only of the right hand. There were many other singular customs 
observed at their suppers, which we have not time to enumerate. 

Daily Bathing was practised by the Roman people, both in 
warm and cold water. Vast quantities of water were brought 
to Rome, for this and other purposes, by means of aqueducts. 
These aqueducts were magnificent works, as also the baths 
bt> r h public and private which were erected. 

§ The use of linen, which was unknown to the Romans, has ren- 
dered this practice for a long time obsolete in Italy ; but in the times 
of which we speak, it was necessary for the purposes of cleanliness 
as well as luxury. The remains of some of the baths, are the most 
astonishing works of Roman grandeur and magnificence. 

Bathing commenced with warm and ended with cold water. On 



214 GENERAL VIEWS. 

leaving the bath the people were anointed with scented oils, and 
went immediately to supper. 

The Dress of the Romans consisted chiefly of the toga and 
the tunica. The toga or gown worn by the citizens only, was 
loose and flowing, and covered the whole body : it was made 
of wool, had no sleeves, and was disposed in graceful folds, 
with a view to improve the appearance of the wearer. 

The toga virilis, or manly gown, was assumed by young 
men at the age of seventeen, 

The tunica or tunic, was a white woollen vest, which came 
down a little below the knees before, and to the middle of the 
leg behind, and was fastened about the waist by a girdle, 
which also served as a purse. 

§ Women wore a tunic as well as the men, but with this difference, 
at first, that it reached down to the feet of the women, and had 
sleeves. Afterwards the men wore the tunic in the same manner. 

Hats and Caps, though known, were worn only on journeys or at 
the public games. In the city they usualty went bare headed, or co- 
vered themselves with the corner of the toga. 

Ladies of distinction had many waiting maids, who were appro- 
priated to particular services ; and the duties of the toilet, though not 
perhaps so well understood as in modern' times, were as assiduously 
attended to. 

Jewels, bracelets, rings, and various expensive ornaments, were 
worn in great profusion. The convenience of pins was not known, 
nor were glass mirrors, though there were substitutes for them, 
Pure woven silk and linen were little known and used till the time 
of the emperors, and not at all known during nearly the whole peri- 
od of the republic. 

Marriage was an institution highly countenanced among 
the Romans. Severe laws were at times enacted to restrain 
celibacy, though never with much effect. Fathers of large 
families were particularly respected. Marriages with foreign- 
ers were strictly forbidden. The validity of the transaction 
depended on the legal age of the parties, and the consent of 
parents. 

§ Boys were considered marriageable at fourteen ; girls at twelve. 
A marriage was never solemnized without consulting the auspices, 
and offering sacrifices to the gods ; particularly to Juno ; and the nni- 
mals immolated on the occasion, were deprived of their gall, in (illu- 
sion to the absence of every thing bitter and malignant in the pro- 
posed union. The mode of marriage and the multitude of ceremo- 
nies attending it cannot here be described. 

Marriage, among the Romans, was not indissoluble. A husband 
might repudiate his wife for several reasons, besides that of having 
violated her conjugal faith. But to the honour of the Romans, more 



ROMANS. 215 

than four centuries elapsed without any suit among them for divorce, 
or complaint of adultery. Afterwards divorces became very frequent, 
and for the most frivolous causes. 

Fathers at Rome were generally invested with the power of life 
and death over their children. Exposure of infants was at first some- 
what frequent, but at length nearly ceased. The adoption of children 
by married persons who were childless was very common, on ac- 
count of the privileges connected with having children, whether bfi 
issue or adoption. 

The funeral rites of the Romans were solemn and impres- 
sive. During the greater part of the commonwealth, the dead 
body was buried. Towards the close, the practice of burning 
the dead was generally introduced, till it became universal. 
After the introduction of Christianity into the empire, it fell 
into disuse. 

§ It was a received opinion among the ancients, that the manes of 
the deceased were propitiated by blood. It was on this account their 
custom to slaughter, on the tomb of the deceased, those animals to 
which, while he was living, he was most attached ; and in the more 
barbarous ages, men were the victims of this horrid superstition. 

" Arms, trappings, horses, by the hearse were led 
In long array — the achievements of the dead. 
Then pinion' d, with their hands behind, appear 
The unhappy captives, marching in the rear, 
Appointed offerings in the victor's namej 
To sprinkle with their blood, the funeral flame." 

DrydevOs Virgil. 

Many of the Roman sepulchres still exist in the gardens of their 
villas or by the public roads, (for inhumation was not allowed with- 
in the walls,) with their various monumental inscriptions. 

72 1 Foreign Commerce. The foreign commerce of the 
Romans appears very unimportant, compared with the exten- 
sive mercantile transactions of our own times. Their trade, 
if we except the corn received on account of government from 
Sicily and the Levant, consisted of little else, than articles of 
mere luxury. Their purchases were made in bullion, as they 
had no exportable manufactures of their ow 7 n. This circum- 
stance necessarily restricted their commercial dealings. 

§ They traded, it is true, not only to the ports of the Mediterrane- 
an, but to the East Indies, and occasionally even to England ; but the 
interests of commerce were little understood, and less appreciated. 
Traffic was dishonourable, and they who engaged in it were held in 
contempt. The consequence was, that it was relinquished to slaves 
and freemen, who seldom possessed the means to conduct it on an 
extensive scale. 

Their merchant ships were large, if they reached the burthen ot 
fifty tons. 



2J 6 



GENERAL VIEW3. 



Syria. 
73. Situation and Cities. Syria lay on the east coast 
of the Mediterranean below Cilicia. The coast was called 
Phoenicia, and below it was Palestine. On the south it had 
Arabia and the Euphrates. 

Its towns and noticeable places were Antioch, Daphne, 
Seleucia, Damascus, Heliopolis. and Palmyra, or Tadmor. 

Antioch at one time, was inferior only to Rome and Alexandria 
in greatness and population. It is now almost depopulated, though 
its strong walls on both sides of the Orontes, remain. 

Daphne was a place consecrated to luxury, and enchanting from 
its cool fountains and shady groves of laurel, cypress, &c. Milton 
compares the garden of Eden to it — 

— " Nor that sweet grove 
" Of Daphne by Orontes." — 
Seleucia was on the sea near the mouth of the Orontes. — The bard 
again speaks of 

" The royal towers 
Of great Seleucia, built by Grecian kings." 

Damascus was the capital of the Phoenicia of Libanus. Its fertile 
and irriguous valley has ever been famous among the orientals. 

Heliopolis, under the name of Baalbeck, has the remains of a mag- 
nificent temple dedicated to the sun. The whole edifice, and parti- 
cularly the roof, glittered with gold. 

Palmyra gave the name of Palmyrene to a vast plain, which was 
united to the desert of Arabia. The bible and Joseph.us inform us it 
was founded by Solomon. It maintained a great commerce between 
two divisions of the ancient hemisphere. The remains of lofty edi- 
fices manifest its former magnificence, and attract the curious and 
astonished traveller. 

74. Character of the ancient Syrians. The ancient 
Syrians were miserable idolaters. 

An instance of their worship is thus described by the poet before 
named. 



-" Tammuz came next behind, 



Whose annual wound in Lebanon allur'd 
The Syrian damsels to lament his fate, 
In am'rous ditties all a summer's day : 
While smooth Adonis from his native rock 
Ran purple to the sea, supposed with blood 
Of Tammuz yearly wounded." 

They were also somewhat of an effeminate race, and re 
markable for hiding themselves from the sun, in caves, on the 
decease of their relatives. 

75. Language. The Syrian language became a distinct 
tongue, so early as the time of Jacob. It was spoken not 
only in Syria, but nlso in Mesopotamia, Chaldrea, and Assy- 



PERSIA. 217 

ria. After the Babylonish captivity, it was introduced into 
Palestine. 

§ The Syriac is an easy and elegant, though not a very copious 
tongue. It abounds in many Greek words. 

Carthage. 

76. Extent. Carthage has been briefly described in the 
body of this work. It may only be stated here that with its 
ports, it comprehended an enclosure of 23 miles. It had a cita 
del named Byrsa, on an eminence. 

§ Its military prowess was at its height, under Hamilcar and Hanni- 
bal. The city was destroyed by the second Scipio, B. C. 147. It 
then burned incessantly during 17 days. It was rebuilt by Roman 
colonies. Its decay may be traced from the seventh century, when 
it fell into the hands of the Saracens. 

77. Government and Character of the People. The 
Carthaginians were governed as a republic, and had two 
persons yearly chosen among them with regal authority. 
They were very superstitious as a people, and generally 
offered human victims to their gods. They also bore the 
character of being faithless and treacherous, and the proverb, 
Punic faith, is well known. 

Parthia. 

78. Situation, fyc. Parthia had Hyrcania on the north ; 
Aria on the east ; Carmania on the south ; and Media on the 
west. It was a healthy country, but sterile. The people 
were governed by an absolute monarch. 

§ The ancient Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who 
being expelled from their native land, took up their abode in this part 
of Asia. They were a strong and warlike people, and accustomed 
from their infancy to the exercises of horsemanship and archery. 

The peculiar custom of discharging their arrows while they were 
retiring full speed, has been greatly celebrated by the ancients. 
Their flight was more formidable than their attack. 

They totally neglected agriculture, trade and navigation, and their 
morals were dreadfully depraved. Their religious principles were 
much the same as those of the Persians. Their sovereigns affected 
to be gods. 

Persia. 

79. Extent and Situation. Ancient Persia extended 
about 2800 miles in length from the Hellespont to the mouth 
of the river Indus ; and about 2000 miles in breadth, from 
Pontus to the mouth of the Arabian gulf. 

80. Government. The government of Persia was an ab- 



218 GENERAL VIEWS. 

solute monarchy. The crown was hereditary, and generally 
bestowed on the eldest of the deceased king's legitimate chil- 
dren. 

§ The kings of Persia received almost divine honours from their 
subjects. No one could approach the seat of majesty without pros- 
trating himself, or remain in the presence, without holding his hand? 
within his sleeves. Death was the consequence of violating this 
ceremony. 

Herodotus mentions that Xerxes being once in great danger by 
sea, many of his attendants strove who should first leap overboard to 
lighten the vessel, and sacrifice themselves for the preservation of 
their prince. 

The royal palace at Persepolis was extremely magnificent. The 
roofs and sides of the apartments were entirely covered with ivory, 
silver, gold, or amber. The throne was of fine gold and adorned 
with precious stones. The royal bed was also of gold, and two cof- 
fers were placed by it, both containing 8,000 talents. 

The Persian monarchs, for the most part, lived only to gratify their 
sensual appetites. All the delicacies and rarities of the world were 
sought for their table. Cicero informs us, that the revenues of whole 
provinces were lavished on the attire of their favorite concubines, one 
city being compelled to supply them with ornaments for their hair, 
another for their necks, &c. 

81. Education. The Persians are said to have paid 
more particular regard to the education of their children, than 
any other nation. A son was never admitted into the pre- 
sence of his father, till he had arrived at the age of five 
years, lest, if he should die before that period, his parents 
might be too heavily afflicted by his loss. 

§ At the age of five, learned masters taught the children of the better 
families, in learning and moral virtues, taking with them the utmost 
pains, and bestowing upon them the greatest care. 

82. Punishments. The punishments in general were se- 
vere, as cutting off the right hand, decapitation, pressing to 
death between two large stones, &c. 

§ The most severe punishment known in Persia, was the inhuman 
one of fastening the culprit between two boats, in such a manner that 
he was unable to move, though his head, hands and feet were left 
uncovered. His face, exposed to the rays of the sun, was smeared 
with honey, which invited innumerable swarms of flies and wasps to 
torment him, while the worms that bred in his excrements devoured 
his bowels ; and the executioners compelled him, by thrusting sharp 
iron instrument into his eyes, to receive nourishment for the express 
purpose of prolonging his excruciating agonies. One victim is re- 
corded to have lived 17 days under this complication of torments. 

83. Military Art. The Persians were all trained to mili- 
tary exercise, but more particularly to the use of the bow. 



MYTHOLOGY. 219 

They never fought in the night, nor used any stmtagem in- 
dependent of their own valour. 

§ When they designed to make war upon any nation, they had the 
singular custom of sending heralds to demand of them earth and 
water, thereby commanding them to acknowledge the king of Persia, 
as sovereign lord of their country. 

84. Religion. Their religion was in a degree idolatrous, 
though less so than that of the nations around them. They 
professed to worship the one all-wise and omnipotent God 
though they held fire to be holy, and the purest s)^mbol of 
the divine nature. In connexion with this, they had a super- 
stitious regard of the sun. They honoured also other elements, 
as the earth, the air, and water. 

§ The Persians are supposed to have been originally instructed 
in the worship of the true God by their progenitor Elam, but soon 
to have fallen into the heresy of Zabiism. From this they are 
thought to have been recovered, and to have afterwards engaged in 
superstitious acts of reverence to the celestial bodies. 

In ancient times, they were destitute of temples, but erected altars 
for the preservation of their sacred fires, on the tops of mountains. 
At length Zoroaster persuaded them, for the sake of convenience, 
to build over each, a pyreum or fire-temple. This Zoroaster is sup- 
posed by some to have been a native of Persia, and a restorer of the 
religion of the Magi. 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

1. All the nations of antiquity, except the Jews, were 
heathens and idolaters. Their system of religion was called 
Polytheism, as acknowledging a plurality of gods. They 
worshipped divinities by various representations, called idols. 
Forsaking the service of the only living and true God, as 
made known at first by traditionary, and afterwards by written 
revelation, they paid that homage which is due to him, to 
those that are by nature no God. 

2. Besides angels, as presiding over particular kingdoms, — 
the heavenly bodies, men, beasts, birds, fishes, virtues, vices, 
diseases, and evil demons, were esteemed deities, and had tem- 
ples built for their worship. 

Among the Egyptians, the principal deities were Osiris and Isis, 
supposed to be the sun and moon. The people however bestowed 
divine honours on animals, birds, insects, and even vegetables, as leeks 
and onions. The poet Juvenal intimates that their religious exercises 
were not greatly esteemed by the Romans. In fact, they exceeded 
all the other ancients in these absurdities, and were extremely de- 
based by their vile superstitions. 



220 GENERAL VIEWS. 

The Babylonians and Arabians adored the heavenly bodies. They 
supposed that the angels resided in the stars, and governed the world 
under the supreme deity. Among the later Babylonians, Belus be- 
came their Jupiter, to whom a magnificent temple was erected in 
Babylon. 

The Canaanites and Syrians worshipped Baal, Tammuz, Magog, 
and Astarte. Moloch was the Saturn of the Phoenicians and Car- 
thaginians. To him, human victims, particularly children, were im- 
molated. Baal-peor was the idol of the Moabites — his rights were 
detestable and cruel. Dagon was the chief god of the Philistines j his 
figure was compounded of a man and a fish. 

In the mythology of the Scythians, the god of war was their 
favourite divinity, and to him were consecrated groves of oaks of 
extraordinary size. Horses w T ere sacrificed, and every hundredth 
man taken in battle. 

In the mythology of the Celts, the Druids had the direction of theo- 
logical concerns. Their rites were performed in groves, and they paid 
superstitious reverence to the misletoe. Human victims were often 
offered; colossal images of wicker-work, filled with human criminals, 
were consumed by fire. 

The Persians in their religion rejected, for the most part, the com- 
plicated popular system of polytheism. They believed in one su- 
preme God who formed and governed all things. They, however, 
preserved the sacred fire, as it was called, which was kindled by con 
secrated sun-beams. Their rites at first were plain and simple, and 
their priests were called magi. These tenets of their primitive reli 
gion gradually degenerated into Zabiism, or the adoration of celestial 
bodies. 

The mythology of the ancient Hindoos resembles, in some of its 
features, that of the Egyptians, Persians, and Scythians. It is a 
strange mixture of a few truths with many wild fables. It divides 
the world into ten parts, setting over each a guardian spirit. The 
deity Brahma is made the creating power, Vishnu is the preserver 
and pervader, and Narayda, the mover on the waters. 

3. The multitude of gods as an object of faith, is preposter- 
ous and wicked ; but the elegant forms and agreeable fictions 
that mythology furnishes, are admirably adapted to the pur- 
poses of poetry, statuary, and painting. The imagination 
revels in a region fairy and enchanting. 

§ The theology of Pagan antiquity, according to Scaevolaand Var- 
ro, was of three sorts. The first of these may well be called fabulous, 
as treating of the theology and genealogy of their deities, in which 
they relate such things as are infinitely unworthy of the divinity, 
ascribing to them, thefts, murders, adulteries, and all manner of 
crimes. 

This kind of theology is condemned by the wiser sort of heathens 
as trifling and scandalous. The writers of this sort of theology were 
Sanchoniathon the Phoenician 5 and Orpheus, Hesiod, Pherecydes, 
&c, among the Greeks. 



MYTHOLOGY. 221 

The second kind called physic or natural, was studied and taught 
by the philosophers, who rejecting the multiplicity of gods introduced 
by the poets, brought their theology to a more natural and rational 
form. They supposed that there was but one supreme God, which 
they commonly make to be the sun, at least an emblem of him ; but 
at too great a distance to mind the affairs of the world, and therefore 
devised certain demons, which they considered as mediators between 
the supreme God and man. 

The speculations of the philosophers related to the doctrines of these 
demons, to their nature, their office, and regard to men. Writers o* 
this class were Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, and the Stoics. 

The third kind of theology called politic or civil, was instituted by 
legislators, statesmen, and politicians. The first among the Romans 
was Numa Pompilius. This part of the Pagan system chiefly re- 
spected their gods, temples, altars, sacrifices, and rites of worship, 
and was properly their idolatry, the care of which belonged to the 
priests. The whole was enjoined on the common people, to keep 
them in obedience to the civil state. 

4. In the fictions of mythology, particularly those of Greece 
and Rome, many things are allegorical and mystical, the 
true sense of which, though not accommodated to the vul- 
gar apprehension, the refined and liberal may explain. This 
suggests one use to be derived from the study of the Pagan sys- 
tems of religion. We learn the religious views of antiquity. 

Another use of it is, that the classic authors cannot be 
read with advantage without a knowledge of mythology ; and 
the classic authors, it is not to be doubted, are the best 
models of fine writing extant, and are necessary to improve 
the taste. Connected with this also is the fact, that a know- 
ledge of mythology can alone enable us to understand and be- 
come acquainted with antique statues, medals, paintings, &c. 

§ The gods of ancient paganism were some mundane, and others 
supermundane. The mundane are those who were supposed to fab- 
ricate the world, and the supermundane are those who produce 
essences, intellects, and souls. Hence they are distinguished into 
three orders. Of the mundane gods likewise, some are the causes of 
the existence of the world ; others animate it ; others again harmo- 
nize it, thus composed of different natures ; and lastly, others guard 
and preserve it when harmoniously arranged. 

Since also these orders are four, and each consists of things first, 
middle, and last, it is necessary that the governors of these should be 
twelve. Hence Jupiter, Neptune and Vulcan fabricate the world. Ce- 
res, Juno and Diana animate it; Mercury, Venus and Apollo harmo- 
nize it ; and lastly, Vesia, Minerva and Mars preside over it with 3 
guardian power. 

But the truth of this may be seen in statues as in enigmas. For 
Apollo in marble holds ju his hands a lyre ; Minerva is invested witfe 

T2 



222 GENERAL VIEWS. 

arms j and Venus is naked, since harmony produces beauty, and 
beauty is not concealed in subjects of sensible perception. 

As these gods primarily possess the world, it is necessary to con- 
sider the other mundane gods as subsisting in them, as Bacchus in 
Jupiter, iEsculapius in Apollo, and the Graces in Venus. We may 
also behold the spheres with which they are connected, viz. Vesta 
with the earth, Neptune with water, Juno with air, and Vulcan with 
fire. But Apollo and Diana are assumed for the sun and moon ; the 
sphere of Saturn is attributed to Ceres ; ether to Minerva; and heaven 
is common to them all. 

The above are a few instances of the real sense of the fictions of 
mythology. Many of the philosophers in these fictions concealed 
their better knowledge, often conveying lessons of wisdom under the 
veil of allegory. The genuine Pagan creed, as given by a heathen 
philosopher, Maximus Tyrius, is the following : 

" There is one God, the king and father of all things, and many 
gods, sons of God, ruling together with him. This the Greek says, 
and the barbarian says, the inhabitant of the continent, and he that 
dwells near the sea ; and if you even proceed to the utmost shores of 
the ocean, there too there are gods, rising very near to some, and 
setting very near to others." By the rising and setting gods he means 
the stars, which according to the Pagan theology, are divine animals, 
co-operating with the first cause in the government of the world. 

5. A survey of the heathen mythology presents little to 
view but absurdity, and the various forms in which human 
corruption is exhibited. The people at large, whatever the 
philosophers understood by these " phantasms and monsters," 
received them as literal truths, till it became dangerous to 
shake the faith of communities, or disturb the public religion. 

§ In this state of things continued the gentile world, until the light 
of the gospel was sent among them. Those were times of ignorance. 
The people were unacquainted with the true God and the worship 
of him — with the Messiah and salvation by him. 

The moral world at present is gloriously illuminated. The Bible 
has scattered the dark shades of spiritual and intellectual night. We 
behold " one God and one Mediator between God and men," seated 
upon the throne of the universe ; possessed of boundless wisdom, 
power, purity, goodness ; the Creator, the Preserver, the Ruler, and 
the Redeemer of his creatures ; ever present in all parts of his crea- 
tion, ever providing for its general happiness. 



DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, &C. 223 

DiscovciHes, Inventions, and Improvements of Early 

Ages. 

Sect. 1 . The little that can be gathered concerning the 
state of society, and the progress in inventions and improve- 
ments before the flood, has already been exhibited. In the 
account of individual nations, something also has been said 
concerning their intellectual culture and useful works of art. 
A few particulars may be added on these topics, with a view 
to illustrate more fully the advancement of society in the states 
of antiquity. Special reference will here be had to mecha- 
nic inventions, respecting which, less has been said hitherto, 
than on the subject of the fine arts and general literature. 

Sufficient evidence exists, that mankind at a remote period of an- 
tiquity, must have made considerable progress in the arts of life. The 
circumstances under which Egypt is presented to us by Moses, in 
the book of Genesis, indicate that its inhabitants were at that time a 
cultivated people. No doubt, the progress of invention in their very 
favourable situation was quite rapid. From them, even the Israelites, 
at the early period in which Moses wrote, must have learned much 
in respect to the useful arts. The same was the case with the Ba- 
bylonians, Phoenicians, and other nations. Still, though some arts 
have been lost during the lapse of ages, antiquity cannot compare 
with modern times in the necessaries, comforts, and luxuries of life. 

2. At first, necessity, and afterwards convenience, urged 
the cultivation of the arts. The useful arts are the product 
of necessity. The higher branches of knowledge are the 
fruit of comparative ease and leisure. 

Among, the earliest arts, is the construction of huts, and 
of weapons, adapted to war and hunting. 

Astronomy is among the earliest of the sciences, and is said 
to have originated with the Chaldeans, probably, through the 
influence of superstition. The occupation of the Chaldeans, 
many of whom were shepherds, watching their flocks by 
night, was favourable for the observation of the heavenly 
bodies. 

Geometry was found out by the Egyptians. They were 
led to the cultivation of this science, by having occasion to 
measure the lands annually disturbed by the overflowing of 
the Nile. 

Medicine was among the early sciences. The simplest 
means of cure answer for rude nations. More complex means 
are required for cultivated nations, who have more complex 
diseases. 



224 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Agriculture is not practised till the tribes of men become 
stationary, and hold property in the soil. The acquirement, 
protection, and recognition of property, generally, is the first 
step from a savage towards a civilized life. The first property 
consisted of sheep, goats, and oxen ; and the care of these 
was the earliest and simplest occupation of husbandmen. In 
this stage of husbandry, all the country was open and com- 
mon to any occupier ; but as soon as any man could call a 
spot his own, and could secure to his family the produce of it, 
its cultivation would be a great object. Hence, arose the art 
and science of agriculture, properly so called. 

§ Agriculture flourished less in Greece than in Rome. The Roman9 
were remarkably versed in the knowledge of this useful branch of 
human pursuit. Their greatest citizens and warriors were, by turns, 
cultivators of the soil. The Israelites before them, and the Egyp- 
tians also, were devoted to this employment. The moderns, however, 
it is believed, have made the greatest proficiency in agriculture, as they 
have in most of the sciences and practical arts of life. This is the 
natural effect of time, of prolonged study, and multiplied experi- 
ments. In many of the fine arts, the ancients are still our masters. 

Architecture was an elegant art, in which antiquity excelled. 
The necessary and useful were all that was first sought in 
buildings. Luxury aimed at ornament. Hence, arose the 
five beautiful orders of architecture, viz. the Tuscan, the Do 
ric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, and the Composite. The Greeks 
perfected this art. 

3. But we may properly notice a few of the minuter divi- 
sions of ancient art and contrivance. Among these were the 
following : 

Embalming. — The ancients had an imperfect knowledge 
of the mode of preserving those bodies that were subject to 
decay. They relied principally on brine, honey, or a covering 
of wax ; but each of these was defective, and far inferior to 
that by spirits of wine, which combines the advantage of pre- 
venting putrefaction, with that of perfect transparency. The 
more scientific modern process, employed in anatomical prepa- 
rations, was wholly unknown. The Egyptians, however 7 
were famous for embalming dead bodies. 

§ The method of preventing corruption by means of brine, was 
the most ancient, as it was the most apparent, and the easiest of 
execution. It has been supposed to have originated in Persia, and 
Dion Cassius says, that when Pharnaces sent the body of his father, 
Mithridates, to Pompey, he had it placed in brine ; but it seems pro 



DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, &C. 225 

bable, that in the East, nitre was more frequently employed for this 
purpose than common salt. 

The custom of preserving dead bodies in honey, was also employ- 
ed at a very early period. The remains of several Spartans, who 
died in foreign countries, were thus prepared for transmission to 
their native home. The body of Alexander the Great, is also said, 
by some authors, to have been thus deposited, although we are told 
by others, that it was embalmed in the manner of the Egyptians. 

In the East, dead bodies were sometimes covered over with wax, 
and this practice, which was early introduced into Europe, gave rise 
to that of wrapping the remains of persons of distinction in waxed 
cloths, which has continued down even to the present day. 

The Egyptian method of embalming, consisted in first extracting 
the brain through the nostrils, and injecting some viscous unguent 
in their stead ; then opening the belly, and taking out the intestines, 
the cavity being washed with palm wine, impregnated with spices, 
and filled with myrrh and other aromatics ; this done, the body was 
laid in nitre during seventy days, at the end of which, it was taken 
out, cleansed, and swathed in fine linen, which was gummed, and 
ornamented with various painted hieroglyphics, expressive of the de- 
ceased's character and rank. This was done only for persons of the 
highest distinction. Less expensive methods were used for others. 

Roads and Street Pavements.— The, public accommoda- 
tions of the most splendid capitals of antiquity, were few in 
comparison with those of modern large towns. The streets 
of ancient Rome were only partially paved, during its most 
brilliant era, and are described by authors of that period as 
being filled with dirt. A few other cities are supposed to 
have been paved, but this is a matter of doubt. 

Though the Greeks and Romans were indifferent to their 
streets, yet they paid particular attention to their great public 
roads. These, in some instances, were magnificent works. 
Travelling, however, was not generally rapid in those times. 
§ There was no part of the Roman policy which so effectually pro- 
moted the good of mankind, or which has transmitted such exalted 
ideas of the imperial grandeur, as the number and magnificence of 
the roads. Though constructed principally for military purposes, 
they were of vast utility to the districts which they traversed, and 
proved the most efficacious means of promoting the comfort and 
civilization of the conquered people. Occasionally, there were in- 
stances of extraordinary celerity in travelling. We are informed 
by Pliny, that Tiberius travelled two, hundred miles in a day and 
night, on being despatched by Augustus to console his sick brother, 
Germanicus. But the ordinary rate of travelling, even on their ex- 
cellent roads, was slow in comparison of what it is at present. 
Cicero speaks of a messenger coming from Rome, to his government 
of Cilicia, in Asia Minor, in forty -seven days : heu tarn longe ! as 
the orator exclaims, on finding himself so far removed from the 



226 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



scene of his glory and exertions. To convey letters from Rome to 
the neighbourhood of Gibraltar, required, according to Pollio, forty 



Mode of conveying Intelligence. — The oldest method of 
communicating the news, with which we are acquainted, was 
by means of public criers. Another mode was to post up a 
written advertisement against a column in some public place. 

§ Public criers among the Greeks and Romans were under the su- 
perintendence of the police, and were generally employed by indi- 
viduals, in the same manner as they still are in the country towns ol 
England. The mode of posting was resorted to by the Roman 
government, to promulgate its edicts, and even, it is supposed, for 
imparting more trivial information of general import. Historians 
appear to have collected materials from them ; nor is it improbable, 
that copies were taken by individuals and dispersed about the city, 
or sent to their friends in the provinces. 

Glass. — The origin of the art of making glass, like that 
of many other valuable inventions, is probably due to chance. 
It is said to have been discovered in Syria. From ancient au- 
thors, it is supposed not to have been made in Rome, before 
the reign of Tiberius. 

§ Pliny mentions that glass was first accidentally discovered by 
some travellers while dressing their food by the river Belus, in Syria. 
Being obliged to make a fire on the ground, where there was a great 
quantity of the herb kali, that plant burning to ashes, its salts incor- 
porated with the sand, and thus became vitrified. The accident be- 
coming known, the inhabitants of the neighbouring city of Sidon, 
availed themselves of it, and soon brought the art into use. It seems 
to be a corroboration of this account, that the most ancient glass- 
houses, with which we are acquainted, were erected in Tyre. Pre- 
viously to the time of Tiberius, the Romans imported glass from the 
East, and vessels of glass were among their most costly pieces of 
household furniture. 

Mirrors. — There is reason to believe, that artificial mirrors 
were made almost as soon as the ingenuity of man was ex- 
erted on mechanical objects, and as every solid body capable 
of receiving a fine polish, would suit this purpose, we find, 
that the oldest mirrors mentioned in history, were of metal. 
Silver, however, afterwards came into use, and the greatest 
number of ancient mirrors was made of that metal, as it is the 
most fit of the unmixed metals for this purpose. Inferior mir- 
rors were also made, some of a mixture of copper and tin, and 
bset ; some of obsidian stone, and others of other substances. 
Glass mirrors were most probably unknown to the ancients. 
§ Metal mirrors are spoken of in the Bible, under the term looking 
glass, as incorrectly translated. 



DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, &C. 227 

At Rome, as the satirists declare, no young woman was without a 
silver mirror. 

The date of the invention of glass mirrors is somewhat a matter 
of dispute. From Pliny, it is thought, that they were attempted in 
the glass-houses of Tyre, but it does not appear that the experiments 
he speaks of, whatever they were, met with success ; and moreover, 
it is certain, that though glass was used by the Romans, their mir- 
rors were alluded to among articles of plate. 

Linen. — Linen, it is supposed, was first manufactured in 
Egypt. It is certain, that it was first obtained, and Europe 
was for a long time supplied, from that country ; and that the 
invention was very ancient appears from the fact, that mum- 
mies are generally found swathed in linen. The Greeks, 
however, were unacquainted with it, and it was not until 
the second century of the Christian era, that it was first intro- 
duced into Rome. Before that period, the tunic or under gar- 
ment of the Romans was made of wool. 

Woollen. — The origin of the arts of spinning and weaving 
is lost in the obscurity of fable. The Egyptians ascribe the 
invention to their Isis, and the Hindoos trace it to the remo- 
test period of their fabulous history ; but this applies only to 
cotton and flax ; for in those countries wool is not produced. 
Varro says, that the sheep was introduced into Greece by Her- 
cules, and it is probable, that the first attempts to manufac- 
ture wool in Europe, were made by the Athenians. The 
chief seat of the Roman manufacture was at Padua, whose 
workmen are to this day highly celebrated. 

§ Sheep came originally from Africa, but in that country, the ani- 
mal bears hair instead of wool ; and it is only in colder countries 
that its covering gradually acquires a woolly texture. It was long, 
most probably, before sheep became domesticated in the northern 
countries, whose inhabitants, living in immense woods, were con- 
tented, for ages, with their fine furs. It was only till a late period of 
ancient history, that the people of the north of Europe employed 
artificial means of clothing. 

Among both the Greeks and Romans, spinning was the chief em- 
ployment of the women. In weaving, the machinery, though perhaps 
rude in its construction, was, in principle, similar to that still in use. 
The process of fulling and preparing the cloth, seems to have re- 
sembled the modern practice in every essential point, except that of 
shearing the nap, with which the ancients do not appear to have been 
acquainted. 

Dyeing. — Few arts can lay claim to greater antiquity 
than that of dyeing, and still fewer attained, in ancient times, 
so great a degree of perfection. It certainly preceded paint- 



228 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

ing, and appears to have been known in the earliest ages of 
the Jews, Babylonians, and Egyptians, who selected and ap- 
plied colours for stuffs, cotton, linen, and silk, with the greatest 
judgment and dexterity. These were extracted from the ani- 
mal, vegetable, and mineral kingdom ; and without confining 
themselves to cloth or silk, they dyed equally well, leather, 
ivory, tortoise-shell, the hair of animals, wood, earth, wax, 
and even imparted a permanent colour to marble. 

Steel. — The invention of steel is of very great antiquity. 
Although we do not find any distinct mention of it in the Old 
Testament, still, it is clear, that it was known to the Greeks, in 
the time of Homer, and received from them several names, the 
most common of which was stomoma. Chalybs, was also a 
name given to steel, from the Chalybes, a people inhabiting the 
southern shore of the Euxine, between Cholcis and Paph- 
lagonia, a country which was renowned for its works of iron 
and steel. 

§ The steel of the ancients was capable of being hammered, and 
was not near so brittle as the hardest with which we are acquainted. 

These, and many other inventions and discoveries, which cannot 
here be described, characterized ancient times ; but modern ages have 
added greatly to the number, and improved many of those which 
were before known. 



OUTLINES 

OP 

ANCIENT AND MODERN 
HISTORY, 

ON A NEW PLAN. 

EMBRACING 

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF ILLUSTRIOUS PERSONS, 

AND 

GENERAL VIEWS 

OF THE GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, POLITICS, RELIGION. MILITARY 

AND NAVAL AFFAIRS, ARTS, LITERATURE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, 

AND SOCIETY, OF ANCIENT AND MODERN NATIONS. 



BY REV. ROYAL ROBBINS. 

ACCOMPANIED BY A SERIES OF QUESTIONS, 

AKD ILLUSTRATED WITH BNGRA VINOS. 
TWO VOLUMES IN ONE. 

VOL. II. 
XKEODEHN HISTOHT. 

EIGHTH REVISED EDITION. 

HARTFORD: 
BELKNAP AND HAMERSLEY. 



1839. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1835, 

By Edward Hopkins, 
In the Clerk's office of the District Court of Connecticut 



^ 



PREFACE 



Modern History presents so wide and varied a field, 
that a volume of the ordinary size is scarcely adequate to the 
purpose, of pointing out all even of the more striking objects 
which such a field contains. Indeed, comparatively little can 
be hoped to be achieved in a very condensed narrative of the 
events of modern ages, on the common plan. It would be 
apt to become a barren outline, or dry abstract, with little to 
interest or instruct the mind of the reader, and this, altnosi 
from the necessity of the case. The conciseness which is 
studied would preclude all minute relation, and with that the 
chief charm of history. The character of many publications 
of this class, otherwise very valuable, has suffered from such 
a cause. By the use of two sizes of type, this inconvenience 
is remedied in a degree, if there be sufficient skill in the e te- 
cution ; and a considerable space within a given compass, is 
thus allowed, for lively and entertaining matter not essen- 
tially connected with the leading facts or frame- work cf 
history. The latter, necessarily dry in themselves, and having 
few attractions for common minds, but very important to 
every one who would obtain a correct idea of the course < f 
events, may be all confined to the larger type : and thus, 
while a very brief epitome of history is presented in that 
part, the reader is at the same time, by means of the smal ler 
type, made acquainted with details which will enliven the 
narrative, and the better impress the more material facts on 
his mind. This is one great advantage of reading history no 
the plan of the present work — a plan which has of late been 
adopted with much success; — though the work possesses other 
peculiarities; which, whether they are happy or not, tho 



PREFACE. 

reader, it is believed, will not fail to perceive. The author 
would only add, that in preparing this outline of history, he 
has consulted a large number of valuable authors, from 
whom he has taken whatever was suited to his purpose?, in 
many instances with little variation even in language, though 
he lias generally endeavoured to maintain a homogeneous 
style and manner — that lie has exeicised much care in select- 
ing the materials and topics, and in connecting and arranging 
them — that he has aimed at scrupulous fidelity in the state- 
ment of facts, and impartiality in e«timating their value — 
and that he has occasionally interwoven in the narrative such 
moral remarks, and attempted throughout to exhibit such a 
spirit, as to render history not merely an agreeable exercise 
to the understanding, but an impressive lesson to the heart. 



CONTENTS 



General Remarks, 



Introduction. 
General Division. 



Ten periods, ... . 

Period I 

History of the Roman Empire, : 

Judea, . . . . 

Purthia, . . , 

Persia, . : : : 

China, . . 

Distinguished Characters, 

Period II. 
History of the Roman Empire, continued, . 

Persia, continued, : : : 

China, continued, . 
Distinguished Characters, . . . 

Period III 

History of the Roman Empire, continued, : 

Kingdom of Italy, 

Persia, continued, 

China, continued, 

Spain, 

Prance, 

England, 
Distinguished Characters, 

Period IV. 
History of the Arabs or Saracens, 

Eastern or Greek Empire, . 

Kingdom of Italy, continued, 

Spain, continued, . . . 

France, continued, . . . 

Distinguished Characters, . . : 

Period V. 
History of the New Western Empire, . 

Prance, continued, . . 

Italy, continued, 

Spain, continued, 

Germany, 

England, continued, 

Eastern Empire, continued, 

China, continued, 

Saracens, continued, . 

Distinguished Characters, . . . 

Period VI. 

Crusades, . : 

History of Prance, continued, . . . 

England, continued, 
Germany, continued, 
Eastern Empire, continued, 
Saracens, continued, . 

China, continued, 

Distinguished Characters, 



84 



96 



102 
105 
106 
107 
111 
119 
120 
120 
122 



125 
143 
146 
166 
157 
159 
160 
161 



CONTENT*. 



Period IX. 



Period VIL 
History of the Turkish Empire, 

Italian States, continued, 

Prance, continued, . 

England, continued, 

Germany, continued, 

China, continued, . 
Distinguished Characters, 

Period VUJ 
History of the Turkish Empire, continued, 

Italian States, continued, 

France, continued, 

England, continued, 

Germany, continued, , 

Spain, continued, . , 

Holland, 

America, . . . 

Distinguished Characters, . . 

History of Prance, continued, . 

Great Britain, continued,! . 

Germany, continued, 

Spain, continued, . » 

Turkish Empire, continued, 

British Colonies in North America, 

Russia, 

Sweden, 
Distinguished Characters, 

Period X 

History >f Sweden, continued, . 

Prussia, . . . 

Germany, continued, 

Poland, 

Russia, continued, . , 

England, continued, 

Prance, continued, . 

Italian States, continued, 

Spain, continued, 

Netiierlands, continued, 

Turkish Empire, continued, 

China, continued, 

Persia, continued, . ,. 

India, . . 

United States, 

South America, . 
Distinguished Characters, . 

General Views. 

Feudal System, .... . , . 360 

Chivalry, . ....... 363 

Romances, ...... • . 376 

Pilgrimages, .::::• . . 377 

Mj.ii i icrs and Character of the Gothic or Scandinavian nations, . . 378 
Learning and Arts, . . . . . . . .381 

Discoveries and Inventions, . . „ . . 394 

Incidents and Curious Particulars, ...... 400 

Present state of several Nations in Agriculture, Roads, Conveyances, Intercourse, 

Education, Trade, Manufactures, <fca ..... 404 

Christian Church, . . . 412 



MODERN HISTORY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Sec. 1. Writers who have divided History into Ancient 
and Modern, are not agreed as to the most convenient sepa- 
rating line between them. Some have taken the subversion 
of the Western Empire of the Romans as the dividing 
period ; and others the establishment of the New Empire of 
the West, under Charlemagne. We however agree with a 
third, and probably a more numerous class, who adopt the 
commencement of the Christian Era as the line of separa- 
tion. In this there is an evident propriety. 

2. It is the epoch from which civilized nations reckon time, 
both backwards to the beginning of creation, and forwards to 
the end of the world. Add to this, the event (the birth of 
Christ) that forms this era, is the most important of events 
It has had a commanding influence upon all subsequent his- 
tory. It has altered the aspect of all human affairs, and 
it will alter them more and more, as Christianity becomes ex- 
tended. The state of the civilized world was also singular. 
A change had taken place in the establishment of a mighty 
despotism, which was destined to oppress the nations, through 
many successive generations. 

§ The period from which we commence Modern History, cannot 
be contemplated with too deep an interest. It was a remarkable era 
in Divine Providence. "The fullness of the time was come" — the 
ancient order of things was drawing to a close, and new scenes in 
the moral world, were henceforth to be presented to the view of mar • 
kind. It is therefore associated with our most solemn thoughts of 
the dispensations of the Supreme Being towards his creatures. - It 
is the period whence we date the commencement of the spiritual re- 
novation of the world. 

The state of the world, in a political point of view, also deserves 
consideration. The principal nations were reduced under one head. 
Wars and dissentions, of long continuance and infinite ferocity, ha- 
ving terminated in one most formidable power, the whole earth en- 
joyed an unheard of calm. Mankind, for a short time, tasted the 
sweets of peace, though in servitude. One man was master of 



8 MODERN HISTORY. 

the lives and fortunes of all the rest, and therefore even the spirit ul 
conquest could scarcely desire more. 

3. The authenticity and the abundance of the materials 
of modern history, will be hailed with peculiar satisfaction by 
the inquirer after truth. A considerable portion of ancient 
history is plunged into darkness and uncertainty, from a va- 
riety of causes. And the scantiness, in some instances, of 
(he materials from which it is drawn, is often perplexing 
But both the ecclesiastical and civil records of modern histo- 
•y, illustrate, with desirable fullness, the state of the times. 
It must be owned, however, that the rage of the barbarians 
who subverted the Roman Empire, has deprived us of some 
means of information which we should otherwise have pos- 
sessed. But it is wonderful, after all, that so many monu- 
ments of the earlier periods of modern history, have come 
down to us. 

§ The causes that have operated to render some portions of an- 
cient history obscure, are such as the lapse of numerous ages ; a se- 
ries of great revolutions, in consequence of which the memorj of 
many events was lost ; the fury of barbarians, by which numerous 
monuments of early times have been destroyed ; and more than all 
the rest, the designed or accidental destruction of libraries. 

Some noble collections of books perished before the Christian era, 
particularly the celebrated library of Alexandria. This library was 
founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 284 years B. C, and con- 
sisted of a vast collection of records, histories, poems, and othei 
works. The number of volumes was reckoned at 400,000, and the) 
might have been as many as were in all the world beside. Befort 
the art of printing, books were comparatively scarce ; and of some, 
there might have been no other copies than those contained in this 
library. It perished in the flames of Alexandria, when Julius Caesar 
took that city. 

In later ages, large libraries have been destroyed, particularly the 
same library at Alexandria after it was revived, and collections had 
been made during several centuries. In the latter instance 700,000 
volumes perished. But books by this time had been much more 
multiplied, and though numerous destructions took place, many have 
survived the wrecks of ages. 

GENERAL DIVISION. 

Modern History may be divided into ten periods. They have 
each their peculiar characteristic, by which they may be always re- 
membered, and by which distinct views of the subject are designed 
to be imparted to the mind. 

Period I, will extend from the Nativity of Jesus Christ, 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

to the reign of Constantine the Great, 306 years A. C. This 
is the period of the Ten Persecutions of Christians, 

Period II, will extend from the reign of Constantine the 
Great, 306 years A. C, to the Extinction of the Western 
Empire, 476 years A. C. This is the period of the Nor- 
thern Invasions. 

Period HI, will extend from the Extinction of the Wes- 
tern Empire, 476 years A. C, to the Flight of Mahomet, 
622 years A. C. This is the period of the Justinian Code, 
and the Wars of Belisarius. 

Period IV, will extend from the Flight of Mahomet, 622 
years A. C, to the Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, 800 
years A. C. This is the period of the Establishment of the 
Saracen Do?ninion. 

Period V, will extend from the Crowning of Charle- 
magne at Rome, 800 years A. C, to the First Crusade, i J95 
years A. C. This is the period of the New Western Em- 
pire. 

Period YI, will extend from the First Crusade, 1095 
years A. C, to the Founding of the Turkish Empire, 1299 
years A. C. This is the period of the Crusades. 

Period VII, will extend from the Founding of the Tur- 
kish Empire, 1299 years A. C, to the Taking of Constanti- 
nople, 1453 years A. C. This is the period of the Papal 
Schism. 

Period VIII, will extend from the Taking of Constan- 
tinople, 1453 years A. C, to the Edict of Nantes, (Nantz!) 
1598 years A. C. This is the period of the Reformation. 

Period IX, will extend from the Edict of Nantes, 1598 
years A. C, to the Death of Charles XII, of Sweden, 1718 
years A. C. This is the period of the English Common- 
wealth. 

Period X, will extend from the Death of Charles XII, 
of Sweden, 1718 years A. C, to the final Restoration of the 
Bourbons, 1815 years A. C. This is the period of the Ame- 
rican and French Revolutions. 



10 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 



PERIOD I. 

The period of the Ten Persecutions of Christians) extend 
ing from the Nativity of Jesus Christ, to the Reign 
of Constantine the Great, 306 A. C. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

Sec. 1. The great event with which this period properly 
commences, is the Birth of Jesus Christ. It belongs to 
the Roman History, only from the fact that Judea, the coun- 
try of Our Saviour, was held in subjection to Rome. 1{ is 
strictly an event of the Jewish History, and is hereafter to be 
more fully noticed under that head. 

Here it may he mentioned only, that the Birth of Jesus oc- 
curred, according to the common reckoning, in the 3 1st year of 
the reign of Augustus, 752 years after the building of Rome, 
and in the 195th Olympiad, under the consulship of Caius Ju- 
lius Caesar. It is the general opinion of the learned, how- 
ever, that our Saviour was born four years earlier than this 
date, viz. in the 27th of Augustus, and that the common 
reckoning or era is a mistake. 

According to this opinion, Jesus, in the year 1, A. C, (the 
vulgar date) was really four years old. 

§ It is a circumstance worthy of remark, that the temple of Janus, 
at Rome, which was always open in time of war, and shut only du- 
ring peace, was shut at the period of our Saviour's birth, and that, 
for the third instance only, during the space of more than 700 years. 

2. Rome had been an empire in the more proper sense of 
the word, from the beginning of the reign of Augustus. At 
the time of the nativity of Christ, the empire was at the me- 
ridian of its splendour, or perhaps a little past it. Most of the 
nations had bowed to the Roman yoke ; and luxury and the 
arts poured in upon the queen of cities. 

It had been for some years the most powerful dominion of 
the ancient world, and continued thus to be for several suc- 
ceeding centuries. The, times, however, were degenerate, 
and the real strength of the Roman empire, if it had not be- 
gun to diminish at this epoch, was certainly not greater than 
during the last days of the republic. A few nations after- 
wards were added to its sway, but these rather weakened than 
augmented the power of Rome. The wide extent of its do 



ROMAN EMPIRE. ll 

minions, we shall hereafter see, was one of the causes of its 
decline and downfall. 

But the pomp and glory of so great a monarchy, continu- 
ed long after the seeds of weakness and decay were sown. 
Distant nations admired and dreaded the splendid spectacle. 
Ambassadors from every region daily arrived at Rome, to do ho- 
mage to her greatness, or to seek her friendship and assistance. 

3. Augustus, who first established a despotism over the 
Roman people, died 14 years after the birth of Christ. The 
events which took place between the birth of Christ and the 
death of Augustus, pertaining to the Romans, were neither 
many nor important. 

During this interval, Augustus adopted Tiberius, and fi- 
nally associated him in the empire. Archelaus, king of Ju- 
dea, was deposed, and that country became strictly a Roman 
province. Germanicus, grandson of Augustus, successfully 
commanded in Pannonia, and Q,. Varus was signally defeat- 
ed by the Germans, with the loss of three Roman legions. 

4. Luxury and the arts having enervated the Roman peo- 
ple, and the former civil wars and the consequent calamities 
having paved the way for a different order of things, in the 
quiet establishment of despotism under Augustus, their fate 
from this time was fixed. He found no difficulty in riveting 
their chains, and for long ages, a series of despots, most of 
them monsters of vice and cruelty, ruled with a rod of iron, 
this once liberty-loving people, and mistress of nations. 

§ Amidst the refinements and elegancies of modern times, con- 
nected with our ideas of the progressive improvement of society, we 
are perhaps inclined to overlook and undervalue the ages of antiqui- 
ty. Many seem to forget what scenes of brightness and grandeur 
have illumined the nations before us, and how mournfully those 
scenes are departed. 

The pensive, contemplative mind, however, does justice to such a 
subject ; and no instance of human greatness of old, strikes such a 
«nind more forcibly, than that of the proud empire of Rome, under 
der Ceesars. The memorial is both pleasant and mournful to the 
soul. The mixture of misery with its splendour, renders it, if any 
thing, more touching and impressive. 

5. Tiberius, who had been named in the will of Augus- 
tus as his successor, immediately assumed the government, 
14 years A. C. He was the son of Augustus's wife, Livia, 
»y a former husband, and had distinguished himself in war. 

During the first eight or nine years of his reign, he put on 



12 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

the appearance of justice and moderation, practising the most 
consummate dissimulation. His vicious and tyrannical disposi- 
tion was indulged during this time in a very covert manner ; but 
afterwards it was openly manifested, and carried to a most ter- 
rible extreme. His cruelties and debaucheries were enormous. 
The first objects of his suspicions Avere Agrippa Posthu- 
mus, a grandson of Augustus, whom he ordered to be execu- 
ted in compliance with the pretended will of that emperor j 
and the accomplished Germanicus, his nephew and distin- 
guished general, whom he caused to be secretly poisoned. The 
Roman people indulged in unbounded sorrow, upon the death 
of Germanicus. 

Afterwards, when he gave a loose to his passions, the best 
blood in Rome flowed. By means of Sejanus, a Roman 
knight whom he took into his confidence, and who exceeded 
even Tiberius in dissimulation, he exercised the most shock- 
ing cruelties towards his subjects. Sejanus first fell a victim 
to his crimes, in attempting to assume the government him 
self; and a few years after Tiberius was strangled or poison 
ed by one of his officers. 

§ From the 12th year of his reign, Tiberius was persuaded by Se 
janus to abandon Rome, and to retire to the island of Caprea, as & 
more convenient place for the indulgence of his indolence and de- 
baucheries. His gloomy and cruel disposition also followed him 
there, and by means of this base minion, he perpetrated all manner 
of crimes. 

At this time he was 67 years old, and the unpleasantness of his 
person comported with the deformity of his mind. He was quite 
bald in front ; his face was disgustingly ulcerated, and covered over 
with plasters; his body was bent forward, while its unnatural tallness 
and leanness increased its ugliness. He now gave himself up to every 
excess. He spent whole nights in eating and drinking, and he ap- 
pointed two of his table companions to the first posts of the empire, for 
no other merit, than that of having sat up with him two days and two 
nights, without interruption. These he called his friends of all hours. 

His libidinous indulgences were still more detestable, and the most 
eminent, women of Rome were obliged to sacrifice to him their virtue 
and honour. 

His jealousy, which fastened on persons of the highest distinction, 
induced him to condemn them to death on the slightest pretences. 
Indeed to such an extent were legalized murders carried, that he be- 
gan to grow weary of particular executions, and therefore gave or- 
ders that all the accused should be put to death together, without 
further examination. The whole city of Rome was filled with 
slaughter and mourning. The place of execution was a horrible scene 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 13 

dead bodies putrifying lay heaped on each other, while even the friends 
of the wretched convicts were denied the satisfaction of weeping. 

In putting to death sixteen out of twenty senators whom he had 
chosen for his council, he uttered a sentiment never to be forgot- 
ten in the records of human cruelty. " Let them hate me, so long 
as they obey me." This monster often satisfied his eyes, with the 
tortures of the wretches who were put to death before him; and in 
the days of Suetonius, the rock was still shown from which he or- 
dered such as displeased him to be thrown headlong. 

He died in the seventy-eighth year of his age, and twenty-third 
of his reign. 37 A. C. 

6. At this time the Romans were arrived at the highest 
pitch of effeminacy and vice. The wealth of almost every 
nation in the empire, having long circulated through the 
city, brought with it the luxuries peculiar to each country. 
Rome was one vast mass of pollution, and sensuality. It 
was thought a refinement upon pleasure to make it unnatu- 
ral. Abating their genius, there never was a more detesta- 
ble people, than the Romans at this epoch, and indeed, du- 
ring the continuance of the empire. Cruelty and lust were 
Essential ingredients in the Roman character. 

§ It was a burst of joy, says Chateaubriand, which Tiberius was 
unable to repress, on finding the Roman people and senate sunk 
below even the baseness of his own heart. 

Again, according to this writer, death formed an essential part of 
the festivities of the Romans. It was introduced as a contrast, and 
for the purpose of giving a zest to the pleasures of life. Gladiators, 
courtezans, and musicians, were procured to enliven entertainments. 
A Roman on quitting a haunt of infamous pleasure, went to enjoy 
the spectacle of a wild beast devouring human victims, and quaffing 
their blood. 

7. Caligula had been adopted by Tiberius for his heir and 
successor in the empire. He was the son of Germanicus, 
and grand-nephew of Tiberius, and so called from Caliga, 
a short buskin which he wore, in imitation of the common 
sentinels. He commenced his reign immediately on the 
death of Tiberius, 37 years A. C. and at his accession, was 
popular from the virtues of his father. 

He commenced his reign with a show of clemency and 
moderation. He restored some of the forms of the republic 
which his predecessor had entirely disregarded, and he abol- 
ished arbitrary prosecutions for crimes of state. But tyranni- 
cal by nature, in less than eight months he acted out his 
real disposition, in cruelties, extortions, and impieties, which 
surpassed even those of Tiberius. 

2 



14 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

Joining absurdity and extravagance to vice, he became 
supremely contemptible, as well as detestable. Indeed his 
follies and absurdities were peculiar to himself, so that accord- 
ing to an idea of Seneca, he was one of those productions of 
nature, in which there was the greatest possible combination 
of vice and power. He died by assassination, in the fourth 
year of his reign and 29th of his age. A. C. 41. 

§ Among the cruelties of this imperial monster, were his murder 
of Gemellus his kinsman, of Silenus his father-in-law, of Grecinus 
a senator of noted integrity, who refused to witness falsely against 
Silenus ; afterwards, his killing many of the senate, and then citing 
them to appear as if they had killed themselves ; indeed, the sacri- 
fice of crowds of victims to his avarice, or suspicion. 

He condemned many persons of the highest quality to dig in the 
mines, and to repair the high-ways, for ridiculing his profusion 
He cast great numbers of old and infirm men, and poor decrepid 
housekeepers, to wild beasts, in order to free the state from such un- 
serviceable citizens. He frequently had men racked before him 
while he sat at table, ironically pitying their misfortunes, and blam- 
ing their executioner. And as the height of insane cruelty, he once 
expressed the wish " that all the Roman people had but one neck, 
that he might dispatch them at a single blow." 

His impieties^ and the depravation of his appetites, made him 
still more a disgrace to human nature. He claimed divine honours, 
and caused temples to be built and sacrifices to be offered to him- 
self, as a God. He caused the heads of the statues of Jupiter and 
some other gods to be struck off, and his own to be put in their 
places. He employed many inventions to imitate thunder, ana 
would frequently defy Jupiter, crying out in a sentence of Homer 
"Do you conquer me or I will conquer you." Scarcely any lady 
of quality in Rome escaped his depraved solicitations. He com- 
mitted incest with his three sisters, two of whom he prostituted to 
his vile companions, and then banished them, as adulteresses and 
conspir vtors against his person. 

His follies and prodigality completed the infamy of his charac- 
ter. The luxuries of the former emperors were trifling, compared 
to his. He invented dishes of immense value, and had even jewels 
dissolved among his sauces. He sometimes had services of pure 
gold, instead of meat, presented before his guests ; observing, "that a 
man should be an economist or an emperor." 

For his favorite horse Incitatus, he built a stable of marble, and 
a manger of ivory ; and appointed it a house, furniture, and a 
kitchen, in order to a respectful entertainment of its visitors. Some- 
times indeed, the emperor invited Incitatus to his own table ; and it 
is said that he would have appointed it to the consulship, had he 
bot been prevented by death. 

These and a thousand other follies, particularly the building of a 
bridge three miles and a half across an arm of the sea m a ridicu- 



ROMAN EMPIRE,. 15 

lous manner, and which tbc first storm annihilated, constituted such 
a drain upon the public resources, as became exceedingly oppressive. 
Of a fortune of £18.000.000 sterling left by Tiberius, none remained 
in a space little beyond one year. He of course put in practice all 
kinds of rapine and extortion. Professor Heeren remarks, that 
" he was more pernicious to the state by his insane prodigality, 
than by his savage cruelty. 51 

Against such a wretch, we naturally look for treason and conspiracies. 
After several attempts, his death was at length accomplished by Cassius 
Cherea, tribune of the praetorian bands, who was an ardent lover of 
freedom. Leagued with a number of conspirators, he met the em- 
peror in a little vaulted gallery that led to one of his baths, and 
struck him to the ground, crying out, " tyrant, think upon this." 
He was immediately dispatched by the other conspirators, who 
rushed in and pierced him with thirty wounds. 

8. A temporary confusion followed the death of Caligula, 
and in this crisis of affairs, the senate attempted to restore 
the republic. But the spirit of Roman liberty had fled ; the 
populace, and in general the army, opposed the design. 
Claudius at this juncture, having been accidentally found 
in a lurking place, to which he had repaired through fear, 
some of the praetorian guards proclaimed him emperor, at 
the moment he expected nothing but death ; 41 A. C. 
Claudius was the uncle of Caligula, and grand son of Mark 
Antony and Octavia, the sister of Augustus. 

Claudius was a man below mediocrity in understanding 
and education ; and his capacity for business was even con- 
temptible. He became almost of course infamous for his vi- 
ces, and the dupe of his associates and even of his domestics. 
Many were the cruelties committed during his reign, though 
they seem to have been suggested principally by his wicked 
directors, among whom was the notorious Messalina, his wife. 

§ The stupidity of Claudius was such, that he was alike indifferent, 
whatever was done, and often was he so operated upon by his fears, 
that he would consent to any act however unjust. His own family 
on one pretence or another was almost exterminated, and great num- 
bers of others fell a sacrifice to the jealousy of Messalina and her 
minions, who ruled him at will. The historian, Suetonius, assures 
us, that there were no less than thirty-five Senators and above three 
hundred knights, executed in his reign. 

One enterprise of importance marked his reign, and that 
was his expedition into Britain, 43 A. C. He undertook to 
reduce the island, and after visiting it in person, left his gene- 
rals, Plautius and Vespasian, to prosecute a war, which was 
carried on for several years with various success. The Silures 



16 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

or inhabitants of South Wales, under their king, Caractacus, 
(CaradoCj) made a spirited resistance, though without avail in 
the end. Their king was led captive to Rome. 

Messalina advanced in boldness as in profligacy, but her 
excesses became the occasion of her destruction. The em- 
peror was persuaded to put her to death for her shameless in- 
fidelity to him. Afterwards he married Agrippina, the daugh- 
ter of his brother Germanicus, who had poisoned her former 
husband, and who at length poisoned him. 

Making every effort to secure the succession to the empire 
to her son Domitius Aenobarbus. (called Nero,) she prevail- 
ed on Claudius to adopt him, and then effecting the death of 
her husband, she opened the way to the throne for one, who 
was destined to exceed in wickedness, if that were possible, 
any that went before him. Claudius was put to death in the 
fifteenth year of his reign and sixty-third of his age. 

§ Among the illustrious sufferers in the reign of Claudius, were 
Petus and his faithful Arria, whose story ought not to he passed over. 
Cecina Petus associated in the revolt of Camillas, had endeavoured 
to escape into Dalmatia. Being apprehended, he was conveyed in 
a ship to Rome. Arria, who had been long the partner of his affec- 
tions and misfortunes, entreated his keepers, to be taken in the same 
vessel. 

" It is usual," said she, " to grant a man of his quality a few slaves 
to dress, and undress, and attend him ; but I will perform all these 
offices, and save you the trouble of a more numerous retinue." Her 
fidelity, however, could not prevail. She therefore hired a fisher- 
man's bark, and thus kept company with the ship in which her hus- 
band was conveyed, through the voyage. 

They had an only son, equally beautiful and virtuous. This youth 
died at the time his father was confined to his bed, by a dangerous 
disorder. However, the affectionate Arria concealed her son's death, 
and in her visits to her husband, manifested her usual cheerfulness. 
Being asked how her son did, she replied that he was calm, and only 
left her husband's chamber to give vent to her tears. 

When Petus was condemned to die by his own hands, Arria 
used every art to inspire him with resolution ; and at length finding 
him continue timid and wavering, she took thepoinard, and stabbing 
herself in his presence, presented it to him saying, " it gives me no 
pain, my Petus." 

9. Rome at this era contained nearly seven millions inhabi 
tants, a number so prodigious that nothing but the best evi- 
dence could prevent our doubt of its accuracy. Corruption 
and luxury were excessive. The Roman military spirit, 



ROMAN EMPIRE. \*T 

though much relaxed, still continued to awe mankind, by the 
terror of its name. 

10. Nero Claudius, (the name he assumed,) the son of 
Agrippina, succeeded to the empire (54 A. C.) under favora- 
ble circumstances, and like his predecessors, for a short time, 
promised to govern with moderation and justice. So well 
did he conceal his innate depravity, that scarcely any sus- 
pected that his virtues were feigned. 

The care of his education had been entrusted to Seneca, 
the famous philosopher, though he seemed not to have pro- 
fited under his instructer any otherwise than to become af- 
fected and pedantic. While, however, he was controled by 
Seneca, and Burrhuss captain of the praetorian guards, a wor- 
thy and experienced officer, Nero appeared just and humane ; 
but he could not long restrain the feelings of his base nature. 

At the expiration of five years, he broke over all the bounds 
of decency and moderation, and pursued a course of conduct 
exceeding in puerility, levity, ferocity, and tyranny, what- 
ever had been done before him. He became one of the most 
odious characters recorded in history. His flagitiousness was 
manifested in the murder of his mother, his wife Octavia, 
his tutor Seneca, and Lucan the poet, and Burrhuss his bene- 
factor ; in extirpating many of the principal families of 
Rome on suspicion of treason ; in setting the city on fire, 
charging the crime on the christians, and then punishing 
them with unheard of tortures ; and in unnumbered other 
acts in which he outraged reason, and nature itself. 

His meanness and puerility almost surpass belief, and 
Rome contained not another so despicable a wretch in the 
character of an actor, musician or gladiator. At length hav- 
ing become an object of perfect hatred and contempt, a re- 
bellion of his subjects headed by Vindex, an illustrious Gaul, 
and Galba who commanded in Spain, crushed this imperial 
monster, in the thirtieth year of his age, after a reign of four- 
teen years, A. C. 69. Too cowardly to kill himself, he died 
by the hand of a slave, just as he was on the point of being 
taken, and delivered up to public justice. 

§ The burning of Rome by Nero was an act of mere wantonness. 
Some one happening to say in his presence, that the world might be 
burnt when he was dead, "Nay," replied Nero, "let it be burnt 
while I am living." Accordingly, as most historians report, he set H 
on fire, and standing upon a high tower, he indulged the pleasure $& 

2* 



18 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

fancying it a representation of the burning of Troy. The confla- 
gration continued nine days, and a great part of the city was con- 
sumed. 

A conspiracy formed against him by Piso, but which was prema- 
turely discovered, opened a train of suspicions, that almost turned 
Rome into a field of blood. All who were implicated or suspected 
of being so, he executed without mercy. It was at this time that 
Seneca and Lucan suffered. 

No master was secure from the vengeance of his slaves, nor even 
parents from the baser attempts of their children. Not only 
throughout Rome, but the whole surrounding country, bodies of sol- 
diers were seen in pursuit of the suspected and the guilty ; whole 
crowds of wretches loaded with chains, were led every day to the 
gates of the paiace, to wait their sentence from the tyrant's own lips, 
who always presided at the tortures in person, attended by Tigelli- 
nus, one of the most abandoned men in Rome, but now his principal 
minister. 

" The principal reason why the despotism of Nero and his pre- 
decessors was so quietly borne by the nation, lay in the fact, that a 
great part of them were fed by the emperors. From the monthly 
distribution of corn of the times of the republic, there now sprang 
up the extraordinary congiaria (gifts in corn or money) and vi- 
cerationes (distributions of raw flesh.) The times of tyranny 
were generally the golden days of the rabble." 

During the reign of Nero, the Britons, under their queen 
Boadicea revolted, and defeated the Romans with the loss of 
70,000 men. The latter, however, avenged this loss at length 
by the slaughter of 80,000 Britons, which completely broke 
the British spirit and power. 

A war w 7 as also carried on against the Parthians, under 
the conduct of Corbulo, who obtained many victories over 
them. About this time also, 67 A. C, the Jews, who had 
revolted under the tyranny of Florus the Roman governor, 
were massacred in great numbers. 

11. Galba, who was associated with Vindex, in the in- 
surrection which issued in the destruction of Nero, succeeded 
the latter in the empire 68 A. C. Vindex, at the commence- 
ment of his revolt, generously proclaimed Galba emperor, 
and after the death of Nero, both the senate and the legions 
under his command, sanctioned this measure. 

Before his elevation mankind thought well of Galba. His 
descent was illustrious. His reputation as a commander 
"tood high, and no stain was cast on his courage or virtue. 
Compared with his predecessors, he was certainly a respecta- 
ble emperor. In seeking to accomplish two important ol> 



ROMAN EMPIRE 19 

jects, viz., the punishment of the enormous vices then preva- 
lent, and the replenishing of the treasury, he was unduly 
severe ; and as he was naturally parsimonious, he became 
an object of contempt and ridicule. 

§ It was impolitic in Galba, to think of making the Roman people 
pass at once from the extreme of luxury to that of sobriety and 
economy. The state was too much corrupted to admit of such an 
immediate and total change. The emperor's intentions, however, 
should have shielded him from reproach ; and had he not suffered 
his assistants to abuse his confidence, and had he been a little more 
equal, moderate, and conciliatory in his administration he would 
have been as well thought of when an emperor, as he was when a 
private person. 

It is mentioned as an instance of his severity, that upon some dis- 
respectful treatment of him from a certain body of his subjects, he 
ordered a body of horse attending him to ride in among them, and 
thus killed 7000 of them, and afterwards decimated the survivors. 

His parsimony is indicated by the following circumstances. He 
once groaned upon having an expensive soup served up for him at 
his table. To a steward for his fidelity he presented a plate of 
beans. And a famous player upon the flute, named Canus, having 
greatly delighted him, he drew out his purse and gave him five- 
pence, telling him it was private and not public money. His popu- 
larity sunk by such ill-timed parsimony. Through his love of 
money, some notorious villains purchased their safety. 

Galba reigned only seven months. He perished in the 
seventy-third year of his age, in consequence of the attempt 
of Otho, ( ne of his generals, to obtain the throne. Otho ex- 
pected to be adopted by Galba for his successor ; but the 
emperor, discarding all favouritism, sought the good of the 
empire by nominating the virtuous Piso. Otho consequent- 
ly had recourse to arms, and thus accomplished the death both 
of Galba and Piso. 

12. Otho was now raised to the throne, having received 
from the senate the titles usually given to the emperors, 69 
A. C. He began his reign with several signal acts of mercy 
and of justice. The character of this prince, an unusual oc- 
currence, was improved by advancement; in a private station 
he was all that was detestable ; but as an emperor he ap- 
peared courageous, benevolent, and humane. 

The good course, however, which he had marked out for 
himself, was soon terminated. He reigned only ninety-five 
days. Vitelhus, who had been proclaimed emperor by his 
arm) in Germany, gave Otho battle at a place near Mantua, 



20 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

where the army of the latter was defeated, and he in a fit of 
despair ended his life hy his own hand. 69 A. C. 

§ Otho was descended from the ancient kings of Etruria. 

It has been observed that the last moments of Otho's life were 
those of a philosopher. He comforted his soldiers who lamented 
his fortune, and he expressed his concern for their safety, when they 
earnestly solicited to pay him the last friendly offices before he stab- 
bed himself; and he observed that it was better for one man to die, 
than that all should be involved in ruin for his obstinacy. 

No circumstance, however, can excuse the crime of suicide, a 
vice which was awfully prevalent among the Romans. 

13. Vitellius, upon his success, assumed the government 
69 A. C, hut he retained it only eight months. This wretch 
was not more given to cruelty, than to the infamous indul- 
gence of his appetites. Like Nero, he abandoned himself to 
every species of nagitiousness and excess. 

He perished justly. Vespasian, who at this time com- 
manded the Roman army in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor 
by his legions. Entering Ttaly, a great part of the country 
submittted to his arms, and even Vitellius meanly capitu- 
lated to save his life, by a resignation of the empire. This 
act of cowardice rousing the indignation of the people, he 
was compelled to oppose Vespasian by force, but without 
effect. One of the generals of the conqueror took possession 
of Rome ; and Vitellius, falling into the hands of a party of 
the enemy, was ignominiously put to death. 

§ Instances of the cruel disposition of this emperor are the follow- 
ing. Going to visit one of his associates who was in a violent fever, 
he mingled poison with his water, and delivered it to him with hid 
own hands, in order to obtain his possessions. He never pardoneu 
money-lenders who presumed to demand payment of his forme* 
debts ; but taking away their lives he both cancelled their claims 
and succeeded to their estate. 

A Roman knight being dragged away to execution, and crying 
out that he had made the emperor his heir, Vitellius demanded to 
see the will, where finding himself joint inheritor with another, he 
ordered both to be executed, that he might enjoy the legacy alone. 

Gluttony, however, was his predominant vice. In order to be able 
to renew his meals at pleasure, he brought himself to an habit of 
vomiting. His entertainments were prodigiously expensive; but 
oftener to others, than to himself. It has been remarked that had 
he reigned long, the whole empire would not have been sufficient to 
maintain his table. 

In one particular dish, did this imperial glutton out-do all the for- 
mer profusion of the most luxurious Romans. This was of such 
magnitude as to be called the shield of Minerva, and was filled with 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 21 

a medley, made from the air-bladders of the fish called scar*-', (he 
brains of pheasants and woodcocks, the tongues of the most costly 
birds, and the spawn of lampreys broug M from the Carpathian sea. 
14. Vespasian, having been declared emperor, by the 
unanimous consent of the senate and the army, 70 A. C. 
was received with the greatest joy on his arrival at Rome. 
Though of mean descent, he deserved the purple, and reign- 
ed during ten years, with great popularity. He was distin- 
guished by clemency, affability, and a simple, frugal mode of 
life. His frugality, however, bordered upon avarice, which 
was the principal defect of his character. 

In his administration of government, he acted under the 
forms of the republic, and even restored the senate to its de- 
liberative rights. The famous war against the Jews, was 
terminated during the reign of Vespasian, by the arms of his 
son Titus. After this, the empire was in profound peace, and 
the emperor, having associated Titus in the government, soon 
departed this life, to the universal regret of the Roman peo- 
ple, in the 70th year of his age, 79 A. C. 

§ It was some time before Vespasian could give security and 
peace to the empire. When this object was effected, he began to 
correct the abuses which had grown up under the tyranny of his 
predecessors. He restrained the licentiousness of the army — degra- 
ded such senators as were unworthy of their station — abridged the 
tedious processes in the courts of justice — re-edified such parts of 
the city as had suffered in the late commotions — and extended his 
paternal care over all parts of the empire. 

Vespasian was liberal in the encouragement of learning and the 
arts. He was particularly kind to Josephus, the Jewish historian. 
Quintillian and Pliny, who flourished in his reign, were highly es- 
teemed by him ; and indeed the professors of every liberal art or 
science, were sure to experience his bounty. 

He died by disease, a death quite unusual with the masters of 
Rome. Taken with an indisposition at Campania, which from the 
beginning he declared would he fatal, he cried out in the spirit of pa- 
ganism, " Methinks I am goiug to be a god." When brought to the 
last extremity, and perceiving that he was about to expire, he decla- 
red that an emperor ought to die standing; and therefore raising him- 
self upon his feet, he breathed his last in the arms of his supporters. 

15. Titus succeeded to the empire upon the death of his 
father. 79 A. C. His character is celebrated as that of a 
highly humane, just and generous prince. He so devoted 
himself to acts of beneficence, that recollecting one evening 
that he nad done none during the day, he exclaimed, "O, my 
friends, I have lost a day !" His reign was a short, but pros 



22 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

perous and happy one. He died in his 41st year, having 
reigned bnt little more than two years. His brother Domi- 
tian was suspected as being the author of his death. 

§ Before he came to the throne, his character was thought not tc 
be unexceptionable ; but whatever vices he had indulged in, he 
seems to have abandoned upon that event. It is related as an in- 
stance of the government of his passions, that he relinquished the 
hand of his beloved Berenice, sister to king Agrippa, a woman ol 
the greatest beauty, and the most refined allurements. Knowing 
that the connection with her was disagreeable to the Roman people, 
he conquered his affections, and sent her away, notwithstanding 
their mutual affection, and all her arts. 

He was so tender of the lives of his subjects, that he took upon 
him the office of High Priest, in order to keep his hands undefiled 
with blood. He so little regarded such as censured or abused him, 
that he was heard to say, " When I do nothing worthy of censure, 
why should I be displeased at it V 

During his reign, Rome was three days on fire, without intermis- 
sion ; and this was followed by a plague, in which 10,000 persons 
were buried in a day. Titus, from his own resources, repaired the 
devastations of the city, and in all respects acted as a father to his 
people in their calamities. About this time the towns of Campania 
were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius. Upon this occasion 
Pliny, the naturalist, lost his life, by venturing too near the volcano. 

When Titus was taken ill, he retired into the country of the Sa- 
bines, to his father's house. There his indisposition was increased 
by a burning fever. Modestly lifting his eyes to heaven, though 
with a spirit which Christianity cannot approve, and without the 
hope it inspires, he complained of the severity of his fate, which 
was about to remove him from the world, where he had been em- 
ployed in making a grateful people happy. 

Domitian has incurred the suspicion of hastening his brother's 
end, by ordering him to be placed, during his agony, in a tub full of 
snow, where he expired. 

15-2 Domitian, upon the death of his brother, assumed the 
purple, 81 A. C. The beginning of his reign promised a con- 
tinuance of their happiness to the Roman people. But the 
scene soon changed, and Domitian became a most execrable 
villain and tyrant. He condemned to death many- of the 
most illustrious Romans, and witnessed, with the most fero- 
cious pleasure, the agonies of his victims. He caused him- 
self to De styled God and Lord, in all the papers that were 
presented to him. Though not destitute of learning himself, 
he banished the philosophers from Rome. 

His reign was an era of prodigality and luxury, as well as 
of inhumanity and baseness. The people were loaded with 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 23 

insupportable taxes, to furnish spectacles and games for their 
amusement. His leisure was spent in the most degrading 
pursuits. One of the most constant occupations of his pri- 
vate hours, was the catching and killing of f ; es. 

In his reign occurred the second great persecution of the 
christians, (that under Nero being the first) in which 40,000 
of that profession were destroyed. 

His general, Agricola, met with signal success in the ex- 
pedition against Britain, though Domitian derived no renown, 
but rather disgrace from it, in consequence of his ungrateful 
treatment of Agricola. After a reign of 15 years, he was 
assassinated at the instigation of his wife. 

$ To the senate and nobility, Domitian was particularly hostile, 
frequently threatening to extirpate them all. He delighted to ex- 
pose them both to terror and ridicule. He once assembled the au- 
gust body of the senate, to know in what vessel a turbot might be 
most conveniently dressed. 

At another time, inviting them to a public entertainment, he received 
them all very formally at the entrance of his palace, and introduced 
them into a large gloomy hall, hung with black, and lighted with a 
few glimmering tapers. All around nothing was to be se^n out cof- 
fins, with the name of each of the senators written upon ihem, and 
other frightful objects, and instruments of execution. 

While the company beheld all these preparations with silent 
agony, on a sudden, a number of men burst into the room, clothed 
in black, with drawn swords and flaming torches, and after they 
had for some time terrified the guests, a message from the emperor, 
gave the company leave to retire. 

His death had been predicted by the astrologers. This circum- 
stance gave him the most tormenting inquietude. His jealousies 
increasing with a sense of his guilt, he was afraid by day and by 
night ; and in proportion to his fears, he became more cruel. His 
stern air and fiery visage, directed and added poignancy to the tor- 
tures of his enemies. The gallery in which he was accustomed to 
walk, he ordered to be set round with a pellucid stone, which served 
as a mirror, to reflect the persons of all such as approached him from 
behind. But happily all his precautions were unavailing. 

"The fall of Domitian," says Heeren, " confirms the result of uni* 
versal experience, that a tyrant has little to fear from the people. 
out so much the more from individuals, whose throats are in dan- 
ger." 

His wife Domitia, having accidently discovered that her name 
was on the list of those whom he intended to put to death, at once 
concerted measures to secure her safety by the destruction of the 
emperor. Engaging some of the officers of his household, and others 
who were also on the proscribed list, to enter into her plan, she had 
the good fortune soon to learn, that he was dispatched at midnight 



24 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

in one of the most secret recesses of his palace, whither he had ro 
tired to rest. 

The twelve Caesars, as they have been denominated in 
history, ended with Domitian. In this number, however, 
Julius Csesat is included, although Augustus was, the first 
emperor strictly so called, and Nero was the last emperor of 
the Augustan family. 

16. Nerva was elected emperor by the senate, upon the 
death of Domitian, 96 A. C. He was the first Roman 
emperor of foreign extraction, (being a native of Crete), and 
chosen on account of his virtues. His advanced age and the 
clemency of his disposition, with perhaps a want of energy, 
unfitted him to stem the (orient of corruption, and to cure 
the disorders of the empire. He however, adopted the ex- 
cellent Trajan as his successor, and thus rendered a service 
to mankind which his administration otherwise could nevei 
have accomplished. He died 98 A. C. in the seventy-se- 
cond year of his age, having reigned sixteen months. 

§ During his short reign, Nerva made several good laws and regu- 
lations, and in every respect conducted himself like an indulgent fa- 
ther to his people. No statues would he permit to be erected to 
his memory, and he converted into money, such of Domitian's as 
had been spared by the senate. He sold many rich robes, and 
much of the splendid furniture of the 'palace, and retrenched seve- 
ral unreasonable expenses at court, yet he was not at all avaricious 
of money. 

The following is a striking instance of his lenity. He had so- 
lemnly sworn that no senator of Rome should be put to death by 
his command, during his reign, from any cause whatever. 

„This oath he observed with such sanctity, that when two sena- 
tors had conspired his death, he sent for them, and carried them 
with him to the public theatre. There presenting each a dagger, 
he desired them to strike, as he was determined not to ward off the 
blow. 

17. Trajan, now in the possession of the throne, 98 A. C. 
was a native of Seville in Spain. He proved to be one of 
Rome's best sovereigns, splendid, warlike, munificent, cour- 
teous, and modest. The few vices he possessed were scarcely 
noticed amidst the blaze of his virtues, and the fame of his 
exploits. This, perhaps, is an instance of human infirmity 
in the estimation of character, since no vice should pass un- 
condemned. It is a matter of deep regret, that his equity, 
so visible in other respects, should be implicated by his con- 
duct towards the Christians, whom he suffered to be mo- 



Roman empire. 25 

tested. The third great persecution of them took place during 



his reign. 



The boundaries of the empire were greatly enlarged by 
the victories of Trajan, in Dacia and the East. They never 
were so extensive, either before or after his time. The em- 
pire, however, was not improved by these conquests ; it soon 
lost them, for the conquered countries immediately re-appeared 
in arms, and ai length effected their independence. 

Learning and learned men were signally encouraged by the 
emperor's liberality. His public works are also much cele- 
brated. By his direction, the column still to be seen un- 
der the name of Trajan's column, was erected. It is one of 
the most remarkable monuments of ancient Rome. He died 
after a reign of nineteen years, at the age of sixty-three, 
118 A. C 

§ It was a characteristic of Trajan, that he so little feared his 
enemies, that he could scarcely be induced to suppose he had any. 
Being once told that his favorite, Sura, was false to him ; Trajan, 
to show how much he relied upon his fidelity, went in his ordinary 
manner to sup with him. There he commanded Sura's surgeon to 
be brought, whom he ordered to take off the hair about his eye- 
brows, He then made the barber shave his beard, after which, he 
went unconcerned into the bath as usual. The next day, when 
Sura's accusers were renewing their complaints; Trajan informed 
them how he had spent the night, remarking, that "if Sura, had any 
designs against his life, he had then the fairest opportunity." 

The first war in which the emperor was engaged, was with the 
Dacians, who, in the reign of Bomitian, had committed numerous 
ravages upon the provinces. Trajan, suddenly appearing in arms 
on the frontiers of their country, awed them at once into a treaty of 
peace. As, however, this was soon after violated, he entered the 
hostile territory, and obtained a complete victory, though with a 
prodigious slaughter of his troops; and Dacia became a Roman 
province. At his return to Rome he entered the city in triumph ; 
and the rejoicings for his victories lasted for the space of one hundred 
and twenty days. 

Trajan aferwards turned his arms eastward and speedily reduced 
Mesopotamia, Chaldea, and Assyria, and took Ctesiphon, the capi- 
tal of the Parthian empire. At length, sailing down the Persian 
gulph, hr entered the Indian ocean, conquering even the Indies , 
part of which he annexed to the Roman empire. This enterprise, . 
which, at one time, lie intended to pursue to the confines of the 
earth, he was obliged to relinquish on account of the inconveniences 
of increasing age. 

Preparing to return to his capital in a style of unparalleled mag- 
nificence, he was unable from infirmity to reach home ; and he died 

3 



26 MODERN HISTORY, — PERIOD I. 

in the city of Seleucia, having refused to nominate a successor, lest 
he should adopt a person that was unworthy. 

It may serve to show how highly Trajan was esteemed by his 
subjects, that it was the practice, during two hundred years in 
blessing his successors, to wish them " the fortune of Augustus^ and 
the goodness of Trajan." 

18. Adrian succeeded Trajan 118. years A. C. The 
wife of Trajan forged a will in the emperor's name, declar- 
ing Adrian his successor. This designation was supported 
by the army, and Adrian ventured to assume the govern- 
ment. This emperor was a nephew of Trajan, and in most 
respects worthy of being his successor. He chose to cultivate 
rather the arts of peace than war, and judging that the limits 
of the empire were too extensive, he abandoned all the con- 
quests of Trajan, and bounded the eastern provinces by the 
river Euphrates. He was, however, remarkably expert in 
military discipline. 

During an expedition of thirteen years, he visited in per- 
son all the provinces of his empire, and dispensed wherever 
he went the blessings of peace, justice, and order. In his ca- 
pacity as a sovereign, he rendered important services to his 
subjects — in private life, however, it is said that his virtues 
were mingled with an alloy of vices, arising chiefly from ir- 
resolution. He indulged in vanity, envy, and detraction, in a 
degree which was too manifest to be palliated in a person of 
his exalted station. His virtues, however, were predominant, 
and Rome had few better emperors. His general knowledge, 
and his taste in the arts, were highly honourable in a sovereign. 
He died in the seventy-second year of his age, A. C. 138. 

§ Among his exploits, it is known that when he came to Britain, 
he built a wall of wood and earth, between the modern towns of 
Carlisle and Newcastle, eighty miles in length, to protect the Britons 
from the incursions of the Caledonians. In a war with the Jews, 
he killed in battle five hundred and eighty thousand of that people 
who had become rebellious, and built a city on the ruins of Jerusa- 
em which he called Aelia Capitolina. In performing his loug 
marches with his army, Adrian generally travelled on foot, and went 
without any covering on his head. 

His character was in many respects extraordinary, and none of 
the Roman emperors excelled him in variety of endowments. He was 
highly skilful in all the exercises both of body and mind. He was an 
author, orator, mathematician, musician and painter. His memory 
was so retentive, that he recollected every incident of his life, and 
he knew all the soldiers of his army by name. 

He was the first emperor who wore a long beard, a fashion which 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 27 

he adopted to hide the warts on his face. His successor followed 
his example for the sake of ornament. 

Though Adrian aimed at universal reputation, he strictly attended 
to the duties of his station. Through his cares he began to fail in 
health and strength, and adopting for his successor Titus Antoninus, 
he sought the repose which he needed. His bodily infirmities how- 
ever, daily increased, and his pain becoming nearly insupportable, 
he vehemently desired death. Antoninus with difficulty persuaded 
him to sustain life, though the emperor frequently cried out in his 
agonies, "How miserable a thing is it to seek death, and not to find 
it." Alas ! how pointed is the moral, that no station, however ex- 
alted, can exempt one from the infirmities of life and the sting of 
death. As he was expiring, the emperor repeated the following 
lines, as translated into English. 

O fleeting spirit, wand' ring fire, 

That long has warmed ray tender breast, 
Wilt thou no more my frame inspire ? 

No more a pleasing cheerful guest 1 
Whither, ah ! whither art thou flying 7 

To what dark, undiscovered shore 1 
Thou seemest all trembling, shivering, dying, 

And wit and humour are no more. 

His reign was a prosperous one of twenty-two years. He died 139 
A. C. aged seventy-two. 

19. Titus Antoninus, surnamed Pius, having been adopt- 
ed by Adrian, succeeded to the empire 138 A. C. His vir- 
tues were an ornament to human nature, and conferred innu- 
merable blessings on mankind. He preferred peace to con- 
quest, and yet whenever war became necessary, he carried 
it on with vigour and success. He was conspicuous for jus- 
tice and clemency, and his love of the religion of his country. 

His reign was marked by few events, as the reigns of 
peaceable monarchs usually are. The most remarkable for- 
eign occurrences were the enlargement of the province of 
Britain by the conquests of Urbicus, and the suppression of 
some forminable rebellions in Germany, Dacia, and the East. 
He died at the age of seventy-four, having reigned twenty- 
two years. A. C. 161. 

§ Such was the munificence of Antoninus, that in cases of famine 
or inundation, he supplied with his own money the wants of the 
sufferers. Such were his humanity and love of peace, that when 
told of conquering heroes, he said with Scipio, that "he preferred 
the life and preservation of one subject to the death of an hundred 
enemies !" His regard of the christians was extraordinary for a 
heathen emperor. He declared that " if any should proceed to dis- 
turb uVm on account of their religion, such should undergo the 
same punishment which was intended against the accused." A de- 



2S MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

grec of persecution nevertheless took place, contrary to the princi 
pies of the emperor. 

He was a distinguished rewarder of learned men, whom he invi 
ted from all parts of the world, and raised to wealth and honour 
Among the rest, he sent for Apolloniusthe famous stoic philosopher, 
to instruct his adopted son, Marcus Aurelius, whom he had previous 
ly married to his daughter. 

Apollonius being arrived dt Rome, the emperor desired his atten 
dance : but the philosopher arrogantly answered that it was the 
scholar's duty to wait upon the master, and not the master's to wait 
upon the scholar. To this reply, Antoninus only returned with a 
smilej " that it was surprising how Apollonius, who made no difficul- 
ty in coming from Greece to Rome, should think it so hard to walk 
from one part of Rome to the other," and immediately sent Marcus 
Aurelius to him. 

In the midst of his labours in rendering his subjects happy, he was 
seized with a lingering illness, which terminated in death in the 
seventy-fifth year of his age, and the twenty-third of his reign. 

20. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the adopted son of Pius, 
now came to the throne, 161 A. C. His name before was 
Annius Verus, and he. together with Lucius Verus, his bro- 
ther, had been designated by Adrian to succeed to the govern- 
ment, whenever Antoninus Pius should decease. Pius con- 
firmed the adoption of Marcus, without once naming Lucius 
Verus. Marcus, however, upon assuming the empire, admit- 
ted his brother as a partner in the administration. 

They were perfectly opposite in character; Marcus Aurelius 
being as much distinguished for his energy and virtue, as 
Verus was for imbecility, meanness, and vice. Aurelius was 
in every respect equal to his predecessor, and was even more 
conspicuous for his attachment to philosoph}^. This, as the 
stoics professed it, he has admirably taught and illustrated in 
his Meditations. 

In the wars which were carried on during this joint reign, 
the worthless Verus brought disgrace upon the Roman name, 
wherever he commanded. The Parthians, however, were 
repulsed by the legions of the empire, and a rebellion of the 
Germans was subdued. 

After the death of Verus, which happily soon took place, 
Aurelius directed all his energies for the improvement and 
happiness of his empire. For purposes of beneficence he 
visited the remotest corners of the Roman world. He died 
at length in Pannonia, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, and 
nineteenth of his reign, A. C. 180. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 29 

It was an infelicity of the otherwise admirable reign of 
Aurelius, that the christians at one time were violently perse- 
cuted. The fanatical Pagan priests were, however, the im- 
mediate instruments in this persecution, inasmuch as they 
ascribed to the christians the various calamities which the 
empire endured, under the excesses of Yerus, the attacks of 
the barbarians, and the devastations occasioned by earth- 
quakes, famines, pestilences, and inundations. 

§ Aurelius loved retirement and philosophical contemplation, and 
improved for mental cultivation and enjoyment, all the leisure h* 
could command. That, however, was far less than his wishes d c. 
tated. The disturbances in the empire called him frequently into 
the field, and until the death of his colleague, he suffered no small 
inquietude on his account. He was, however, successful in his mili- 
tary excursions. 

One deliverance which he and his army experienced on a certain 
occasion, borders on the miraculous. In a contest with the barba- 
rians beyond the Danube, the Roman legions unexpectedly, through 
the artifice of the enemy, found themselves inclosed in a place where 
they could neither fight, nor retreat. In this situation they became 
at length totally disheartened, from their long continued fatigue, the 
excessive heat of the place, and their violent thirst. 

In these suffering circumstances, while sorrow and despair were 
depicted on every brow, Aurelius ran through the ranks, and used 
every effort to rekindle their hopes and courage. But all was in 
vain. At this crisis, and just as the barbarians were ready to follow 
them, we are told that the solemn prayers of a christian legion, 
then serving among them, produced such a shower of rain as instant- 
ly revived the fainting army. From the same clouds, was discharged 
such a terrible storm of hail with thunder against tne enemy, as dis- 
mayed them, and made them an easy prey to the refreshed and in- 
spirited Romans. 

These circumstances are related by pagan as well as Christian 
writers, only with this difference, that the latter ascribe the victory 
to their own prayers, the former to the prayers of their emperor 
Aurelius, however, it seems, was favourably impressed in regard to 
the christians, since he immediately relaxed the persecution against 
them. 

Some other particulars will be related respecting Aurelius, in our 
biographical sketches. 

Upon the death of Aurelius the empire evidently declined. 
The emperors who succeeded were generally a weak or 
vicious race. The colossal size of the empire caused it to 
sink by its own weight. Enemies on its borders oppressed 
it from without, and tumults and factions paralized it within ; 
patriotism and genius were becoming rare, and corruption 
pervaded all orders of the community. 



SO MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

At the period of Trajan's death, the empire comprehend 
ed the greater part of Britain, all Spain, France, the Ne 
therlands, Italy, part of Germany, Egypt, Barbary, Bile- 
dulgerid, Turkey in Europe and in Asia, and Persia. At 
the demise of Aurelius, it was a little diminished in size, but 
still too large to be preserved entire, amidst the profligacy of 
he times. 

21. Commodus, the son of Aurelius, had been nominated 
by his father to succeed him, and he accordingly now mounted 
the throne, 1 80 A. C. He had nothing but the merits of his 
father to commend him to the Roman people. He inherited 
the disposition of his infamous mother, Faustina, rather than 
of Aurelius. The change from the reign of the father to 
the son was indeed a most gloomy one. It is a singular fact, 
that the most detestable of all the emperors was the son of 
the best. 

Commodus was given to low vices and mean pursuits--*- 
was fond of the sports of the circus and amphitheatre, the 
hunting of wild beasts, and the combats of boxers and gla- 
diators. His administration of the government was entirely 
weak, contemptible, and tyrannical. He perished by assas- 
sination, in the thirty-second year of his age, and the thir- 
teenth year of his reign, 193 A. C. 

§ It had been happy for himself and mankind, had Commodus cul- 
tivated his mind, as he did his body, (for he was wonderfully expert 
in all corporeal exercises :) but he was averse to every rational and 
liberal pursuit. He spent the day in feasting, and the night in the 
vilest debaucheries. 

His cruelty combined with avarice and levity, cannot be too strong- 
ly held up for the detestation of mankind. If any person desired 
to be revenged on an enemy, by bargaining with Commodus for a 
sum of money, he was permitted to destroy him in such a manner 
as he chose. He commanded a person to be thrown among wild 
beasts, for reading the life of Caligula in Suetonius. He would 
sometimes, in a frolic, cut off men's noses, under a pretence of shav- 
ing their beards ; yet he was himself so jealous of mankind, that he 
was obliged to be his own barber ; or as some have said, he used to 
burn his beard, after the example of Dionysius, the tyrant. 

In imitating Hercules with his club and lion's skin, lie would fu- 
riously fall upon a company of beggars in the streets, and beat them 
to death ; having first dressed them up like giants and monsters, and 
giving them sponges to throw at him, instead of stones. 

In such a manner did this wretch spend his time, while the trou- 
bles of his empire were daily increasing, arM its strength and terri- 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 3 

tories were diminishing by frequent warfares on the frontiers. He 
narrowly escaped destruction several times, from his personal exas- 
perated foes. But he was destined at length justly to fall. His 
favourite concubine, Marcia,*who accidentally discovered the em- 
peror's determination to put her to death, with other conspirators, 
found the means of destroying him, partly by poison and partly by 
strangling. 

22. Pertinax, who had been fixed upon by the conspirators 
as the successor of Commodus, was joyfully proclaimed by 
the praetorian guards, 193 A. C. Originally he was the son 
of an enfranchised slave, but rose to esteem by his virtues 
and military talents. Applying himself to the correction of 
abuses with too unsparing mid rash a hand, he alienated the 
affections of a corrupted people, and w 7 as deposed and mur- 
dered by the same guards that had placed him on the throne, 
after a reign of only three months, aged sixty-eight years. 
The loss which the empire felt in the death of such a man 
is greater than can be well conceived. 

23. Didius Julianus, next succeeded to the empire 193 A. 
C, having purchased it of the praetorian guards, who put it 
up to the highest bidder. At the same time, several com- 
manders in the distant provinces, were each proclaimed by 
their respective forces. These, however, lost their lives ex- 
cept Septimius Severus, who marched to Rome and seized 
the government. Didius w 7 as hereupon deposed and put to 
death by the senate in the fifth month of his reign. 

§ Didius presents a striking instance of the cupidity of the hu- 
man mind for power, and of the infelicities that attend it. He was 
a man of consular rank, and the richest citizen of Rome. Hearing 
the singular proclamation of the praetorian guards, and charmed 
with the prospect of unbounded dominion, he hastened to the camp, 
and bid the largest price for the empire. He gave to each soldier 
(10,000 in number) the sum of 6250 drachmas, which amounts to 
nearly 9,000,000 dollars, in the whole. 

From this period he was exposed to disappointment, mortifica- 
tion, insult, and danger. Indulging his ease and his avaricious dis- 
position, he soon offended those who made him emperor. He was 
contemptuously treated at home, while two or more generals in the 
provinces abroad, disclaimed his authority. Upon the approach of 
Severus, he could raise no forces to meet him. He was nearly dis- 
tracted by the multiplicity of counsels, and finally his perplexity 
and distress became extreme and overwhelming. 

The senate, at this crisis, perceiving his timidity and irresolution, 
resolved to abandon him, and to proclaim Severus. His death then 
was no longer problematical ; and though he persisted that ha &&£ 



33 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

a right to enjoy his purchase for the natural period of his life, as he 
had been guilty of no crime, all did not avail. The executioners, 
obliging him to stretch his neck forward according to custom, im- 
mediately ctruck off his head. 

24. Septimius Severus was now at the head of the Roman 
world, 193 A. C. He was an African by birth, and possessed 
a restless activity with an unbounded share of ambition. 
He was endowed with a hardihood and decision of character, 
which fitted him for any enterprise. His military talents 
were conspicuous, and the credit of the Roman arms was 
sustained during his reign. In his administration of govern- 
ment he was generally wise and equitable, though highly 
despotic. 

In his expedition into England, he built a stone wall ex- 
tending from Sol way Frith to the German Ocean, nearly on 
a parallel with that of Adrian. Severus died at York in 
England, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, after a reign of 
eighteen years, 211 A. C. He left the empire to his two 
sons Caracalla and Geta, whose dispositions gave the em- 
peror the greatest inquietude. 

§ The first act of Severus, even before he entered Rome, was to 
degrade the praetorian soldiers, whose irregularity had already be- 
come too conspicuous. These he stript of their title, and banished 
one hundred miles from the city. He soon after engaged in a terri- 
ble conflict with Niger, his competitor in the East, wtiom he finally 
conquered on the plains of Issus. Albinus also, his other competi- 
tor, who commanded in Britain, was soon after conquered in battle, 
in one of the severest engagements recorded in the Roman history. 
It was fought in Gaul, and lasted from morning till night, without 
any apparent advantage on either side. It was decided at length by 
a body of reserve, in favour of Severus. 

His activity and love of conquest led him into the East, where he 
signalised his arms, and whence he returned in triumph to Rome. 
Having escaped a conspiracy formed by Plautian, to whom he had 
committed his domestic policy, he spent a considerable time in visit- 
ing the cities of Italy ; and finally in affording protection to all parts 
of his empire, he made an expedition into Britain. The wall which 
he here built was eight feet broad and twelve feet high, planted with 
towers at a mile's distance from each other, and communicating by 
pipes of brass in the wall, which conveyed intelligence from one 
garrison to another with incredible dispatch. 

Having given peace to the island, and secured it against the irrup- 
tions of the Caledonians, he began to feel the effects of age and 
fatigue ; but he was more broken down by the irreclaimable life of 
Caracalla. Calling for the urn in which his ashes were to be en- 
closed, he moralized on his melancholy condition in trie following 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 33 

remark. "L ; ttle urn," said he, "thou shalt now contain what the 
world could not contain." It is recorded that he hastened his death 
by purposely loading his stomach with food, in his weak state. 

25. Caracalla and Geta were now established on the 
throne, 211 A. C. Their association in the empire created 
a mutual enmity, and indeed they were very unlike in native 
character. Caracalla was fierce and cruel to an extreme 
degree. Geta was mild and merciful. The former resolv- 
ing to reign alone, seized an opportunity to murder Geta in 
the arms of his mother. During his reign of six years, he 
committed a continued series of atrocities. He was taken off 
by assassination, 217 A. C. 

Within this short period the empire was every day declin- 
ing ; the soldiers were entirely masters of every election; 
and both discipline in the army, and subordination in the 
state, were almost destroyed. 

§ The worst qualities of the worst emperors centered in this impe- 
rial wretch. He slew his friend Lastius, his own wife Plautina, and 
Papinian, the renowned civilian, for refusing to write in vindication 
of his cruelty — that upright man answering the emperor's request 
by observing, " that it was much easier to commit a parricide than 
jo defend it." 

He commanded all the governors to be slain, whom his brother 
^ad appointed, and destroyed not less than 2000 of his adherents. 
'Jpon a certain occasion, he ordered his soldiers to fall upon a crowd- 
id audience in the theatre, only for discountenancing a charioteer, 
whom he happened to favour. 

As might be expected, he was harrassed with awful terrors. He 
feared the day of his death, and that day was fast approaching. One 
Martial, a centurion of the guards, was prevailed upon by a higher 
officer, Macrinus, to give the emperor his death-wound, on a con- 
venient occasion, which was readily seized, and thus the world was 
freed from a monster, who was not only infinitely unfit to govern 
an empire, but was unworthy to live. 

26. Macrinus, who instigated Caracalla's death, was pro- 
claimed emperor, 217 A. C. Little is recorded respecting 
him. He w T as a person of obscure birth, and was deemed 
severe by the soldiery, who had now become so licentious, 
that they could scarcely bear the gentlest corrections. His 
attempts at discipline, together with the artifices of the grand- 
mother of Heliogabalus, alienated from him the affections of 
the army, and he lost his life in the struggle to retain his 
power, after a reign of only fourteen months, 218 A. 0. 

27. Heliogabalus was, by the army, raised to the throne 



34 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

when only fourteen years of age. The appointment of the 
army, as usual, influenced the decisions of the senate and 
citizens of Rome. This emperor proved to be another mon- 
ster of wickedness of the same rank with Nero, Commodus, 
and Caracalla. He lived to be only eighteen years of age, 
and yet lived long enough to hasten the fall of the empire, 
and to cover his name with eternal infamy. He was mur- 
dered in the fourth year of his reign, 222 A. C. 

§ Heliogabalus was a natural son of Caracalla, a beautiful youth, 
and loved by the army. Surrounded by flatterers, he soon yielded 
himself to their directions. His short life was but a tissue of effe- 
minacy, lust, folly, and extravagance. Some parts of his conduct 
were too indecent here to be described. 

In four years he married six wives, and divorced them all. He 
even assumed the dress and circumstances of a woman, and marri- 
ed one of his officers. After that he took for husband, one Hierocles, 
a slave, whom he suffered to beat him severely when guilty of any 
excess, all which he endured with great patience, saying, that it was 
the duty of a wife to submit to her husband. 

His prodigality and epicurism were boundless. His supper 
generally cost six thousand crowns, and often sixty thousand. He 
always dressed in cloth of gold and purple, enriched with precious 
stones, and never twice put on the same habit. Whenever he took 
horse, all the way between his apartment and the place of mount- 
ing, was covered with gold and silver dust strewn at his approach. 

His cruelties were equal to his licentiousness. He often invited 
the most common of the people to share in his feasts, and made 
them sit down on large bellows full of wind, which by sudden ex- 
haustion, threw the guests on the ground, and left them a prey to 
wild beasts. It is even said he endeavored to foretel the secrets of 
futurity, by inspecting the entrails of young men sacrificed ; and 
that he chose for this horrid purpose, the most beautiful youths 
throughout Italy. 

These are a few of the thousand excesses, follies, and atrocities of 
a mad and vicious 003^, who, with the possession of unlimited rule, 
could do as he pleased. 

Being persuaded by his grandmother Maesa, he adopted Alexan- 
der his cousin german as his successor ; but indignant that the af- 
fections of his army were bestowed upon the latter, he meditated 
revenge. His soldiers, however, perceiving his intention, took an 
opportunity to secure his person, and having dispatched him, treated 
his body with the greatest indignity, and consigned it at length to 
the Tyber. 

28. Alexander Severus was declared emperor 222 A. C 
He was a prince of a kind, beneficent, and energetic charac- 
ter, and highly accomplished in learning and the arts. Every 
way calculated to make his bubjects happy, he was greatly 



ROMAN EMPIRE. St> 

honoured and esteemed by them. He was conspicuous also for 
his military talents, and for the defeat of the Persians and 
others during his reign. He thus restored the empire to its 
former limits : but this exertion of its remaining strength, 
rather hastened than delayed its decline. 

He was cut off by a mutiny among his own soldiers in the 
fourteenth year of his reign, and the twenty -ninth of his age, 
at the instigation of Maximinus, his successor, 235 A. C. 

§ As a specimen of his virtuous character we may mention, that 
he ever loved good men, and severely reproved the lewd and infa- 
mous. His remark is in point, when he decided a contest between 
the christians and a company of cooks and vinters, about a piece of 
ground, which the one claimed as a place of public worship, and the 
other for exercising their respective trades. " It is better that God 
be worshiped there in any manner, than that the place should be put 
.o the uses of drunkenness or debauchery." 

At the age of sixteen, when he ascended the throne, he had all 
the premature wisdom of age. His judgment was solid, and his 
talents were various. He was an excellent mathematician, geometri- 
cian, and musician. His taste in painting, sculpture and poetry was 
admirable. 

The first part of his reign was spent in a reformation of the abu- 
ses of his predecessors ; particularly in restoring the senators to their 
rank and influence. His first expedition, in the tenth year of his 
reign, was against the Parthians and Persians, whom he opposed 
with a powerful army. In one decisive engagement, he routed the 
Persians with great slaughter. About the same time, several of his 
generals obtained signal victories, over various nations then at war 
with the empire. 

His manner of living was like that of the meanest sentinel ; when- 
ever he dined or supped, he sat with his tent open, that all men might 
be witnesses of his abstemiousness. He was at one time instructed 
by the famous Origen in the principles of Christianity ; though it 
does not appear that he embraced that religion. 

29. Maximinus, who was accessary to the murder of Severus, 
ascended the throne upon this event, 235 A. C. He was the 
son of a Thracian shepherd, and is represented by historians 
as a man of gigantic stature and Herculean strength. He was 
full eight feet in height, and perfectly symmetrical in form. 

He rose by degrees into power ; but though meritorious 
before his elevation, as a sovereign he was brutal and ferocious. 
He warred with the Germans, and wasted their country to 
the extent of four hundred and fifty miles, converting it al- 
most into a desert. His cruelties soon aroused the Roman 
people against him, and he was finally assassinated by his 
own soldiers in his "tent, after a reign of three years, 238 A. C 



&6 MODERN HISTORY— PERIOD 1. 

During the period of his power, the two Gordians, fathei 
and son were proclaimed emperors, but these soon perished 
The senate then proclaimed Pupienus and Balbinus, who 
survived Maximinus. These measures were dictated by the 
anxiety which the Romans felt, to free themselves from that 
tyrant. 

§ Maximinus is said to have delighted in acts of the greatest bar^ 
barity, and no less than four hundred persons lost their lives, on the 
false suspicion of a conspiracy against his life. He caused to be re- 
moved from his sight or assassinated, many noble Romans, who, as 
he suspected, despised him, on account of his mean origin. 

When he was apprised of the acts of the senate, appointing 
others to the supreme power, he raved and howled like a wild beast, 
and almost destroyed himself by beating his head against the walls 
of his palace. His fury, however, at length gave way to a spirit 
of revenge ; but his bloody machinations were soon stopped. His 
guards having been corrupted, murdered him while sleeping in his 
tent, as he was too formidable an object to be attacked while awake. 
Owing to his size, his strength was prodigious. He alone could 
draw a full loaded wagon. With a blow of his fist he could break 
the teeth in a horse's mouth, and with a kick of h 9 foot could break 
its thigh. His voracity was proportioned to his size and strength, 
He generally ate forty pounds of flesh every d^ ■>. and drank sis 
gallons of wine. 

The Praetorian soldiers who were enemies to Pupienus and 
Balbinus, soon embraced an opportunity of despatching them 
both, and accidentally meeting Gordian, grandson to one of 
the former Gordians, they proclaimed him emperor. The 
senate and people had been too long controlled by the army, 
on the subject of nominating the emperors, to withhold their 
consent in the present instance. 

30. Gordian accordingly assumed the empire 238 years 
A. C. He was no more than sixteen years old at this time, 
and was a prince of very considerable merit. The Goths, 
and also the Persians, who had invaded the confines of the 
empire on different sides, were repulsed by his arms. 

Towards the latter part of his reign, Philip, an Arabian, 
was chosen praetorian praefect, under whose administration the 
people began to be discontented. This state of things Philip 
fostered, till the odium against the emperor so far increased, 
that the prefect ventured to order his execution, with a 
view to his own preferment, an object which he accomplish- 
ed. Gordian's reign was a period of nearly six years. 

§ Gordian was a man so fond of learning,, that he had collected 
C2.00G books in his private library. 



HoMan empire. 37 

31. Philip having acquired the empire 244 A. C, by the 
murder of his benefactor, reigned five years, and then was 
himself assassinated, while marching against Decius. 

§ Philip was an Arabian by birth, and received, in the manner of 
his death, a righteous retribution, on account of his own nefarious 
conduct in gaining the sceptre. 

32. Decius, whom Philip had appointed to command a 
revolted army, had been proclaimed before the emperor's 
death. Upon that event he began to assume the functions of 
government 249 A. C. His activity and wisdom would have 
stayed the progress of decay in the empire, if any human 
means could effect that object. But the tendency to this 
state of things was irretrievable and fatal. 

The profligacy and luxury of the times, the disputes be- 
tween the Pagans and Christians, and the beginning irrup- 
tions of the barbarous nations from withoutj were enfeebling 
the empire beyond remedy. 

Decius reigned but two years and six months, having- been 
cut off, in a war with the Goths, by the treachery of Gallus, 
his general. 

33. GallUSj raised to the throne 251 A. C, by that part of 
the army which survived a defeat he had himself occasioned, 
reigned but two years and four months. He was a vicious 
sovereign, and during his reign the empire suffered incalcula- 
ble misery. He perished in a civil war, in which Aemilianus, 
his general, opposed him, and was victorious. 

§ It was in the time of Gallus, that a dreadful pestilence spread 
over the earth, threatening almost to depopulate it. 

34. Valerian, a commander of one of the armies of the erix- 
pire, succeeded to the throne 254 A. C, contrary to the ex 
pectations of Aemilianus. In a war with the Persians, having 
been taken prisoner, he suffered unheard of hardships and in 
suit, and at length was put to death in the most cruel mannei , 

§ Sapor, the Persian king, happened to secure the person of Vale 
rian. We are told that he always used the emperor as a footstool 
for mounting his horse, and that he often observed, "such an attitude 
was the best statue that could be erected in honour of his victory." 

The manner of Valerian's death is almost too horrid to be men 
tioned. His eyes were first plucked out, and afterwards he was flay 
ed alive, When his skin was dyed red, and exposed in a temple. He 
was seven years a prisoner. 

35. Gallienus, son of Valerian, was chosen emperor 26C 

4 



'38 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

A. C. He promised to avenge the insults and death of Ins 
father ; but after his elevation, he thought only of his own 
base pleasures, while the empire was attacked without, and 
distracted within. Thirty pretenders were at one time con- 
tending for the dominion of the state. Gallienus suffered a 
violent death. 

36. Upon the death of Gallienus, Flavius Claudius was 
invested with the purple, 268 A. C, agreeably to the wishes 
of the army, and the whole Roman people. He was an ac- 
tive, wise, and good prince ; but unhappily his reign was 
short, being less than two years. He died a natural death, 
which was more frequently the lot of the virtuous, than of the 
profligate emperors. 

§ Claudius opposed with success the Goths, Heruli, &c. who had 
invaded the empire on the north, in one instance destroying an army 
of 300,000 men ; and he likewise overthrew the Germans, who had 
reared the standard of revolt. His energy stayed, for a short time, 
the decline of the empire. 

37. The army made choice of Aurelian as emperor, 270 
A. C. His parentage was obscure, but he was esteemed the 
most valiant commander of his age. After his elevation, his 
time was passed in repressing the irruptions of the barbarians, 
and particularly in carrying on a war with Zenobia, a prin- 
cess of Palmyra, commonly styled the Queen of the East, 
whom he conquered, and brought captive to Rome. With 
great courage and military talents, he was cruel. He fell in 
a conspiracy which was raised against him by some of his 
subjects. 

§ His strength was said to be so great, that in one single engage- 
ment, he killed 40 of the enemy with his own hand, and above 900 
at different times. The degeneracy of his people seemed almost to 
justify Ids severities, in punishing offenders ; but it is said that when 
he was about to sign certain edicts against the christians, who were 
an inoffensive people, he was deterred from the act, by a thunder-bolt, 
which fell so near his person, that his escape was thought to be mi- 
raculous. 

38. Several months elapsed before a new emperor was 
elected. At length Tacitus was prevailed upon to take the 
reins of government, 275 A. C. He was a man of great me- 
rit, but unfortunately to the empire, he died of a fever after a 
reign of only six: montlis, at the age of 75. 

39. His successor was Probus, though a minority in the 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 39 

army chose Florian, a brother of Tacitus. Florian enjoyed 
this distinction but two months ; for upon the establishment 
of Probus in the empire, he sought a voluntary death. 

Probus possessed uncommon activity, courage, and integri- 
ty, and was constantly engaged in war with the barbarian?, 
and in suppressing the numerous factions which arose in his 
dominions. Offending' his soldiers by obliging them to drain 
an extensive fen in Sirmium, his native place, he wa«s slain 
in a conspiracy which they had formed against him, 282 
A. C. 

§ Probus was born of noble parentage, and was early distinguish- 
ed by his excellent qualities. He was frequently the first man that, 
in besieging towns, scaled the walls, or that burst into the enemy's 
camp. 

His energy and virtue, great as they were, could scarcely present 
a sufficient barrier to the tide of calamities that rushed upon the em- 
pire. In a war, however, with the Germans in Gaul, he slew 400,000 
men ; and at various times repulsed many other enemies, particular- 
ly the Sarmatians, Goths and Blemii. The last were a people who 
had left the forests of Ethiopia, and possessed themselves of Arabia 
and Judea. 

Among those of his subjects who had rebelled against him, was 
Ronosus, who was remarkable as given to intoxication. The rebel 
being overcome, hanged himself in despair. Probus seeing him im- 
mediately after this event, pointed to his body, and with great hu- 
mour observed, " There hangs, not a man, but a bottle." 

40. Cams, praetorian presfect to the deceased emperor, was 
chosen by the army to succeed him 282 A. C. He associated 
with him in command, his two sons, Carinus and Numerian. 
Cams, and his son Numerian, were worthy of the empire, 
but Carinus was given to vice. Their reign, however, was 
only of two years' continuance. Cams was smitten by a 
flash of lightning, in his tent, and his sons were killed soon 
after — Numerian by an act of treachery, Carinus in a con- 
test with Diocletian, who had been chosen emperor. 

§ Numerian was so affected by the death of his father, that through 
excess of weeping, he brought on a disorder in his eyes, in conse- 
quence of which he was obliged to be carried in a close litter. In 
this situation he was murdered by his ambitious father-in-law, Aper, 
who was soon cut off by the hand of" Diocletian. 

41. Diocletian began his reign in 284 A. C, and twoyears 
afterwards, associated with himself in the empire his general 
Maximian. Under their united auspices, the enemies of 
Rome were frequently repulsed. At the expiration of about 



40 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

eight years from that time, they took two colleagues, Galerius 
and Constantius ; and bestowed upon each the title of Caesar. 

This state of things was novel. There was a four fold 
division of the government, with two emperors and two Cae- 
sars at its head, each having a nominal supremacy. Diocle- 
tian, however, was the master spirit that moved and controlled 
the whole. In this state, the government was administered 
a few years, when strange to relate the two emperors resigned 
their authority into the hands of the two Caesars, and retired 
into private life 304 A. C. 

Diocletian seems to have been sincere in his abdication, as 
he contentedly spent eight or nine years in rural privacy, and 
in cultivating his garden. Maximian soon began to be dis- 
contented, and made several attempts, but in vain, to resume 
his former powers. His intrigues in Britain, where Constan- 
tine and his son Constantine resided, cost him his life. Di- 
ocletian died about 312 A. C. Maximian perished 310 A. C. 

§ Diocletian's parentage was mean. According to some lie was the 
son of a scrivener; and according to others, of a slave. When 
elected to the empire he was forty years old, and owed his exalta- 
tion entirely to his merit, having passed through the various grada- 
tions of office, witn sagacity, courage, and success. He chose Ga- 
lerius for his associate, giving him the title of Caesar, with a view 
to secure his aid in opposing Narses, the king of Persia and Parthia, 
who had invaded Mesopotamia. In this enterprise they met with sig- 
nal success. Other enemies they subdued, except the northern na- 
tions, who, though repulsed and slaughtered in incredible numbers, 
were ever ready to embrace fresh opportunities of renewing hostilities. 

Diocletian, after his abdication of the empire, retired to his native 
country, Dalmatia, where he built a magnificent palace for his ac- 
commodation, near the town of Salona. Here he led a secure and 
quiet life. When some of his friends attempted to persuade him to 
resume the empire, he replied, " that if they knew his present hap- 
piness, they would rather endeavour to imitate than disturb it." 

Maximian was a native of Sirmium, in Pannonia, and was adopt- 
ed by Diocletian as emperor, on account of his courage and 
fidelity. He defeated many enemies of his country, though his 
arms in Britain were unsuccessful. He adopted Constantius as 
Caesar, with a view to oppose the claims of Carausius, a principal 
commander in Britain, who had proclaimed himself emperor. 

42. When Diocletian and Maximian resigned their power, 
Constantius and Galerius were universally acknowledged 
304 A. C. Constantius governed the western parts of the 
empire. Galerius the eastern. They took in with them two 
partners, so that the empire was again under the guidance of 



JUDEA. 41 

four persons, all invested with supreme authority; each having- 
his distinct department. Severus and Maximian were the 
persons who were created Caesars. 

Constantius was a worthy character, Galerius was the re- 
verse. Constantius died at York, in Britain, 306 A. C, leav- 
ing his son Constantine as his successor. Galerius died four- 
years afterwards of an extraordinary incurable disease. He 
had instigated Diocletian to persecute the christians. 

§ The western parts of the empire, or the dominion of Constantius, 
consisted of Italy, Sicily, the greatest part of Africa, together with 
Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Germany. The eastern parts, or the do- 
minion of Galerius, consisted of lllyricum, Pannonia, Thrace, Ma- 
cedonia, all the provinces of Greece, and the lesser Asia, together 
with Egypt, Syria, Judea, and all other oriental countries. 

An anecdote of the following kind is related of Constantius :— 
when he was persuaded to displace all the christian officers of his 
household ; though he would not suffer the christians to be injured, 
he sent away in disgrace the few that complied, alleging, "that 
those who were not true to their God, would never be faithful to 
their prince." 

43. From the commencement to the close of the present 
period, persecutions of the christians more or less prevailed 
in the empire. At times, this unoffending class of the Ro- 
man subjects suffered in an extreme degree, from the edicts 
of the emperors. Historians have usually reckoned ten ge- 
neral persecutions of the christians. The names of the em- 
perors, under whom these persecutions w T ere experienced, 
were the following : — Nero, Domitian, Trajan, Antoninus, 
Severus, Maximinus, Decius, Yalerian, Aurelian, and Dio- 
cletian. 

Most of these emperors persecuted the christians from 
malignity, and for the gratification of their cruel dispositions. 
Others did it, (though their conduct was indefensible,) from 
ignorance or prejudice, aided by the spirit of the age, and 
the common corruption of our nature. 

§ As this period is named from the persecutions which the pro- 
fessors of Christianity endured under the Roman emperors, it 
might seem proper here, to enter into some details on this subject. 
But a few of these will be included in an article on ecclesiastical 
history, to be embodied in the present volume. 

JUDEA. 

44. Judea, already under the sway of Rome, became a 
province of the empire 6 A. C. upon the banishment of Ar- 



42 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

chelaus, eldest son of Herod the Great. It was at the com- 
mencement of this period, that the birth of our blessed Saviour 
Jesus Christ, as before noticed in the Roman history, took 
place. Herod, in addition to all his other crimes shed the 
blood of the children of Bethlehem, in the hope that the in- 
fant Jesus would fall among them. He died miserably, soon 
after this transaction. 

§ In the reign of Herod, the sceptre, agreeably to ancient prophecy, 
having departed from Judah, by the control which the Romans had 
over the government, Jesus Christ was born in the year of the world 
4000. This has already been explained. We use, however, the 
vulgar era (4004) and assign the subsequent events according to that 
calculation. The mistake supposed to be made by the ancient chro- 
nologers has been too far sanctioned by Time, to be now remedied. 

His birth, which was announced by angels to the shepherds of 
Bethlehem, and which brought the eastern magi to worship him, 
exceedingly troubled Herod and the principal Jews, who became 
apprehensive of new wars and commotions. After finding out the 
place of his nativity, (viz. Bethlehem,) Herod determined on his 
death, by destroying all the children of that place and of its vicinity, 
" from two years old and under." 

The providence of God, however, had removed the holy child be- 
yond his reach, inasmuch as his parents had fled with him, in the 
mean time, into Egypt. Herod's death soon occurring, they return- 
ed from Egypt, and dwelt in Nazareth, a city of Galilee. 

It is not our design to detail events here, which more properly be- 
long to ecclesiastical history. We would only say, that after a labo- 
rious and useful life, in the third year of his ministry, and in the 
thirty-third of his age, Jesus Christ expiated human transgression, 
by his death on the cross. He suffered under Pontius Pilate, the 
Roman governor, upon a false accusation brought against him by his 
own countrymen, the Jews. 

This glorious personage, who was " God manifest in the flesh," 
came into the world to save his people from their sins. In his hu- 
man nature he was lineally descended from David, though the fami- 
ly at the period of his birth, had become obscure and reduced to 
poverty. The effects of his appearance in the world were from the 
beginning, decisive. The holy system which he taught, considering 
the hostility of man to truth and piety, was diffused with great rapi- 
dity, under the ministry of the apostles. Reformation of moral 
character was its aim, object and result. Its effects have ever been 
great, and such they will be to the end of time. 

The civil affairs of the Jews, from the commencement of 
this era to the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus Yespasian, 
are too unimportant to be particularly described. A brief 
summary of them follows. 

§ Archelaus, under whom Judea became in form a Roman pro- 



JUDEA. 43 

vince, possessed only a tetrarchy, or the fourth part of the kingdom 
of Jewry. The rest of the country was divided into three more te- 
trarchies, which were those of Galilee and Petraea possessed by Herod 
Antipatas ; that of Ituraea possessed by Philip, another son of Herod ; 
and that of Abilene possessed by Eysanias, who being afterwards 
banished into Gaul, had his province governed by Pontius Pilate. 

The successor of Archelaus was Herod II. named Antipas, who 
man ied his brother Philip's wife. This was the incestuous marriage 
on account of which John the Baptist reproved Herod, as mentioned 
in the New Testament. It was in the time of this Herod that our 
Saviour's crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, occurred. 

Herod II. was succeeded by his son Herod the Great. Caligula, 
the emperor of Rome, at that time invested him with the tetrarchy 
of his uncle Philip, and conferred on him the title of king. The 
other tetrarchies fell to his possession shortly afterwards. It was 
this Herod who caused the apostle James to be martyred, the apostle 
Peter to be imprisoned, and was himself smitten by an angel and 
devoured by worms. 

His son Agrippa Minor, succeeded, and was the last king of Jew- 
ry. It was before him, that the apostle*Paul pleaded in defence 0/ 
the gospel. 

45. During the reign of Agrippa Minor, Jerusalem was 
attacked by Titus (Vespasian) 70 A. D. The cause of this 
attack originated in the commotions and insurrections of the 
Jews, which were frequent about this time. This miserable 
people had suffered greatly, from the injustice and extortion 
practised upon them by the agents of the Roman govern- 
ment, and they consequently rose in rebellion. 

A signal vengeance fell upon their heads. Jerusalem was 
beseiged, and one million of people are said to have perished 
on the occasion. To such distress were the Jews reduced by 
famine, that mothers murdered their children for food. The 
people suffered greatly in other parts of Judea ; and though 
numbers remained in their native land, vast multitudes were 
dispersed over the face of the earth, on which they have ever 
since been wanderers. 

The reader of the Bible will see in these events, a re- 
markable fulfilment of the predictions of the ancient prophets 
and of our Saviour ; and he will also learn the evil and dan- 
ger of despising divine admonitions, and abusing religious 
privileges. The Jews are to this day a witness of the truth 
of scripture. 

§ Nero, who was emperor when the war with the Jews commenc- 
ed, entrusted the management of it to his general, Vespasian, who, 
accompanied by his son Titus, and a powerful army, arrived in Sy- 



44 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

ria, 67 A. C. Vespasian soon after being chosen emperor, left orders 
with his son Titus, to contiuue the war, while he himself set out for 
Rome. 

Titus prosecuted the enterprise with diligence, and besieging 
Jerusalem, he took it within a few months, after an obstinate resist- 
ance on the part of its inhabitants. Twice, during the siege, Titus 
offered them very favourable terms, but so infatuated were they, that 
hey not only refused his offers, but insulted at length his messenger, 
Flavius Josephus, in the most wanton and virulent manner. 

After this conduct, there remained no more mercy for the Jews. 
Titus caused the hands of those who had voluntarily sought shelter 
in the Roman camp, to be cut off, and sent them back to the city, 
and others he crucified in the sight of their countrymen. Famine, 
in the mean time, was performing its dreadful work within the 
walls. When Titus entered the city he gave it up to be plundered 
by the soldiers, and most of its inhabitants were put to the sword. 

In pursuance of this general order, the city was destroyed to its 
foundations, and even the ruins of the temple were demolished. 
Josephus says that the number of prisoners taken during the whole 
time of the war was ninety-seven thousand ; and the number killed 
in the city during the same period, amounted, as before stated, to 
one million. The Jews, who remained in the country, now paid 
tribute to the Romans, and were entirely subject to their laws. 

46. After this event Jerusalem Avas partially rebuilt, and in 
1 18 the inhabitants attempted again to rebel, but were speedily 
overcome. Adrian, the emperor, incensed at the conduct of 
this stubborn people, resolved to level their city with the earth, 
that is to say, those new buildings erected by the Jews, and 
to sow salt in the ground, on which the place had stood 
Thus was fulfilled a prophecy of our Saviour, who fore- 
told, that neither in the city nor in the temple, should one 
stone be left upon another. This therefore may be called 
the final destruction of Jerusalem, which took place 47 years 
after that of Titus, 

Adrian, however, soon built the city over anew, and called 
it Aelia Capitolina. It was a short lived change, for when 
the empress Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, 
visited the city, she found it in a forlorn and ruinous state. 

PARTHIA. 

47. The Parthian empire at the beginning of this period, 
continued under the sway of the first branch of the Arsaci- 
dae. Phraates IV. then possessed the throne. Three sove- 
reigns succeeded him, when after short reigns, the second 
branch of the Arsacidse commenced. 



PERSIA. 46 

Verones I. was the last of the three sovereigns of the first branch. 
He had been dispatched from Rome, where he was a hostage, to 
reign over the Parthians, Who had invited him to be their king j 
but affecting the Roman dress and manners he incurred the dislike 
of his people, and was driven from the throne, to make room for 
Artabanus, of the royal family of Media. 

48. The second branch of the Arsacidse commenced 18 
years A. C. under Artabanus III. It lasted nearly two 
hundred years under thirteen sovereigns. The Romans oc- 
casionally defeated the Parthians and made them tributary, 
but could never keep them long under the yoke. To the his- 
tory of the Parthian kings, we attach very iittle importance. 
The empire was at length restored to the Persians after they 
had been subject to the princes of Parthia for the space cf 
four hundred and seventy-five years. 

§ Artabanus V, the last of this branch, having refused to give his 
daughter in marriage to the emperor Caracalla, the Romans entered 
Parthia and destroyed many cities ; but Macrinus, the successor of 
Caracalla, after a hard fought battle, concluded a peace with the 
Parthians. Artabanus was killed in battle by Artaxares, a Persian, 
who, revolting from the Parthians, restored the empire to Persia. 
The subsequent details belong to the Persian history. 

PERSIA. 

49. After the Persians had been subject to the Parthians 
during four hundred and seventy-five years, from the time 
that they passed from under the Macedonian yoke, Artax- 
ares, an ignoble but courageous Persian, excited a revolt 
among his countrymen, which terminated in the restoration 
of the Persian empire. 223 A. C. 

Artaxares having accomplished his design, and ascended 
the throne, assumed the pompous title of king of kings, and 
asserted his right to all the provinces of the ancient empire, 
which were now under the authority of the Romans. War 
therefore ensued between these two powers, and the Per- 
sians were terribly defeated in a single battle by Alexander 
Severus. They soon however regained the ground they had 
lost, 

Artaxares was followed by a series of princes, the most 
conspicuous of whom during this period was Sapores I. who 
was his immediate successor. The dynasty which Artaxares 
founded, is known in history under the name of Sassanidae, 
from Sassan, his father. 



46 



MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 



§ Of Sapores, it is recorded that he conquered several cities in Syria 
and Mesopotamia, from the Romans, which however were recov- 
ered by the youngest Gordian ; that in 258 he captured Antioch, 
penetrating into Cappadocia, and besieging Csesara, which being 
taken through treachery, almost all the inhabitants were slain, and 
the city reduced to ashes. The next year the emperor Valerian 
having advanced into the east, was taken prisoner, and treated with 
the greatest cruelty, as has already been describecl. Sapores, after 
considerable reverse of fortune, having becomeodioustohis subjects 
for his cruelties, was assassinated by the Satraps. 

Hormisdas II. was the last prince of this period. He enjoyed a 
peaceful reign. After his death, the lords of the country seized his 
son and confined him in a tower, because he threatened to cause them 
all to be flayed alrVe, for not rising in token of obedience to him 
at a royal banquet, on a day when he returned from hunting. The 
queen being pregnant, the magi, by placing the crown upon her 
own person, affected to crown the prince, who, they persuaded 
themselves, would be born of her. 

CHINA. 

50. In the history of China, the fifth dynasty which com- 
menced about 200 years before the christian era, terminated 
during the present period, viz. in the year 221 A. C. It is 
called the dynasty of Han, and lasted four hundred and 
twenty-four years, under twenty-five emperors The head of 
this dynasty was Lien-pang, a soldier, who, overcoming the 
last emperor, and ascending the throne, took the name of 
Kao-Tsou. 

§ Kao-Tsou reigned with clemency and moderation. In his 
reign, paper, ink, and hair pencils, still used in China instead of pens, 
were invented. He was one of the few emperors who governed for 
themselves. Under the rest, the eunuchs obtained great authority. 

Vuti, one of the princes of this family, was a great encourager ol 
learning, and ordered the morality of Confucius to be taught in the 
public schools. He fell under the powjr of a strong delusion, in 
endeavouring to discover a liquor whim would make him immor- 
tal. 

The sixth dynasty began 221 A. C; and ended 265 
A. C. It is called the dynasty of Heou-Han, and lasted forty- 
four years. China at this time was divided into three empires, 
under three branches of the dynasty of Han. The various 
parts terminated at different periods, although the whole be- 
came reunited at length under the seventh dynasty in 265. 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 47 

Distinguished Characters in Period L 

1. Livy, the prince of Roman historians. 

2. Ovid, a distinguished Roman poet. 

3. Tibullus, a famous elegiac poet of Rome. 

4. Strabo, a, celebrated geographer and historian. 

5. Seneca, a Roman moralist and philosopher. 

6. Lucan, a Roman epic poet. 

7. Pliny, (the elder) the earliest writer on natural history 
A r hose works are extant. 

8. Quintilian, an eminent Roman advocate and rhetori- 
cian. 

9. Tacitus, an eminent philosophic historian. 

10. Plutarch, the principal biographer of antiquity. 

11. Juvenal, an eminent satirical poet. 

12. M.Antoninus, a Roman emperor and philosophical wri- 
ter. 

13. Tertullian, ) , ■• n , . .. .... , , 

-, A ^ ■ ' f learned Christian writers, commonly cal- 

15. Cyprian, j 

§ 1. Livy was a native of Padua, but passed the greatest part of his 
Ife at Naples and Rome, particularly at the court of Augustus. Of 
his life not much is known, yet his fame was so universally spread, 
even in his life time, tijdt an inhabitant of Gades, now Cadiz, travel- 
led all the way to Rome, merely to see the man whose writings had 
given him so much pleasure. Livy died at Padua in his sixty-se- 
venth year, A. C. 17. 

This writer is principally known by his history of the Roman em- 
pire. It originally consisted of 140 books, of which only 35 are ex- 
tant. In this work he is always great— clear, spirited, bold, and 
masterly in description. The high rank which he holds among his- 
torians will probably never be disputed. He often copied from his 
contemporaries and predecessors, and especially from Polybius. 

2. Ovid was born at Sulmo, on the 20th of March, about 43 years 
B. C. His father intended him for the bar; but though his pro- 
gress in the study of eloquence was great, yet nothing could divert 
him from paying his court to the muses. Every thing he wrote 
was expressed in poetical numbers. His name soon became known, 
and the great geniuses of the age honoured him with their notice, and 
some of them with their correspondence. Augustus also patronized 
him with the utmost liberality. 

The days of his prosperity were not many. For some cause, 
which is not ascertained, the emperor banished him to a place named 
Tomos on the Euxine Sea. Here he spent the remainder of his life, 
and he spent it in unmanly repining and impatience. He offered 
the most abject flattery to Augustus, but both he and his successor 



48 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD t. 

Tiberius were inexorable. Ovid died in the 7th or 8th year of his 
banishment. 

The poems which he left behind him have, the most of them, sur- 
vived to the present time. They are characterized by sweetness and 
elegance, though often debased by indelicacy of expression. Ovid 
every where paints nature with the hand of a master. His Fasti, a 
part of which is lost, are thought to be the best written of all his 
poems. It is known that the poems of Ovid Were favourites with the 
great English bard, John Milton. 

3. Tibullus was a Roman Knight. He at first engaged in the! 
toils of war ; but dissatisfied With such a life, he afterwards gave 
himself up to literary ease, and to the pleasures of an enervating Ita- 
lian climate. His favorite study was the writing of love verses. In 
these elegant trifles he shewed himself an accomplished poet. Four 
books of elegies are all that remain of his compositions. They are 
so beautiful in language, and so pure in sentiment, that Tibullus is 
deservedly ranked as the prince of elegiac poets. 

4. Strabo was a native of Amasia, and died 25 years A.. C. His 
geographical work, divided into 17 books, is the only composition of 
his remaining. This is justly considered an elegant, classical, and 
learned work. It is written in Greek, and contains an account of 
the most celebrated places and countries of the world. Strabo tra- 
velled through most of the regions he has described, in quest of ao 
curate information. Among his books which have been lost, are 
historical commentaries. 

5. Seneca (Lucius Annaeus) was born at Cordova, in Spain. He 
became early distinguished for uncommon abilities, and acquired at 
the bar, the reputation of an eloquent pleader ; but he relinquished 
this road to fame, and became a candidate for public employments. 
He obtained the office of quaestor, but by a shameful indiscretion, 
having incurred the displeasure of Caligula, he was banished to the 
island of Corsica. In five years he was recalled by the empress 
Agrippina, to superintend the education of her son Nero, which of- 
fice he discharged with honor. 

Nero becoming impatient of the restraint, which his preceptor im- 
posed upon his vicious inclinations, pretended that Seneca had con- 
spired with Piso against his life, and sent a messenger to Seneca to 
acquaint him that he must die ; permitting him to choose the manner 
of his death. The philosopher received the mandate with cheerful- 
ness, and ordered the veins of his legs and arms to be opened. The 
blood however flowed slowly — poison and the warm bath were 
therefore resorted to : but being without effect, he was at last smoth- 
ered in the vapour of a stove. His death took place in his seventy- 
second year, 65 A. C. 

6. Lucan was a native of Corduba, and nephew of Seneca. He 
early went to Rome, where his rising talents procured him the favour 
of Nero. He had the imprudence, however, to enter into a poetical 
contest with his imperial patron, and obtaining an easy victory, a? 
might have been expected, he ever afterwards was an object of the 
emperor's hatred. The insults to which the poet was continually 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 49 

exposed, provoked his resentment to jfcich a degree, that he joined 
Piso in his conspiracy against that monster. The discovery of the 
plot, of course, consigned him to death. He died a young man, be- 
ing only in his 26th year. 

Of his works, his Pharfalia only remains. This poem celebrates 
the wars of Caesar and Pompey, and is unfinished. It has been va- 
riously estimated. The moral grandeur of its sentiments has been 
generally acknowledged, but some think him more of an orator than 
a poet. 

7. Pliny (the elder) was born at Verona, of a noble family. He 
Was distinguished in civil life, as well in scientific pursuits. To his 
public duties he attended through the day, but the night he devoted 
to study. He lost no time by idleness or dissipation. Every mo- 
ment that could be spared from business was occupied in the cultiva- 
tion of his mind. He turned his attention more particularly to Nature. 

His work on Natural History, comprised in 37 books, is full oi 
erudition. It takes in a wide range of topics, and is written in an 
interesting and sprightly manner, although the style possesses not 
the graces of the Augustan age. He wrote one hundred and sixty 
Volumes of remarks and annotations on the various authors whom 
he had read, but these have not reached us. 

His love of knowledge cost him his life. An eruption of Vesu- 
vius happening at the time when he lay at Misenum, where he com- 
manded a fleet, he was induced to approach the mountain, for the 
purpose of making his observations on the interesting phenomenon. 
While thus occupied, he was overtaken by the burning lava which 
poured from the volcano, and suffocated and scorched, he soon per- 
ished. This memorable event happened in the 79th year of the Chris- 
tian era. 

8. Quintilian was a native of Spain. After twenty years labo- 
rious employment in teaching rhetoric, and in pleading at the bar at 
Rome, he retired to enjoy the fruits of his labours and industry. 
Here he dedicated his time to the study of literature, and to com- 
position. His success as an author, and the favours of the emperor 
Domitian, afforded him a high delight. But no situation is perfect- 
ly happy — the death of his wife and two sons, filled him with almost 
inconsolable grief. He died 95 A. C. 

His Institutions, in 12 books, is the most perfect system of ora- 
tory extant. In this work, he delineates that which goes to consti- 
tute a perfect orator, together with all the preparation necessary. 
This work remained undiscovered until the fifteenth century. 

9. Tacitus was the son of a Roman knight, and born in the reign 
of Nero. His genius and talents procured him the favour of several 
emperors in succession, and he was raised at last to the consular 
dignity. He was not destitute of distinction as an orator, but he is 
chiefly known to mankind as an historian. A peculiar friendship 
existed between him and Pliny, though the one was sternly partial 
to a republican government, and the other was a great admirer of 
imperial power. 

The compositions of Tacitus were contained in thirty books, of 

5 



50 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 

which there now remain only twenty-one. Of these, his Annals in- 
clude sixteen, and his History of the Roman Emperors five. TacU 
tus has many excellencies of style. Its most striking characteiistic, 
perhaps, is conciseness. He has great force and depth of thought, 
and is candid and impartial in his statements. In his biographical 
sketches, he displays an uncommon knowledge of human nature. 
The History of the Reign of Tiberius, is his masterpiece. Some 
have complained of him as being obscure. 

10. Plutarch was a native of Chaeronea. He died at an advanced 
age, in his native place, about the 140th year A. C. Having travel- 
led in quest of knowledge through Egypt and Greece, he retired to 
Rome, where he opened a school, with great reputation. Trajan, 
who admired his abilities, honoured him with the office of consul, 
and with the government of Illyricum. 

After the death of his imperial patron, he removed from Rome to 
Chaeronea ; in which delightful retirement, he composed the great- 
est part of his works. His Lives of Illustrious Men, is the most 
esteemed of his productions. His precision and fidelity are remark- 
able. In his style, he is energetic and animated ; though distin- 
guished neither for purity nor elegance. Sometimes he is too cir- 
cumstantial; yet, on the whole, he has been pronounced to be the 
most entertaining and instructive of al] the writers of ancient history. 

11. Juvenal was born at Aquinum, in Italy, and died in the reign 
of Trajan, 128 A. C, at an advanced age. He came early to Rome, 
where he applied himself at first to declamation, and afterwards to 
the writing of satires. 

Sixteen of these pieces are extant. In them, he is an animated, 
severe, and bold reprover of vice, and displays also much humour. 
He, however, defeats his object, in a great measure, by the gross- 
ness and indecency of his manner. His correctness in delineation 
is the result of experience and age. He has been called, with some 
reason perhaps, the last of the Roman poets. 

12. M. Antoninus, whose history has been given before, was born 
at Rome, in the 121st year of the christian era, and died on an ex- 
pedition against the Marcomanni, in the nineteenth year of his reign. 
He was a prince of great talents and virtue. His death was regret- 
ted by mankind as a public loss, and the greatest honour was paid 
to his memory. According to the superstition of the times, he was 
ranked among the gods, and in almost every house his statue was 
found. 

His book of Meditations has been much admired by scholars and 
philosophers. 

13. Tertullian lived at Carthage, and flourished in the reigns of 
Severus and Caracalla. He was originally a pagan, but afterwards 
embraced Christianity, and became one of its ablest defenders. His 
writings evince that he possessed a lively imagination, fervid elo- 
quence, strength of reasoning, and a considerable acquaintance with 
style. His Apology for the Christians, and his Prescriptions, are the 
best esteemed of his numerous works. The historian Gibbon, calli 
him the " stern" Tertullian. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 51 

14. Origen was born at Alexandria, about the year 185, and died 
in 254, having been presbyter of that city. He wrote in Greek. He 
was much celebrated for his parts and learning. He was endowed 
with unaffected humility and modesty, and was extremely rigid in 
following the christian rules. In the sixty-ninth year of his age, he 
suffered martyrdom. His works are many, and include a number 
of homilies, commentaries on the Holy Scriptures, and different trea- 
tises, besides his Hexapla. This last work first gave the hint for 
the compilation of our polyglot Bibles. Mosheim calls him the lu- 
minary of the christian world, during the age in which he lived j 
but observes, that he failed in justness of judgment, and was given to 
the Platonic philosophy. 

15. Cyprian was a native and a bishop of Carthage. He was 
born about the beginning of the third century, of heathen parents, 
but became a convert to Christianity, and was a principal father of 
the church. To be more devoted to purity and study, he is said to 
have abandoned his. wife ; and, as a proof of his charity, he dis- 
tributed his goods to the poor. He wrote eighty-one letters, besides 
several treatises, and rendered his works valuable, by the informa- 
tion he conveys respecting the discipline of the ancient church. 

He was beheaded as a martyr, at Carthage, September 14, 258 
A. C. Moshiem speaks of him as possessing the most eminent abili- 
ties and flowing eloquence, but rather too attentive to the ornaments 
jf rhetoric. 



PERIOD II. 

The period of the Northern Invasions, extending, from the 
Reign of Constantine the Great, 306 years A. C. to 
the Extinction of the Western Umpire, 476 years A. C. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
Sec. 1. The empire of Rome, as has already appeared, 
had been for several years under the sway of a number 
of masters, on all of whom the burden of government 
equally devolved. At the time when Constantine was pro- 
claimed in Britain 306 A. C. upon the death of his father 
Constantius, the two Caesars, Sever us and Maximin, had 
already been proclaimed 305 A. C. — Maxentius, son ofMax- 
imian, had about the same time, 306 A. C, declared himself. 
The next year Licinius was created emperor by Galerius, 
who had never willingly owned Constantine. These were 
Constan tine's competitors, and in the course of a few years 
he lived to see them either destroyed in various ways, or 
overcome in battle, and himself remaining the sole master of 
the Roman world. 



52 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. 

Oonstantine has been styled the first christian emperor. 
Whatever may have been his real character, as far as religion is 
concerned, it is certain that he stopped the persecutions of the 
christians — that he publicly favoured Christianity — defend- 
ed it against its enemies, and tolerated the profession of it in the 
empire. Indeed, under his auspices it became the religion 
of the state, and that great change in the Roman govern- 
ment took place, which, from a persecuting, made it a protect- 
ing power. For the influence which Christianity exerted 
over the public conduct of this emperor, a cause has been as- 
signed, possessing a miraculous character, viz. : his seeing a 
pillar of light in the heavens in the form of a cross, bearing 
the inscription — " By this conquer." 

Whether this were a real sight, or a mere imagination, it is 
asserted in the records of the times, as an undoubted fact ; 
and if it w T ere such, we may readily account for the part 
which Constantine acted, even should w T e be forced to doubt 
the integrity of his religious principles. 

§ The first exploits of Constantine were directed against the Franks, 
who had then overrun Gaul. It was in 311 or 312, when he was 
inarching against Maxentius, and reflecting on the mutability of the 
world, and the opinions which then divided the attention of man- 
kind, that he saw the pillar of light mentioned above. This was in 
the latter part of the day, and on the following night, Jesus Christ 
is said to have appeared to him with the same sign. 

In consequence of these appearances, the emperor caused a royai 
standard to be made, bearing a figure similar to that he had seen, 
and commanded that it should be carried before him in his wars. 
Soon espousing the cause of Christianity, he entered Italy, and ad- 
vancing towards the gates of Rome, he attacked and defeated Max- 
entius, who. in attempting an escape, was drowned in the Tiber. 
The next day Constantine was received into the city as a deliverer. 

In 314, a war was kindled between Constantine and Licinius, but 
it soon ended in a peace. Nine years afterwards, hostilities broke 
out again, when Licinius after two defeats was obliged to abdicate, 
leaving the government to Constantine alone. 

2. The administration of Constantine varied very much, 
in the different periods of his life. It was far more com- 
mendable at the beginning, than it at length became. Hia 
natural temper was severe and cruel, and the latter part of 
his reign was marked by several acts of intolerant zeal, and 
sanguinary rigour. In protecting and countenancing the 
Christian religion he deserves our approbation, although it 
must be acknowledged that he brought it into too close an al 




Conversion of Constantine. P. 52. 



-AEfc aft SO 




£7. Bernard preaching to the Crusaders. P. 134. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 53 

llance with the civil power, to consist with its highest pros- 
perity. 

§ The character of Constantine has been the subject of extravagant 
eulogy, or violent censure, according as friends or foes have been 
concerned in drawing it. We shall do well perhaps to strike the 
balance between the different representations — the prejudices of the 
cotemporary pagans against it we should little regard, nor should 
we think too much of the panegyric which was resorted to for its 
vindication, by the professed Christians of his day. It was a highly 
mixed character which he possessed. 

This emperor was the author of an essential change in the 
Roman affairs, in another respect besides that of religion. In 
transferring the seat of the empire from Rome to Constantino- 
ple, he affected its condition during the remainder of its ex- 
istence. This step accelerated the destruction of the decay- 
ing fabric. His motives in this project cannot be accurately 
determined — whether they had reference to ideas of policy 
and advantage, or purely to resentment on account of affronts 
received at Rome. Whatever they were, his own reputation 
and the public interests were injured. 

The effect of this measure, though not immediately felt, 
was at length fatal. After the government was apportioned 
among the emperor's sons, there was such a division of the 
forces of the empire, that the northern barbarians, who 
fought with superior numbers, and had been hitherto re- 
pulsed, now began to prevail and to encroach on the pro- 
vinces. 

In an expedition against the Persians, Constantine died at 
Nicomedia, in the thirtieth year of his reign, and sixty-third 
of his age. 

§ The new seat of empire is said to have been pointed out in the 
following manner :— Constantine had made choice of a situation at 
Chalcedon, in Asia Minor ; but it seems, in laying out the ground- 
plot, an eagle caught up the line and flew Math it over to Byzantium, 
a city which lay upon the opposite side of the Bosphorus. 

Here, therefore, it was deemed expedient to fix the seat of empire ; 
and Constantine, after having built a capitol, an amphitheatre, 
many churches and other public works, and many magnificent edi- 
fices, and after having dedicated the city to the God of martyrs, re- 
paired thither, with his whole court. 

From this period to the reigns of Honorius and Arcadius. 
when the empire was divided into two distinct sovereignties, 
the histories of Rome and Constantinople are necessarily 
blended. 

5* 



54 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. 

3. The Roman world had long been composed of discord 
ant parts, and the work of corruption and dissolution was ai 
this time making a rapid progress. The immense mass was 
kept together for a period longer, only by the vigorous exer- 
tion of despotism. The fabric naturally tottered to its fall, 
when the Pagan principles of religion, which constituted an 
essential part of its foundation, were removed. The arm of 
power then supplied the props that upheld it, and this, more 
emphatically than was ever the case before. 

§ The Roman armies at this era, were debased by the intermixture 
of Scythians, Goths, Germans, and other barbarous tribes ; and Con- 
stantine, from a timid policy of guarding against mutinies of the 
troops, reduced the legion from its ancient complement of 5000 and 
upwards, to 1000 or 1500. 

4. Before his death, Constantine had settled the empire on 
five princes — his three sons and two nephews. His sons were 
Constantine II., Constans, and Constantius II. The nephews, 
who were Ceesars, were named Dalmatius, and Annibabanus. 
Their sovereignty commmenced 337 A. C. 

Immediately upon the accesssion of these princes, Con- 
stantius contrived to destroy the two Caesars, with live others 
of his cousins and two of his uncles. Soon after this, Con- 
stantine entered into a contention with Constans, and was 
killed ; and Constans in a few years perished in attempting 
to quell a revolt among his subjects. Constantius, therefore, 
remained in the possession of the whole empire. He reigned 
twenty-four years in misfortune and dishonour. 

§ Domestic broils, and insurrections of the troops, had left the west- 
ern frontiers of the empire exposeo* to the barbarians. The Franks, 
Saxons, Alemanni, and Sarmatians A had devastated the fine countries 
on the Rhine, and the Persians had kept up a succession of wars in 
the eastern provinces. At first Constantius obliged the Persians to 
retire ; but he was afterwards overcome in nine signal battles. 

His cousin Julian, he created Caesar, but afterwards regarding him 
with jealousy, and hearing that he was proclaimed emperor, Con- 
stantius marched against him. but died on the road. He had reach- 
ed his 45th year. In person he was diminutive, but capable of 
exertion when occasion required ; he was temperate,but extremely 
uxorious ; and in a word, inherited the defects without the abilities 
of his father. He was much engaged in theological controversy, 
but his religious principles or character cannot inspire us with any 
great respect. 

5. Julian, commonly called the apostate, on account of his 
relapsing into paganism from a Christian educatiou, was 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 55 

acknowledged by the senate, 361 A. 0. His army had pre- 
viously proclaimed him emperor, much against his will ; but 
the insult he received from Constantius, who exacted submis- 
sion to himself as the supreme head, determined him to assert 
his claims by force of arms. After due preparation and 
vigorous efforts, he was happily released from this necessity, 
oy the death of Constantius. 

Julian had already restored the glory of the Roman arms 
by repressing the invasions of the barbarians. He was nol 
without several noble traits, and was fitted by knowledge ana 
energy to govern a great people. His enmity against the 
holy religion of Jesus, was deservedly his greatest defect. 
To this he added bigotry in favour of paganism, supersti- 
tion, and no small share of a foolish credulity. He was ad- 
dicted to the studies of magic and astrology. 

He immediately began the reformation of abuses of various 
kinds, but declared in favour of paganism, re-opened the tem- 
ples, and without directly persecuting, did much to injure 
Christians and their cause. In 363, he attempted to rebuild 
the temple at Jerusalem ; but certain miraculous appearances, 
it is said, prevented the execution of his design. During the 
same year, in a war with the Persians, while pursuing a vic- 
torious course, and in a successful engagement, he received a 
mortal wound. He had reigned but three years, and lived 
thirty-one. 

§ The cunning and the malice of Julian, appeared, in treating the 
Christians with contempt. He removed them, as visionaries, from 
all employments of public trust. He refused them the benefit of 
the laws to decide their differences, because their religion forbade 
a contentious spirit ; and they were debarred the studies of literature 
and philosophy, as this would subject them to the perusal of pagan 
authors. 

Julian, like many others opposed to Christianity, employed wit 
and ridicule against this religion ; for he was an author as well as a 
warrior. It is said in apology for him, that he used these weapon 
in self-defence — that he was first lampooned by the Christians. 
However that may be, religion is a subject too sacred to be treated 
in that manner, One of his works against the Christians, was Mir 
sophogon, or beard hater. 

His Caesars is the most famous of his compositions, being a satire 
upon all the Roman emperors, from Julius Caesar to Constantine. 
This philosophical fable, according to Gibbon, is " one of the most 
agreeable and instructive productions of ancient wit." 

His last moments were spent in conversation with a philosopher 



66 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD II. 

on the immortality of the soul — he expressed his expectation of 
being united with heaven, and with the stars,* which was one of 
his astrological vagaries, and he breathed his last without indicating 
the least sorrow for his fate, or the suddenness of his death. 

His attempt to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem, was made with a 
view to furnish a specious argument against prophecy, and of course 
the truth of revelation. The prodigies on the occasion, which prevent- 
ed the completion of the work, are attested by contemporary writers, 
such as Ammianus Marcellinus, and Gregory Nazianzen. This 
article of history has been the subject of much dispute. But whether 
we allow or not that the prodigies, such as earthquakes and balls of 
fire, happened, to the annoyance of the workmen and to the destruc- 
tion of their commenced work, it is evident that something prevented 
the work, for the temple was never rebuilt, and thus our Saviour's 
prophecy remains as yet unsuspected. " Jerusalem is to be trodden 
down of the Gentiles till the time of the Gentiles is fulfilled." 

6. On the death of Julian, the race of Constantius Clorus 
became extinct, and the Roman world was without a head, 
and without an heir. In this situation, the army finally fixed 
on Jovian, a Pannonian, and the emperor's first domestic, as 
his successor, 363 A. C. Jovian made peace with the Per- 
sians, by the cession of five provinces ; for on Julian's death 
the army was brought to the brink of destruction, and by 
such a sacrifice only could he save it and himself. 

This emperor applied himself to restore tranquillity to the 
Church. He displayed the banner of the cross, and reversed 
the edicts of Julian respecting Christianity. His reign, which 
continued only seven months, was mild and equitable. He 
died suddenly at the age of thirty-three years. 

§ While Jovian was on his march to secure the palace of Constan- 
tinople, his wife with an imperial train hastened to meet him, car- 
rying with her their infant son. The moment of embracing hei 
husband seemed to be at hand : but the distressing news of his death 
which was immediately communicated to her, most cruelly disap- 
pointed her hopes. He had died the night before, as some report, by 
suffocation from the vapour of charcoal. 

7. Valentinian I., after a delay of a few days was elected 
emperor by the army, 364 A. C. One month after, he asso- 
ciated his brother Valens, in the empire, and gave him the 
eastern provinces. From this period, the division of the em- 
pire into Eastern and Western, became fixed and permanent* 

* This was in agreement with the doctrine of Pythagoras and Plato, which 
«eems to exclude any personal or conscious immortality. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 57 

The empire, however, was still considered as one hody. On 
the East, the Persians were making inroads. The West 
was continually invaded by the northern barbarians. The 
iatter were repelled by the emperor in many successful bat- 
tles. He favoured the Christian religion, and his domestic 
administration was equitable and wise. His temper, howe- 
ver, was violent. He died on an expedition against the Ale- 
manni, 367 A. C. 

§ It is said that the barbarians against whom he had last taken 
arms, had provoked him beyond all endurance, so that when their 
ambassadors came to sue for mercy, his anger was raised to such a 
height, and his tones and gestures w r ere so violent, that he ruptured 
a blood vessel, and expired on the spot. 

In the East, Valens held a weak and inefficient sceptre. 
Engaged in the Arian heresy which he favoured, he threw 
the provinces into confusion and contention, and at the same 
time exposed his dominions to the inroads of the barbarians, 
who came under the profession of friends and allies. He 
died in 378 A. C. 

These were the Goths who emigrated from Scandinavia, 
and who, together with several other barbarous nations, will 
soon be described in this account of the Roman empire, since 
they are so intimately connected with its destiny. 

§ In 376, Valens permitted vast hordes of the Goths, who had been 
driven out of their country by the Huns, to settle in Thrace Here, 
however, they soon plundered the very country conceded to them as 
an asylum. The emperor hastened to oppose them, but he was de- 
feated in the famous battle of Adrianople, two thirds of his army 
having been cut to pieces. 

Being himself wounded, he was carried into a cottage, where on 
the same day he was burnt alive by the barbarians, who set fire to 
the cottage, without knowing that it contained the emperor of the 

East. ■'--■'■-. 

8. Gratian, a son of Yalentinian, succeeded his father, 
367 A. 0. He soon became possessor of the whole empire, by 
the death of Valens. Upon this event, he took Theodosius 
as his associate, on whom he conferred the eastern provin- 
ces. He began to reign in his 17th year, and died at the 
age of 24 years. He was a well disposed prince, but defi- 
cient in energy of character. 

§ Gratian undertook to destroy the remains of paganism ; but 
Rome, at the time, happening to be afflicted by a severe famine, the 
favourers of that superstition ascribed the calamity to the wrath of 



58 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. 

the gods. A general dissatisfaction ensued, and Maximus, who 
commanded in Britain, taking advantage of this state of things, cau- 
sed himself to be proclaimed emperor. Gratian marching into Gaul 
to oppose him, was deserted by his soldiers, and killed at Lyons, 371 
A. C. 

9. Valentiniaii II. was the successor of his bi other Gra- 
tian. Being dispossessed by Maximus, he took refuge with 
Theodosius, who was then reigning in the East, and who 
restored him to the throne. From that time he ruled with 
justice. After wearing the crown for several years, he was 
strangled by a Gaul named Arbogastus, who had assumed 
an authority over his sovereign, 392 A. C. The tyrant Eu- 
genius, whom the Gaul caused to be proclaimed on this oc- 
casion, was defeated and put to death by Theodosius. 

10. In the East, after the death of Yalens, Theodosius 
succeeded to the throne, 379 A. C. He was deservedly sur- 
named the Great. The barbarians he repelled with success, 
and he secured the prosperity of his people by w T ise and salu- 
tary laws. It was during his reign, that Christianity obtain- 
ed the entire ascendency over paganism, as the religion of 
the Roman people. 

After the death of Valentinian II., the whole empire came 
into possession of Theodosius ; and he was the last who reign- 
ed over both the East and West. Previously to his decease, 
he divided the empire between his two sons, assigning the 
West to Honorius, and the East to Arcadius. From this 
era they became two distinct empires, and will be treated of 
separately. 

§ Theodosius the Great, was the son of Count Theodosius, a very 
able general, who had been beheaded by the order of Gratian. To 
atone for his injustice, Gratian chose the Count's son as his colleague, 
and gave him the East for his portion. A few days after his elec- 
tion, he gained a signal victory over the Goths, who immediately 
sued for peace. 

In the year 390, Theodosius cruelly punished the inhabitants of 
Thessalonica, who had killed their governor on a certain occasion, 
by sending his soldiers against the place, and putting 7000 to the 
sword. Such, however, was the influence of St. Ambrose, that he 
obliged the emperor, by a public penance, to expiate his crime. 

In religion, Theodosius espoused the orthodox party. His faith 
is said to have been confirmed by an argument adapted to the mean- 
est capacity. He had conferred on Arcadius, his eldest son, the ti 
tie of Augustus ; and the two princes were seated on a throne to re- 
ceive the homage of their subjects. Among others who offered theii 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 59 

homage, was Amphilochius, bishop of Icenmm. He, however, ap- 
proached Theodosius alone with reverence, the son he accosted with 
familiarity. 

Tiie monarch, offended by the conduct of the bishop, gave orders 
that he should be thrust from his presence ; but while the guards 
were engaged in this act, the good bishop exclaimed, " Such is the 
treatment, O emperor ! which the king of heaven has prepared for 
those impious men who affect to worship the Father, but refuse to 
acknowledge the co-equal dignity of his divine Son." 

This declaration had the effect of propitiating the emperor, and 
fixing his mind more strongly than before, in the faith. 

11. The Roman empire had now become excessively 
weakened by its unwieldly extent, and had already suffered 
much from the incursions of its barbarous neighbours. It 
was, however, destined to suffer far more in the end, from the 
last named source. Its separation into two empires, favoured 
the projects of the barbarians, who, from this period, poured in 
like a torrent upon these cultivated regions. The Western 
empire in a few years was completely overwhelmed. 

A short account of the barbarous nations, who acted so con- 
spicuous a part in this tragedy, seems to be demanded in this 
place. 

The Huns were a fierce and savage nation, at first in- 
habiting the vast deserts which border China on the north. 
A part of them, owing, it is said, to civil wars, retired to the 
westward, and settled to the north of the Caspian sea / near 
the source of the river Ural. 

§ From thence, 376 A, C, advancing towards the Palus Mseotis 
(sea of Asof ) under Balamir, their chief, they subdued the Alains, 
and forced such of them as were capable of bearing arms to join 
them; the remainder they put to death. With this accession of 
strength and numbers, they fell upon the Ostrogoths and Visogoths, 
and having driven them away from their country, took possession 
of it themselves. This was a region extending from the Tanais to 
the Danube. Their subsequent history, we shall find identified with 
the Roman affairs. 

The Alains inhabited the north of Asiatic Sarmatia, and 
were known to the Romans in the time of Pompey. Under 
the first emperors, they several times invaded the frontier 
provinces. 

§ Those of them who escaped the arms of the Huns, pushed their 

Way towards Pannonia, whence advancing still further to the west, 

they united with the Suevi and the Vandals, and continuing their 

i migrations, they finally settled in Lusitania, now Portugal, where in 

477, they were conquered by the Visogoths. 



60 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. 

The Vandals issued from Scandinavia, now Sweden, and 
crossing the Baltic, first settled in a part of Germany. On 
account of increasing numbers, they again emigrated, and 
taking their course eastward, possessed themselves of the 
country towards the Tanais, whence they made several in- 
cursions upon the Roman provinces. 

§ They at length formed a junction with the Suevi and Alains, and 
marched into Spain, a part of which they settled, and called after their 
name, Vandalusia or Andalusia. Their history downward, is pursued 
in that of the Romans. 

The Goths came originally from Scandinavia. They first 
settled in Pomerania, whence advancing towards the east, 
they took up their abode to the north of the lake Meeotis. 
Here they were divided into Visogoths, or Goths of the West, 
and Ostrogoths, or Goths of the East. 

§ Being overcome by the Huns, they were forced to abandon their 
last settlement, and a part of them took refuge in Pannonia, where 
they remained till they formed the new kingdom of Italy, hereafter 
to be mentioned. 

The Heruli also, originated in Scandinavia. They first emi- 
grated towards the East, and settled on the borders of the 
lake Maeotis. They afterward returned towards the West. 

§ It is said that coming to the ocean, they embarked for Thule, one 
of the Shetland islands, or, as others suppose, what is now called 
Iceland, where they finally settled. As we shall soon learn, the first 
sovereign of the new kingdom of Italy was a chief of the Heruli. 

The Gepidse were another Scandinavian tribe. They 
first planted themselves on the Vistula, whence they advan- 
ced east towards the Tanais. 

§ Here being subdued by Attila, the Hun, they served under him 
in his expedition to Gaul. Upon his death, they shook off the yoke. 
They were finally destroyed by the Lombards. 

The Suevi were a warlike nation of Germany, inhabiting 
that part of it in which Berlin is now situated. They were 
great wanderers, and often changed their habitations. 

§ In 406, they entered Gaul with the Alains and Vandals, with 
whom they passed into Spain, in a part of which 4 ,hey established a 
monarchy. This was afterwards destroyed by the Visogoths. 

The Burgundians first inhabited what now constitutes the 
kingdom of Prussia. From this country they were afterwards 
expelled by the Gepidse. They frequently crossed the Rhine, 
and invaded Gaul, and brought trouble on the empire. 

There were other minor tribes of barbarians, of which no 
particular account need be here given. They were such as 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 61 

the Bulgari, Alemanni, Yenedi, &c. Other rude nations also, 
who followed in the train of these conquerors, will be noticed 
at the proper time. 

12. In the Western Empire, Honorius, who held the sceptre 
by the appointment of his father, Theodosius, proved him- 
self a degenerate son. Stilicho, a famous warrior, had been 
appointed guardian or minister to Honorius, during the mino- 
rity of the latter ; and it was owing to the vigour of the min- 
ister, and not at all to the merits of the emperor, that the 
barbarians of the north were repelled for such a length of time. 

Alaric, king of the Goths, had penetrated into Italy, but 
was defeated by Stilicho near Pollentia, 403 A. C. But this 
able general, having, through the baseness of the emperor, 
been afterwards beheaded, 408 A. C, Alaric again advanced 
and beseiged Rome. The promise of a large sum of gold 
delayed his purposes of vengeance. As, however, it was ne- 
ver fulfilled, Alaric took the city, and committed some part of 
it to the flames, 410 A. C. 

The pillage lasted six days, and multitudes of its inhabi- 
tants were massacred. During the space of more than six 
hundred years, Rome had not been violated by the presence 
of a foreign enemy ; and even long before, as well as during 
that period, her power had been feared abroad. 

§ The weakness of Honorius, among other causes, encouraged the 
attack of the barbarians upon the empire. From the wilds of Scan- 
dinavia, that northern hive, as it has been fitly called, as well as from 
the east, they issued in almost incredible numbers. Previously to 
their descent upon Italy, the Goths, under Alaric, had spread their 
devastations quite to the borders of the eastern capital, and through 
the classic fields of Greece. 

Stilicho made a stand against the invaders. While they beseiged 
Asta, where the forces of Honorius had taken refuge, Stilicho cut 
his way through the Gothic camp under the walls of that place, and 
thus rescued the emperor. The Goths afterwards pitching their 
camp in the vicinity of Pollentia, were suddenly attacked by Stilicho, 
and several thousands of them were slain. Amoti^ the captives was 
the wife of Alaric, who was compelled to implore the clemency of 
the victor. The Goths, however, were but partially checked in con- 
sequence of this victory. 

Stilicho might, perhaps, have delayed for some time the fall of the 
empire, but his plans were frustrated by the machinations of his ri- 
vals, and he fell a victim to the suspicions of the ungrateful emperor, 
408 A. C. 

Alaric had long stood in a menacing attitude, and now prepared 
to complete his designs upon Italy. About this time, vast numbers 



62 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD II, 

of Goths pouring down upon Germany, forced the nations whom 
they dispossessed, to fall upon Italy. These joined their arms to 
those of Alaric, who made an attack on Rome. 

He met with success ; and this great city, which had so long been 
the terror of the world, was sacked, plundered and partially burnt, 
410 A. C, by the savage tribes of Germany and Scythia. The popu- 
lation of Rome, at this time, might amount to 1,200,000 men ; but 
the nobles were wholly sunk in luxury and effeminacy, and the 
populace had become exceedingly debased, by the manumission of 
slaves or the influx of foreigners. They were nothing more than 
the shadow of their ancestors in bravery and spirit Hence the suc- 
cess of the arms of the barbarian. 

The catastrophe which Rome experienced, was hastened also by 
famine. War had prevented the cultivation of the lands, and the 
ports being blocked up, the citizens were reduced to the greatest ex- 
tremities — human flesh was publicly sold. 

Treachery completed the work. The Salarian gate was opened 
at midnight, by some of the Romans themselves, and the enemy 
rushed in. The scene was dreadful ; for although the conqueror, in 
his magnanimity had given orders that none except the armed 
should be killed, great numbers of citizens were put to death, and 
larger numbers still, were reduced from affluence to want and cap 
tivity. Though the city was pillaged and set on fire, it is thougru 
that few, comparatively, of its magnificent edifices were destroyed. 
Alaric now prepared to invade Sicily and Africa, but 
death suddenly put an end to his ambitious projects. He 
died after a short illness. Honorius, instead of improving 
this opportunity to recover his lost provinces, entered into a 
treaty with Ataulfus, Alaric's successor, gave him in mar- 
riage his sister, Placidia, and ceded to him a portion of Spain. 
By these and other acts, Honorius suffered the empire, by 
degrees, to pass from the dominion of the Romans. Ho 
norius continued to reign till the year 422. 

13. Valentinian III. was crowned two years after the 
death of Honorius, 424 A. O. He was the son of Constan- 
tius, a general of Honorius, and during seven months, an as- 
sociate with him in the government. In 439, the emperor 
*ost his dominions in Africa, by the revolt of Count Boniface, 
who delivered that part of the empire to the Vandals. 

§ Aetius, a general of Valentinian, being jealous of Boniface, by 
means of his artifices drew the latter into a revolt, and was cm- 
ployed on the part of the empire to punish him on this account 
Boniface defeated the first army that was sent against him ; but dis- 
trusting his strength to cope singly with his enemies, he was in- 
duced to call in the assistance of Genseric, king of the Vandals. The 
measure, however, was ruinous to his cause. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 63 

The Vandal having thus obtained a footing in Africa, which he 
greatly desired, could not be prevailed on afterwards, by the offer of 
large sums of money, to retreat. Although the compact between 
the two generals was, that they should divide Africa between them, 
Genseric occupied the whole country, except three cities, and these 
he soon took. 

Shutting up Boniface in Carthage, he compelled him, at the ex 
piration of a year, to surrender ; and the Roman general experienced 
the mortification of beholding all Africa, which he had once saved, 
ravaged in the most wanton maimer by the barbarians whose assist- 
ance he had invited. The kingdom which Genseric thus establish- 
ed, did not last quite a century. 

The other provinces of the empire were protected against 
the invasion of the barbarians, by Aetius. The Huns, at this 
time, had begun to make their ravages in the empire. Under 
Attila, their leader, in 445, they first overran Illyricum, 
Thrace, Dacia, and Msesia,and laid the Romans under tribute. 
Soon afterwards, with an army of 500,000 men, Attila in- 
vaded Gaul, and threatened the destruction of the em- 
pire. The forces of the Romans, under Aetius, met him in 
battle, on the plains of Chalons, and defeating him, with the 
loss of 160,000 men, checked his progress for a time. 

Not long after, however, he invaded Italy, and Valentin- 
ian being shut up in Rome, by the arms of the barbarian, 
was compelled to purchase a peace. Attila dying suddenly, 
in the midst of his successes, the empire of the West was. 
saved from immediate destruction. 

§ The march of the Huns was extremely desolating. To their 
leader, Attila, the victims of his ambition have given the expressive 
appellation, of " The Scourge of God." He first invaded the East, 
which he ravaged at pleasure; its emperor, Theodosius, being dis- 
posed rather to conciliate his favour by a tribute, than to attempt 
his expulsion by force of arms. Disdaining so mean spirited an 
enemy, he turned to the West ; where his appearance has already 
been described. His body was secretly buried, enclosed in three 
coffins, the first of gold, the second of silver, and the third of iron. 
The men who dug his grave were put to death, lest they should re- 
veal the place of his burial. 

Aetius, whose military talents had been so serviceable to 
the empire, soon fell a victim to the jealousy of the eunuch 
Heraclius, and Valentinian stabbed him with his own hand. 
The next year the emperor himself was assassinated. 

14. Maximus II. who had instigated the murder of Val- 
entinian, was proclaimed, 455 A. C. He married Eudoxia 



64 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD II. 

the widow of his predecessor, to whom he imprudently re- 
vealed his guilt in the assassination of the emperor. To re- 
venge this deed, she called in the assistance of Genseric. 
king of the Vandals. Upon his arrival, Maximus fled, bui 
he met the vengeance of his people, who stoned him to death, 
on account of his cowardice. 

§ Maximus was a Roman senator of the Ancian family, and was in- 
cited to the destruction of Valentinian, by the dishonour which the 
latter had cast upon his wife. However respectable Maximus was 
in private life, his abilities were inadequate to stay the fall of the em- 
pire, had he been longer continued. 

Eudoxia had reason to repent of her imprudence. The 
call upon Genseric for aid, well comported with his private, 
sinister aims. After he had landed in Italy, with an army 
of Moors and Yandals, he took Rome, delivered it up to pil- 
lage during several days, destroyed many of the monument? 
of ancient genius, and conveyed the empress and her two 
daughters back with him in triumph to Carthage. 

15. From the death of Maximus, 455 A. 0. there was a 
succession of eight emperors, during twenty years ; at the 
expiration of which, as we shall soon learn, the empire ter- 
minated. Little more than their names can be mentioned 
below. 

§ Avitus was acknowledged in Gaul by his troops. Having crea- 
ted Ricimer, a Roman senator, general of hi? armies, the latter soon 
entered into a conspiracy against his benefactor ; and Avitus, at first 
arrested and deposed, at last died while on the road to Italy, 457 
A. C. Ricimer, though an able commander, was a savage and tur- 
bulent demagogue. 

Majorian was proclaimed after the deposition of Avitus. He 
made an unsuccessful attempt against the kingdom of the Vandals 
in Africa. This emperor published several Wise laws for the refor- 
mation of abuses, but the reputation which he acquired for wisdom 
and virtue, excited the jealousy of Ricimer, who deposed and slew 
him, 461 A. C. 

Severus III. was created emperor by Ricimer, who governed un- 
der his name. Ricimer, after the expiration of four years, found it 
convenient to poison the nominal master of himself and the empire. 

Athemius was called to the empire by the united suffrages of 
the senate, the army, and the people, in 467. To attach Ricimer to 
his interest, who was become extremely formidable, he gave him. 
his daughter in marriage. Ricimer, however, soon having a dif- 
ference with his father-in-law, besieged and pillaged Rome. Du- 
ring this transaction the emperor was murdered. 

Olvbrius, who was sent with an army by Leo, emperor of the 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 65 

Easi, to protect Athemius against Ricimer, was seduced by the lat- 
ter and proclaimed emperor, but died three months after, 472. 

Glycerus, an obscure soldier, favoured by a Burgundian prince, 
assumed the title of emperor at Ravenna ; but Leo had conferred it 
on Jclius Nepos, who took Glycerus prisoner, and caused him to be 
consecrated bishop of Salona, 473. 

Julius Nepos was proclaimed at Rome 474. The next year, Ores- 
tes, aPannonian, whom he sent into Gaul, revolted, and besieged the 
emperor in Ravenna. Nepos escape A into Dalmatia, where at the 
end of five years he was assassinated. 

Augustulus son of Orestes was made emperor by his father. 
After a reign of eleven months, he was taken prisoner by Odoacer 
king of the Heruli, and sent into Campania, where he lived in a 
private station. 

16. In the Eastern Empire, after its final separation from 
the West, in the time of Theodosius, 395 A. 0., there were 
transactions which deserve our notice. Theodosius, as we 
have seen, assigned the East to his son Arcadius. This 
prince was then eighteen years of age, and he proved to be 
both weak and dissolute. He suffered himself to be governed 
by favourites, and at length by Eudoxia, his empress, who 
made it her great object to plunder the revenues of the state. 

17. Thedosius II. son of Arcadius, succeeded to the em- 
pire 408. He has the reputation of having been a prince of 
mild disposition, and piety of conduct, but otherwise desti- 
tute of those qualities that are essential to a sovereign. But 
his deficiencies were supplied by the genius and address of 
nis sister, Pulcheria, who aided in the administration of the 
the government. The latter part of his life was greatly dis- 
turbed by the invasions of the Barbarians. 

§ Pulcheria, whose talents for government were extraordinary, 
sought to strengthen her influence and power, by securing for her 
brother a companion in marriage, who, as she hoped, would ever be 
grateful to her benefactress. The person 'on whom her choice, as 
well as that of Theodosius, fell, was the beautiful and learned Athe- 
nais. 

Chance had made her known to Pulcheria. She was the daughter 
of an Athenian philosopher, who had taken the greatest care of her 
education. Such was his conviction of her entire accomplishment 
in every respect, that in the disposition of his property, he left his 
two sons the whole of it, except one hundred pieces of gold, with 
the declaration that " her own good fortune would be sufficient for 
her." 

With a view to obtain her just share of the inheritance from her 
brothers, after she had tried the forms of law in vain, the Athenian 
maiden came to claim the interference and protection of Pulcheria. 

6* 



66 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD II. 

at Constantinople. Her sense and merit highly pleased the princess, 
and in connection with her charms, won the heart of Theoilosius. 
In 431 she embraced Christianity, and was baptised by the name of 
Eudocia, and the same year was united to the emperor in marriage. 
She treated her brothers with singular magnanimity, raising them 
to the rank of consuls and prefects, and though she at length lost 
the affections of Theodosius on an imputation of infidelity, and 
hose to retire to Jerusalem, she ever protested that she was wholly 
nnocent. She died about 460, ten years after the death of her 
husband. 

18. Marcian, a native of Thrace, was called to the throne 
by Pulcheria 450, whose hand also he received in marriage. 
After a reign of seven years, he departed this life, while pre- 
paring for a war against Genseric, king of the Vandals. 

§ Marcian possessed some eminent qualities, as is evinced by his 
reply to Attila when the latter claimed the annual tribute, consented 
to by Theodosius. " I have," said he, " gold for my friends, and 
iron for my enemies." 

19. Leo I., also a native of Thrace, was called to the em- 
pire on the death of Marcian 457 A. C. He reigned till 
nearly the period of the destruction of the Western empire. 
He had some domestic enemies, who gave him trouble ; though 
he finally crushed Asper, through whose influence he had 
been raised to the throne, and who at length revolted against 
his master. During the latter part of his reign, his domi- 
nions were much ravaged by the Goths. He died a natural 
death, at an advanced age, 474 A. C. 

§ Leo 1st has been greatly praised by some historians, and cen- 
sured by others. An instance of his temperate firmness in resisting 
the oppression of his pat-on Asper, is recorded as follows : — 

Asper had presumed to reproach him with a breach of promise, 
in regard to a certain appointment. " It is not proper," said he, in- 
solently shaking the purple, " that the man who is invested with 
this garment, should be guilty of a falsehood." " Nor is it proper,'' 
retorted Leo, " that a prince should be compelled to resign his own 
judgment and the public interest, to the pleasure of a subject." 

PERSIA. 

20. Of Persia., during this period, we have only to say in 
general, that it was governed successively by eight princes, of 
whom Sapores II. was the most distinguished ; that at the 
beginning, and towards the conclusion of the period, the na- 
tion warred against the Romans ; but that through the inter- 
mediate space, the most profound peace subsisted between the 



CHINA. ©7 

two powers. A few particulars respecting some of the Per- 
sian sovereigns, will appear below. 

§ Sapores, II., who was crowned before his birth, in tha person of 
his mother, began to persecute the Christians of his dominions in 326. 
In a few years after, he endeavoured to recover the five provinces 
yielded by his grandfather, Narses, to the Romans, but was terribly 
defeated by Constantius. After this event, he gained a celebrated 
battle at Sirigate, in Mesopotamia, and took several cities. 

In the war with Julian, in 363, he was pursued into the very 
heart of his dominions, but was delivered by the death of that em- 
peror. He died in 380, after a reign of seventy years. His charac- 
ter was a compound of pride and ferocity. He cruelly persecuted 
the Christians, during forty years. 

Sapores III., was a wise prince ; he lived at peace with the Ro- 
mans, and died lamented. Under Isdigartes I., a persecution of the 
Christians commenced, which continued fifty years, during his reign 
and that of some of his successors. 

CHINA. 

21. During this period, the seventh dynasty of the empe- 
rors of China terminated; as also the eighth, a little after the 
conclusion of the period. 

Under the first of these, the empire, which had been divi- 
ded into three, became united. It continued one hundred and 
fifty-five years, under fifteen emperors. It is called the di- 
nasty of Tcin-ou-ti. The eighth was the dynasty of Song. 
It began under a revolted general. 420 A. C, and lasted fifty- 
nine years, under eight emperors. 

§ One of the sovereigns of the 8th dynasty, whose name was Venti, 
was killed by his own son, and the parricide fell by the hands of 
his brother. The latter made himself many enemies by the freedom 
of his speech, for which, in the end, he lost his life. One of his 
wives, whom he had offended by calling her old, stifled him in his 
bed. 

Distinguished Characters in Period II 

1. Lactantius, an elegant writer, and an able defender of 
Christianity : sometimes called the Christian Cicero. 

2. Ossian, a Caledonian bard. 

3. Eusebius, an eminent ecclesiastical historian. 

4. Eutropius, a Latin historian and sophist. 

5. Julian, a Roman emperor, an acute, but malignant 3&~ 
fidel philosopher. 

6. Basil, the Great, an eminent father in the church. 



68 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IT. 

7. Gregory Nazianzen, a theological and polemical writer. 

8. Olaudian, an elegant Latin poet. 

9. St. Chrysostom, and ) Learned and eloquent ministers 

10. St. Augustine, ) and writers. 

§ 1. Lactantius proved the truth of the Christian religion, and ex- 
posed the absurdities of paganism. He was the most eloquent of 
the ecclesiastical Latin writers of his age. His principal works, 
are his treatises concerning the Divine Wrath, and the Works of 
God, and his Divine Institutions. The last, in seven books, is written 
with uncommon elegance and purity. As a theologian, he had 
some errors. He died in 325. 

2. Ossian was a rude Caledonian. He is supposed to have flou- 
rished in the fourth century, and to have been the son of Fingal. 
He wrote in Gaelic ; and the poems that go by his name, translated 
by Macpherson, are marked by a simple and sublime wildness. If 
they are really Ossian's, he must be considered as the first of the poets 
of this period. There is, however, strong ground of doubt, in respect 
to the authenticity of these poems, as a whole. 

3. Eusebius died in 338 A. C. He was bishop of Caesarea, and 
enjoyed the favour of Constantine. He opposed Arius, although he 
held to a certain disparity and subordination in the Godhead. He 
was a man of immense reading, and was greatly versed in ecclesi- 
astical history and sacred erudition. He distinguished himself by 
his writings, which consisted of an ecclesiastical history, the life of 
Constantine, evangelical preparations, and many other treatises, 
most of which are now lost. 

4. Eutropius lived in the age of Julian, under whom he was a 
soldier in the war against Persia. He is supposed to have been a 
Roman Senator. He wrote several works ; but none of them re- 
main except his Roman History. This was an epitome of the trans- 
actions of Rome, from the age of Romulus to the reign of Valens. 
It is characterised by conciseness and precision, but not by elegance. 

5. Julian, as has been already narrated, was elevated to the throne, 
361 A. C. He then, although he had been educated according to the 
principles of the Gospel, publicly disavowed its truths, and offered 
solemn sacrifices to all the Gods of Ancient Rome. This change of 
religious opinion, was attributed to the austere manner with which 
he was instructed in Christianity ; though others ascribe it to his in- 
tercourse with the philosophers of Athens, and their influence over 
his mind. From this circumstance, the appellation of apostate, has 
been attached to him. Some of his writings have been preserved, 
in which he has shown great powers of ridicule in a bad cause. But 
we need not repeat the particulars that have already been given, res- 
pecting his character and writings. 

6. Basil, surnamed the Great, was bishop of Csesarea. He was 
persecuted by Valens, for refusing to embrace Arianism. Accord- 
ing to Mosheim, " in point of genius, controversial skill, and a rich 
and flowing eloquence, he was surpassed by very few of Lis contem- 
poraries." He died in 379. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 69 

7. Gregory Nazianzen, was surnamed the divine. He was patri- 
arch of Constantinople, but the right to that station being disputed, 
he abandoned it. His birth occurred in 324, and his death in 389. 
He held an honourable place among the theological and political wri- 
ters of the times. His writings compare well with those of the Gre- 
cian orators, in eloquence and variety. His sermons are better 
adapted to philosophers than common hearers, but are, nevertheless, 
not wanting in seriousness and devotion. He most ably defended 
the orthodox faith concerning the Trinity. 

8. Claudian was a native of Alexandria, in Egypt, and flourished 
in the age of Honorius and Arcadius. His style is not corrupted by 
the false taste of the age. But although he wrote elegant verses, 
he depicted no powerful passions, and exhibited no commanding 
genius. His matter was meagre, but his language was pure, his ex- 
pressions happy, and his numbers melodious. His best compositions 
are his poems on Rufinus and Eutropius. 

9. St. Chrysostom, John, was so called on account of his extraor- 
dinary eloquence. He was born at Antioch, of a noble family, about 
354, consecrated bishop of Constantinople in 398, and died in 407. 
His works are voluminous. He was an elegant preacher, and pos- 
sessed a noble genius. On account of his severity in opposing the 
corruption of the times, he procured himself many enemies. He was 
so great a disciplinarian, that he even recommended to private be- 
lievers, though very injudiciously, the use of outward violence, in re- 
sisting the wickedness of men. 

10. St. Augustine was bishop of Hippo, in Africa. He led an aus- 
tere life, and died in his seventy-sixth year, 430 A. C. He distinguish- 
ed himself by his writings, and his reputation is great, even to this 
day. He was characterised by a sublime genius, an unintermitted 
pursuit of truth, an indefatigable application, an invincible patience, 
a sincere piety, and a subtle and lively wit. The solidity and ac- 
curacy of his judgment, were not, however, proportionable to his 
eminent talents in other respects. 

Augustine's book concerning the City of God, has been pronounced 
to be " a work extremely rich and ample in point of matter, and fill- 
ed with the most profound and diversified erudition." In all his 
writings, this father displayed an extensive acquaintance with Pla- 
to's philosophy. 



PERIOD III. 

The period of the Justinian Code, and of the Wars of 
Belisarius ; extending from the Extinction of the 
Western Empire, 476 years A. C, to the flight of 
Mahomet, 622 years A. C. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

Tfte dark ages, as they have been commonly called, commenced 



70 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III. 

with this period. The human intellect, and the state of society, had 
fo* some time previous, been retrograde. But upon the conquest of 
the Western Empire by the barbarians, the darkness became more 
especially obvious, and we shall find it prevailing over the nations, 
though with some intervals of light, nearly 1000 years. It is believ- 
ed, however, that mankind have been apt to overrate, in some res- 
pects, the infelicities of the dark ages, and to forget, that after all, 
strong proofs were at times afforded, of intellectual vigour, and of the 
high enjoyment of life. A few men of distinguished abilities ap- 
peared during the present period, though, in general, the age is not 
to be compared with several that preceded it. 

Sec. 1. We have now to record the melancholy extinction 
of the Western Empire of the Romans — an empire, the most 
powerful that has ever existed. This event occurred, 476 
A. C. upon the taking of Rome hy Odoacer, prince of the 
Heruli. Romulus, surnamed Augustulus, was at that time 
on the throne. Odoacer, having subdued Italy, and taken 
its capital, spared the life of Augustulus, upon condition of 
his resigning the empire. 

§ The empire having been long beset on every side by barbarians, 
great numbers of them were admitted into the Roman legions, to 
protect it against the rest. These, in the reign of Augustulus, having 
revolted, demanded a third part of the lands of Italy, as a settlement 
for themselves and families. This being refused, they advanced to 
Rome, under Odoacer, and as conquerors, held the country. 

Odoacer was an officer of the emperor's guards, at the head of the 
barbarians who had enlisted in the armies. When he had secured 
Rome, Augustulus, who was a feeble youth, was directed to express 
his resignation to the senate, while that body, in an epistle to Zeno, 
emperor of the East, disclaimed the necessity of continuing the im- 
perial succession in Italy, since, in the submissive language of adula- 
tion, they observed, "the majesty of the monarch of Constantinople, 
was sufficient to defend both the East and the West :" at the same 
time they begged the favour, that the emperor would invest Odoacer 
with the title of patrician, and the administration of the diocese of 
Italy. Their request was granted, and to Augustulus, was assigned 
a splendid income, to support him in a private station. 

Thus the Western Empire of Rome passed from the hands 
of its ancient masters, into the possession of the barbarians, 
who had so long harassed it by their invasions. As an em- 
pire, it had existed more than five hundred years, computing 
the time from the battle of Actium. The whole period of 
its duration, from the building of the city, was more than 
twelve hundred years. 

The ruin of the Roman empire, was the result of its great 
extent, connected with its moral corruption. The perfections 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 71 

of God are concerned in accomplishing", hy natural causes, 
the extinctk n of enormously guilty nations. Rome, having 
become a mass of luxury, weakness, and profligacy, fell, at 
last, an easy prey to the barbarous tribes that poured in upon 
its dominions. 

§ The Northern invaders did not originate the catastrophe which 
Rome experienced ; they scarcely hastened it. As much of crime 
and barbarism as they brought with them, they became, upon their 
settlement in the south of Europe, as reputable, at least, as the na- 
tive citizens themselves. Without the agency of these invaders, 
darkness and barbarism would have visited the Roman world, from 
the operation of causes within its own bosom ; especially from the 
extreme profligacy and irreligion which prevailed among all classes. 

While the Roman empire in the West, thus fell into ruins, the sis- 
ter empire in the East, which appealed to be in a similar situation, 
not only continued to stand, but even existed for the space of nearly 
one thousand years more, though in comparative imbecility and de- 
pression. It existed, notwithstanding it suffered all the internal 
evils which produce the ruin of a state, and was shaken by all the 
storms, which burst upon the nations, during the middle ages. 
This phenomenon, which has not a parallel in the history of the 
world, may, in some measure, be explained from the almost impreg 
nable site of its capital alone, in connexion with the despotism, 
which sometimes remains the last support of fallen nations. 

We shall continue the portion of its' history belonging to this 
period, before we bring into view the new state of things, consequent 
on the occupation of Italy and the West by the barbarians. The 
r ecent kingdom which they founded, deserves a separate account. 

2. The Eastern Empire of the Romans, sometimes called 
the Greek Empire, and the Empire of Constantinople, was 
at this time, (474 A. 0.) under the sway of Zcno, son-in-law 
to Leo. He was odious, on account of his debauchery ; and 
after having once fled from his throne, and been restored to it, 
aad engaged in the suppression of several conspiracies, he 
met with a miserable end, being buried alive. He reigned 
about seventeen years. 

§ Leo II., son of Zeno, and grandson to Leo L, was designed for the 
empire; but being of tender age when his grandfather died, Zeno 
was made regent. But the death of the child, the same year, left 
Zeno in the possession of the throne. The intrigues of the empress 
Verina, his mother-in-law, embittered his life, and distracted his 
reign. She aided one or two of the conspiracies that were carried 
on against him. 

He came to his end by an awful act of Ariadne, his wife. She 
loved inm not, and profiting by an epileptic fit, to which the emperor 
was subject, caused him to be precipitately interred. When the 



72 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. 

sepulchre was opened, a few days after, it was found that Zeno had 
devoured the flesh off his own arms. 

3. Anastasius, an officer of the palace, marrying the widow 
of Zeno, was raised to the throne, 491 A. C. He Avas old 
at this time, but reigned about twenty-seven years. The 
beginning of his reign was auspicious, but it was otherwise 
in the end. He died a natural death, in his eightieth year. 

4. Justin I., the Thracian, ascended the throne after the 
death of Anastasius. He governed with great prudence. In 
526, he sent the celebrated Belisarius against the Persians, 
who had broken the truce subsisting between the two em- 
pires. The emperor, however, died before the conclusion of 
the war, having reigned about nine years. 

§ Justin was the son of a ploughman, and rose by his talents to 
the first military dignities, before he was chosen emperor. He was 
so illiterate, however, as to he unable to write his own name, and 
secured respect, only by the good sense which he manifested in the 
choice of his counsellors. 

5. Justinian I., nephew of Justin, assumed the reins of 
government, 527 A. C. His personal character was far from 
inspiring respect ; but his reign was successful, and he was 
extremely fortunate in his generals and counsellors. The 
exploits of his generals, and the production of the code of 
laws that goes by his name, of which the learned Trebonian 
was the author, form an era in history. 

Towards the brave and noble Belisarius, the warrior who 
at first fought his battles, the emperor was ungrateful in the 
extreme. This great general, by his arms and policy, pre- 
served his master on his throne, when his expulsion from it 
was likely to be effected, by the civil factions which raged at 
Constantinople. He also defeated the Persians in three san- 
guinary battles, in different years ; destroyed the kingdom of 
the Vandals in Africa, and recovered that province to the em- 
pire; and wrested Italy from its Gothic sovereign, restoring it 
for a short space of time, to the authority of its ancient masters. 

Italy, however, was once more subdued by the Goths. 
From this time the fortunes of Belisarius began to change. 
He was compelled to evacuate Italy, having been more than 
once recalled, through the emperor's meanness and jealousy. 
On his final return to Constantinople, his long services were 
repaid with disgrace, and he was superseded in the command 
of the armies, by the eunuch Naises. 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 73 

§ Belisarius, more than any other general during the later periods 
of the empire, revived the fainting glory of Rome. On the plains 
of Para, he defeated the Persians, with great slaughter ; and his con- 
duct, in the sedition of Constantinople, secured the esteem of the 
emperor. When Justinian, by favouring a certain faction,* had near- 
ly involved himself in destruction, and was about to seek his safety 
in flight, Belisarius, amidst the uproar and confusion which pre- 
vailed, came to the aid of his master. A corps of three thousand 
veteran troops he led against the populace of Constantinople, and it 
is computed that no less than thirty thousand persons perished in 
the carnage. So signal a chastisement had the effect of overawing 
the infuriated and divided citizens ; and the games of the circus, out 
of which the contention arose, were, during several years, interdicted. 

The war which Belisarius carried on against the Vandals, 1 ^ Africa, 
was marked by signal success ; but no particulars need to be reiated, 
except that Belisarius was recalled by the jealousy of Justinian, and 
that his victories and prompt obedience, secured him the honours of 
a triumph. 

In the war against the Gothic power in Italy, 537 A. C. Justinian was 
equally fortunate through the exploits of his illustrious lieutenant, 
and equally mean in his conduct towards this hero. The Gothic 
forces were obliged to retire before the Roman army, upon its land- 
ing in Sicily and Italy. Resistance was made, but in vain. The fame 
of Belisarius, had inspired even the degenerate Romans with courage. 

Long before this general reached Rome, the Gothic king had 
abandoned it ; and though the policy was singular, the latter did it 
with a view to wrest the city from the hands of Belisarius, at some 
future time. In the course of a few months, Vitiges, the Gothic 
king, advanced towards Rome, at the head of one hundred thousand 
warriors. The inconsiderable army of Belisarius, however, per- 
formed prodigies of valour, and not only defended Rome, during a 
long siege, but, with the aid of some reinforcements from the East, 
obliged the Gothic king to retire, first to Ravenna, and at last to sur- 
render all the towns and villages of Italy. 

This was no sooner effected, than the jealousy of Justinian re- 
manded his lieutenant to Constantinople ; nor was the latter allowed 
the honour of a second triumph. But though the conduct of the 
emperor towards him was utterly despicable, the admiration of the 
people was an ample indemnity. 

The valour of Belisarius, at this era, saved the East ; but there is 
no time to recount his achievements. Suffice it to say, that the 
necessity of the emperor, induced him again to appoint Belisarius 
to the command of Italy, inasmuch as it had been nearly overrun, 

* There were two factions in Constantinople, which were distinguished by a 
diversity of colour. The support of one or other of these, became necessary, tc 
every candidate for civil or ecclesiastical honors. The greens were attached to 
the family or sect of Anastasius : the blues were devoted to orthodoxy, aud 
Justinian. The latter, the emperor favoured during five years, though their 
tumults endangered equally his own safety, and the peace of the city. 

7 



74 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD ITI. 

during this interval, by the arms of the brave and virtuous Totila 
No sooner, however, had he a prospect of driving the Gothic king 
from Italy, than lie was called off to some less important warfare, 
which was intended as a disgrace to him. 

The declining years of the life of this hero, were passed in Con- 
stantinople ; but even at that late period, they were crowned by a 
victory, in which he saved the ungrateful Justinian and his capital 
from the ravages of the Bulgarians. The unnatural suspicions of 
the emperor followed him to the grave; for even in extreme old 
age, he suffered in his property and comforts, for a time, from the 
false imputation of conspiracy. 

Narses, who was able in council, was also successful in 
war. IJe had the honour of completing the conquest of Ita- 
ly, by defeating Totila, in a decisive engagement, in which 
the Gothic king was slain. Under the title of duke, Narses, 
gaining some other victories, governed Italy with ability foi 
thirteen years. 

Justinian died in his eighty-third year. He would be but 
little thought of by mankind, were it not for those illustrious 
men who fought his battles, and presided in his councils. He 
had the sagacity to perceive their merits, and happy would it 
have been, had he possessed the magnanimity to reward them. 
His vices were meanness, vanity, caprice, and tyranny : his 
virtues were chastity, temperance, vigilance, and studiousness. 
We pretend not to determine which preponderated. 

Imposing as was his reign, he lived in a miserable age. 
His subjects were continually afflicted by war, pestilence, and 
famine. The empire shone out with a degree of brilliancy 
under his auspices, but after his death it shone no more. Its 
history, so far as it is necessary to notice it, is henceforth 
made up, more than ever, of disasters, miseries, and crimes. 

6. Upon the death of Justinian, his nephew, Justin II. 
ascended the throne, 565 A. C. He was a man of weak in- 
tellect, and was governed by his consort, Sophia, though his 
intentions appear to have been good. The troubles and cala- 
mities which befel his family and empire, threw him into an 
incurable frenzy. In consequence of this event, Tiberius, his 
son-in-law, was associated in the empire. It was soon after his 
eievauuii. that the jLombarJs established themselves in Italy. 
In his reign, not only was Italy lost again to the empire, 
but Africa desolated, and the East ravaged by the Persians. 
5 The advice which Justin gave to Tiberius, upon the introduction 
of the latter to the empire, was worthy of any prince. "Love.' 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 75 

said he, " the people as yourself; cultivate the affections, and main- 
tain the discipline of the army; protect the fortunes of the rich, 
and relieve the necessities of the poor." The last four years of his 
life were passed in tranquillity. He reigned nine years alone, and 
four in connexion with Tiberius. 

7. Tiberius, who assumed the name of Constantine, was 
sole possessor of the throne in 578. His reign was short, 
but it was rendered glorious by his defeat of the Persians. 
He was accounted a just, humane, temperate, and brave 
prince, 

§ On his death-bed, Tiberius bestowed his diadem on his son-in-law, 
Maurice, who had proyed himself an excellent general. 

8. Maurice, a native of Cappadocia, ascended the throne 
582 A. C. He reigned twenty years, in almost continual 
turbulence. He chose his predecessors for his model, nor 
was he destitute of sense and courage, in whatever he under- 
took for the welfare of his subjects. Avarice is said to have 
been his great failing ; but it is more probable, that his rigid 
rirtue and economy were not duly appreciated in those cor- 
rupt times. 

In 602, he obliged his army to take up their winter quar- 
ters beyond the Danube, upon which a revolt ensued, and 
Phocas, being proclaimed emperor, advanced to Constantino- 
ple. Maurice and his children were cruelly slain. 
§ After Maurice fell into the hands of Phocas, the jealous and cruel 
rebel caused the emperor to be dragged from his sanctuary at Chal- 
cedon, and his five sons to be murdered, one after the other, before 
tiis eyes. Maurice bore this agonizing sight with such firmness and 
resignation, that he repeated, with streaming tears, at every wound, 
the words of David, "Thou art just, O Lord ! in all thy judgments." 
When a nurse generously concealed a royal infant, and offered her 
own to the executioner, Maurice was too rigidly honest not to reveal 
the deception. The tragic scene was closed with the execution of 
the emperor himself, who felf on the dead bodies of his children. 
\^ftiat sufferings have not princes and their families been often called 
tomistain— sufferings far surpassing the common lot of men ! 

9. Phocas seated himself on the throne 602 A. C. His 
character was despicable. His empire was ravaged by the 
Persians, and numerous seditions arose to disturb his peace. 
At last, Heraclius, governor of Africa, sent his son. against 
him with a fleet, which quickly arrived at Constantinople. 
The emperor, forsaken by his people, on whom he had inflict- 
ed all manner of cruelties, was soon beheaded, and his body 
was treated with the greatest indignity. 



76 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD III. 

§ The cruelty of Phoeas towards the family of his predecessoj 
knew no bounds. He finally caused the innocent empress, Constan- 
tina, and her three daughters, to be executed on the same spot where 
her husband and sons had suffered, three years before. 

10. Heraclius I., was crowned 610 A. C. His reign ex- 
tended several years into the next succeeding period. The 
Persians ravaged his empire ; but terribly defeating them in 
six succecsive campaigns, he brought them to a peace. He 
reigned more than thirty years. 

During the last part of his reign, the foundation was laid of the 
caliphate of the Saracens, under the impostor Mahomet, whose his- 
tory will claim our attention at the beginning of the next period. 

KINGDOM OF ITALY. 

11. The kingdom which was established on the ruins of 
the Western Empire of the Romans, is sometimes called the 
kingdom of italy. That country was held and governed, 
for the most part, by its northern conquerors, through the 
space of nearly three hundred years. During this time, 
however, there were several transfers of the sovereignty, from 
one of the barbarous tribes to another. The Heruli, who 
conquered the country in 476, held it till 493. It then passed 
from their hands into the possession of the Goths, or Ostro- 
goths, who held it till the year 568, when the Lombards seiz- 
ed and conquered the country. They were masters of the 
greatest portion of it, a little more than two centuries. The 
period of which w^e treat, will carry the history of Italy only 
through a part of the above named space of time. 

12. The kingdom of the Heruli in Italy, was of short con- 
tinuance. Odoacer, their king, reigned thirteen years without 
opposition ; but at the conclusion of that period, Theodoric, 
king of the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, invaded Italy, and 
after a struggle of four years, defeated and slew Odoacer, 
usurping his dominions, 493 A. C. 

§ In the year 489, Theodoric twice overcame Odoacer in battle ; but 
being betrayed by one of his general officers, he retired to Pavia, 
where he v T as besieged by Odoacer. In his distress, Theodoric called 
in the assistance of the Visogoths, and gained a third victory in 490. 
Odoacer, shutting himself up in Ravenna, vigorously defended the 
place for three years. He was at last forced to enter into a treaty 
with Theodoric, and obtained a stipulation that his life should be 
spared. The Gothic monarch, however, perfidiously caused him tc 
be assassinated. 



KINGDOM OP ITALY. 77 

121 The kingdom of the Ostrogoths (eastern Goths) 
began, 493. Theodoric, (commonly surnamed the great,) 
their king, was now acknowledged the sovereign of the coun- 
try, and fixed his residence at Ravenna. He was an Arian 
in principle, but protected the Catholics. He reigned about 
thirty-three years. His administration of government showed 
him to be an able prince. The people were probably bene- 
fitted by a change of masters. 

§ Theodoric, at the age of six years, was given as a hostage to Leo 
I. and remained thirteen years at Constantinople. He succeeded 
his father in Pannonia in 475. His success in his invasion of 
Italy, has already been mentioned. After a few years, his dominions 
consisted not only of Italy, and Sicily, but also of Dalmatia, 
Noricum, the two Rhoetias, Pannonia, and Provence. The latter 
part of his reign was tarnished by cruelty and suspicion. In 
ihe indulgence of these propensities, he put to death the celebrated 
Boethius. 

13. The successors of Theodoric, in the Gothic kingdom 
'of Italy, were seven in number. It was during the reign of 
several of these monarchs, that the events already related re- 
specting the invasion and conquest of Italy by Belisarius and 
Narses, occurred. The best known of the Gothic kings of 
this country are Theodotus, Vitiges, and Totila. After the 
death of Theias, the last of them, the Goths endeavoured, 
under several leaders, to re-establish their dominions, but 
were subdued by the eunuch, Narses, who administered the 
government as duke, till 567 A. C. 

14. The kingdom of the Lombards followed, in 568 
A. C. Alboin, king of this people, was invited into Italy by 
Narses, to avenge the insult he received from the emperor, 
Justin II., in his recall. Alboin penetrated into Italy, and 
was proclaimed its king at the date above mentioned. He 
reigned but a short time. 

§ His end was tragical, as it perhaps deserved to be. Having killed 
Cunimund, king of the Gepidae, in a single combat, he married Ro- 
semond, that king's beautiful daughter, and made a drinking cup of 
her father's skull, out of which he obliged his queen to drink. She 
dissembled her indignant feelings, but applied to two officers for re- 
venge. One of them had been affronted by the king, and the other 
she knew was enamoured of her person. These she admitted into 
the chamber where the king slept, who was immediately murdered, 
while she contrived to effect her escape to Ravenna. 

15. During the remainder of the present period, there 
were four kings, the successors of Alboin, but none of them 



7S MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III. 

were distinguished. An anarchy, of ten year's continuance 
took place alter the death of one of the kings, during which 
Italy was governed by thirty dukes. 

§ Autharis, one of the kings, after his accession, in 584, confirmed 

the dukes in their authority, on condition of their paying him half 

of their revenues, and serving under his command in times of war, 

with troops levied within their respective jurisdictions. This is con- 

idered by some, as the origin of the feudal system. 

PERSIA. 

16. Seven kings in succession, swayed the sceptre of 
Persia during this period. Of these, Chosroes II., the great, 
was the most conspicuous. During much of the time, the 
Persians were at war with the Romans. Sanguinary battles 
were fought, and provinces were taken and retaken. The 
Romans at last penetrated into Persia. 

§ Chosroes II. was a warrior. He repeatedly overcame the Roman 
generals, and was as often, perhaps, overcome. In one instance, 
however, he cut to pieces an army of 50,000. The Greek histo- 
rians, who probably exaggerate the matter, represent him as a fe- 
rocious monster. He doubtless had the vices of his predecessors, 
but surpassed them in great qualities. He reigned nearly fifty years. 

Chosroes III., son of Hormisdas, possessed the hateful character 
of a parricide. He caused his father to be beaten to death. He re- 
ceived, however, a terrible retribution, in the treatment he expe- 
rienced from his own son. Siroes, the eldest of his sons, having re- 
volted, and secured the kingdom, slew all his brothers in his father's 
presence, cast the latter into a prison, where he caused him to expire 
in insufferable torture, by being incessantly pricked with the points 
of arrows. 

Soon after the expiration of the present period, Persia was 
invaded by the Saracens, and it was not long before it be- 
came a part of the empire of the Caliphs. 

CHINA. 

17. In the history of China during this period, we find 
four dynasties of its emperors, from the 9th to the 12th in- 
clusive. They were of short continuance, and included the 
reigns of seventeen sovereigns. Several of these appear to 
have been wise and virtuous men. In the reign of Yang-ti, 
in 605, many canals were cut through the empire, by which 
several rivers were united, and great facility given to com- 
merce. 

§ One of the sovereigns of the twelfth dynasty, is said to have had a 
very solid, penetrating mind. He loved his people, and did every 



SPAIN. 79 

thing in his power to promote their happiness. He built public 
granaries, which were every year filled with rice and corn, by the 
opulent, to be distributed among the poor in times of scarcity. He 
improved their music and eloquence. Against corrupt judges, he 
was always inexorable ; and excluded from all public employments, 
those whose rank in life did not render them respectable. 

SPAIN. 

Before the Empire of the West was finally subverted by the 
Northern Barbarians, some of the nations which once constituted it, 
had been lost to the empire. This was tue case, particularly, with 
Spain and Britain. Italy, the seat of the empire, and according to 
the best accounts, France, may date their separate existence, only 
from the annihilation of the Roman power. After that event, these 
several nations, and indeed all the rest of western Europe, were de- 
tached from one another, and held by the native inhabitants, or go- 
verned by different tribes of the barbarians of the north. We must 
therefore consider them in their separate sovereignties, according to 
the eras in which they began to exist independently. We begin 
with Spain. 

18. Spain, while constituting a portion of the Roman 
empire, was invaded by the Suevi, the Alains, and the Van- 
dals, about 406 years A.C., and mostty subdued by these bar- 
barous tribes. Expelling the Romans, they divided the 
country, a part of which, viz. Yandalasia, or Andalusia, still 
bears the name of one of these tribes, (the Vandals.) 

The Alains, in 418, were mostly exterminated by the Os- 
trogoths. The Suevi remained in the possession of the coun- 
try, under a succession of their kings, till the year 585. The 
Vandals had early, viz. in 427, passed into Africa, and settled 
there, upon the invitation of Count Boniface. 

The Visogoths, who entered Spain in 531, conquered the 
greatest part of the country by the year 585, and erected a 
monarchy, which existed till 712, when they were subdued by 
the Saracens, or Moors. 

§ Spain was anciently called Hesperia or Western, on account of its 
situation, as being the extreme west known to the ancients. It was 
called also Iberia, from the river Iber, now the Ebro. The name 
Hispania, or Spain, is said to be derived from a Phoenician word, 
Sphavisa, which means, abounding with rabbits ; these animals, ac- 
cording to Strabo, being very numerous in Spain. 

Its original inhabitants were Celtes, of the same race with those 
of France, and who passed over from that country into Spain. The 
fertility of the soil, induced the Phoenicians, who w r ere the earliest 
navigators, to open a trade with Spain, and they built the city of 
Gadcs, now Cadiz. This was about 900 years B. C. 



80 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. 

This country has been often conquered, both in ancient and more 
modern times. About 500 years B. C, it was in part subjugated by 
the Carthaginians, who held their conquest three centuries. The 
Romans then succeeded as masters, in whose power it remained six 
hundred years. From the Romans, as we have already learned, it 
was wrested by the northern barbarians. These, as we shall see, in 
the next Period, are destined to be displaced by the followers of 
Mahomet. 

It is deemed unnecessary to detail any events under the kings of 
the barbarous tribes who governed Spain, as they possess scarcely 
any interest. Euric may he considered as the founder of the Gothic 
monarchy of this country. 

FRANCE. 

19. France, anciently called Gaul, immediately previous 
to the dissolution of the Roman Empire of the West, was di- 
vided between the Romans, Visogoths, Franks, and Burgun- 
dians. A few years after that event, viz. 581 A. C, Clovis. 
king of the Franks, obtained, by degrees, possession of the 
country. He is therefore considered the true founder of the 
French monarchy, as before him, the Franks held only a few 
provinces on the right bank of the Rhine. From this people 
ancient Gaul, obtained the name of France. The kings who 
have reigned in France, seem to be divided into four dynas- 
ties, viz. the Merovingian, the Oarlovingian, the Capetian, and 
the Bourbon. The race of which we are now speaking, the 
first in order, derived its name from Merovoeus, the grand- 
father of Clovis, who reigned over that portion of the Franks, 
who had obtained, in some former age, a settlement in the 
country. The Merovingian dynasty continued till 75£. 

§ The Franks were supposed to have been of German origin, aud 
to have inhabited the country between the Rhine and the Weser, 
which now forms part of Holland and Westphalia. Some believe 
them to have consisted of a mixed multitude of various tribes, living 
beyond *he Rhine, who, when Germany was invaded by the Romans, 
united in defence of their common liberty, and styled themselves 
Franks, i. e. free men. Of the clans into which they were divided, 
the Salii, and Ansuarii, were the most considerable. Between the 
years 234 and 254, they made an irruption into Gaul, but were sig- 
nally overthrown by the Romans under Aurelian, then a military 
tribune. They finally obtained a footing in that country, about the 
year 264 A. C. 

Succeeding this event, they had many contentions with the Romans, 
in which they often conquered, and were, oftener, perhaps, defeated. 
By the time, however, in which the emperor Constans reigned, they 
were generally at peace with the Romans, and several of them en- 



ENGLAND. SI 

joyed places of distinction in the armies and at court. The petty 
sovereigns who preceded CJovis, were Pharamond, who made the last 
settlement of the Franks in Gaul, Clod io, Merovceus, and Childeric I. 

Clovis made many conquests: first over the Romans in the battle 
of Soissons: *heii over the king of Thuringia, who had invaded his 
dominions ; afterwards over the Germans in the battle of Tolbiac ; 
and finally over the Visogoths under Alaric, when he subdued all the 
south of Gaul. In his contest with the Germans, 496 A. C, he in- 
voked the God of Clotilda, a Christian princess, whom he had mar 
ried three years before. In consequence of his victory, he became 
professedly a believer, and together with three thousand of his sub- 
jects, was baptised on Christmas-day, the same year. 

About thirteen years afterwards, he cruelly murdered most of his 
relatives, which shewed how little influence Christianity had over 
him. Clovis made Paris the seat of his kingdom. He died, 511. 

Clovis was followed by a series of obscure kings, through 
the remainder of this period. They need not, therefore, be 
mentioned particularly. They were, in general, weak and 
wicked, and plunged the nation into deeper barbarism than 
it was under during the Roman dominion. 

ENGLAND. 

20. England, whose ancient name was Britain, had been 
abandoned by the Romans fifty years, when the Empire of the 
West was subverted. In the mean time, the inhabitants, who 
were left defenceless, suffered from the encroachments of their 
northern neighbours, the Picts and Scots, and in their distress, 
solicited several of the warlike tribes of the continent, for assist- 
ance. The Jutes first arrived for that purpose. These were 
soon followed by the Angles and Saxons, in 451, from the 
shores of the Baltic. The object was soon accomplished, for 
which the Britons had invited them into their country. Their 
enemy was repulsed ; but they found a more formidable ene- 
my in their protectors themselves. 

The Saxons, procuring large reinforcements from Germany, 
turned their arms against the Britons, and took possession of 
the country. It was not, however, without a long and severe 
struggle, of nearly one hundred and fifty years, that this con- 
quest was achieved. The result was, the establishment of 
seven distinct states, or sovereignties, which were governed, 
more than two hundred years, by their respective kings. 
These states are usually called the Heptarchy. 

§ The island of Britain, before it was known to the Romans, was 
inhabited by a very rude and uncivilized people. They were either 



82 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. 

naked, or clothed only with the skins of beasts, having tin bodies 
painted with various colours. Hence is supposed to be i\ . origin 
of the name, Britain, which is derived from a British word, brit, sig- 
nifying painted. The name England was given to the country, from 
the Angles, a tribe of those continental nations, who conquered it in 
the fifth and sixth centuries. 

The island was originally settled, in all probability, by a colony 
from Gaul, who were called Celtes or Gaels, the remains of whom 
are chiefly in Wales, in the highlands of Scotland, and in the north 
of Ireland. The period of their settlement is quite uncertain. The 
Phoenicians, indeed, traded very early with the inhabitants of Corn- 
wall, for copper and tin, but they were unacquainted with the inte- 
rior of the country. The Romans have given us the earliest authen- 
tic information respecting it. This commences with the first inva- 
sion by Julius Caesar, 55 B. C. 

Caesar began the dominion of the Romans in Britain ; but the 
island was subdued, only by degrees, under the Roman leaders who 
succeeded him. Forty-three years A. C, it was again invaded by 
the emperor Claudius, whose general, Ostorius, defeated Caractacus, 
king of the Britons, took him prisoner, and sent him to Rome, in 51. 
In the reign of Nero, 61 A. C, Suetonius defeated Boadicea, queen of 
the Iceni, (inhabitants of Norfolk and Suffolk,) slaying 80,000 men 
in a single battle. Boadicea, however, had previously obtained 
several victories over the Romans, by her gallant conduct. She com- 
mitted suicide, rather than fall into the hands of the conqueror. 

Agricola, who governed Britain in the reigns of Titus, Vespasian, 
and Domitian, formed a regular plan for subduing the whole island, 
and renderiug the acquisition advantageous to the conquerors. Foi 
this purpose he penetrated into Caledonia, (Scotland,) defeated the 
natives in various encounters, and established a chain of forto be- 
tween the Friths of Clyde and Forth. 

Subduing most of the island, he soon diffused among the Britons a 
knowledge of the arts of peace. He introduced among them, laws 
and government; taught them to value the conveniences of life, 
and reconciled them to the language and manners of their masters. 

To protect the southern inhabitants against the Scots, Adrian, in 
121, built a wall in the north part of Britain, between the river 
Tyne, and the Frith of Solway. This was afterwards strengthened 
with new fortifications, by Severus, in 208. From this period, till 
the abandonment of Britain by the Romans, in 426, the inhabitants 
enjoyed uninterrupted tranquillity. 

As has been already mentioned, the Romanized Britons, when left by 
their masters, were thrown into a defenceless state. Their long peace 
had somewhat enervated them, and they were unable to resist the 
attacks of their barbarous neighbours on the north. It was Vorti- 
gern, one of their kings, who invited the German tribes to his pro- 
tection. The latter gladly availed themselves of the opportunity to 
visit a country long known to them in their piratical voyages to its 
coast*. Hengist. and Horsa, two brothers, were their leaders on this 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. S3 

aecasion, and with only 1600 warriors, in conjunction with the 
South Britons, they compelled the Scots to retire to their mountains. 
After the Saxons, from being the protectors, had become the con- 
querors of Britain, and founded the Heptarchy, history records 
nothing that is very interesting respecting them, until the time of 
Egbert the Great, who became sole king of England, in 827. We 
may therefore pass over the English history, until that period, only 
remarking that the Saxons, who were partially acquainted with 
Christianity before, were more fully converted to the faith, by the 
labours of the monk Augustin, in 597. 

Distinguished Characters in Period III 

1. Proclus, a learned Platonist and unbeliever 

2. Boethius, a Roman poet, and Platonic philospher. 

3. Procopius, a Roman historian — sometimes denominated 
the last of the classic writers. 

4. Cassiodorus, the historian of Ravenna, and tutor to 
Theodoric, the Gothic king. 

5. Belisarius, an heroic and successful general of Jus- 
tinian. 

6. Gildas, the most ancient British writer extant. 

1. Proclus was born at Constantinople, in 410, and died in 485 
A. C. He was a philospher among the later Platonists. In the 
chair of the academy, he taught philosophy with great reputation. 
Such was his industry, that frequently, in the same day, he pro- 
nounced five lessons, and composed seven hundred lines. " His sa- 
gacious mind," says Gibbon, " explored the deepest questions of 
morals and metaphysics, and he ventured to urge eighteen argu- 
ments against the Christian doctrine of the creation of the world." 
This, as might have been expected, proved to be labour :n vain 
The foundations of truth can be overturned by no human sagacity, 
however great. 

2. Boethius, who was distinguished both as a poetic and prose 
writer, was descended from one of the noblest families of Rome. 
In consequence of having remonstrated, with great spirit, against the 
tyranny of Theodoric, he was beheaded in prison, by the command 
of that king, in 524. Boethius wrote many philosophical works, 
the greater part according to the manner of the logicians; but his 
ethic composition, concerning the " Consolation of Philosophy," 
is his chief performance, and has always been justly admired, 
both in repeat to the matter and the style. Mr. Harris, in his 
" Hermes," observes, that, " with Boethius, the last remain? of Ro- 
man dignity may be said to have sunk in the western world :" and 
Mosheim testifies, that he "shone with the brightest lustre, as a 
philosopher, an orator, a poet, arid a divine ; and, both in elegance 
and subtilty of genius, had no equal in the sixth century." 

3. Procopius belonged to Cresarea, in Palestine, and flourished in 
£34. He was secretary to Belisarius, whom he greatly celebrated 



84 MODERN HISTORY-. PERIOD IV. 

in his History of the Reign of Justinian. This history is divide* 
into eight books ; two of which give an account of the Persian war, 
two of the Vandals, and four of the Goths, to the year 553 ; which 
was afterwards continued in five books, by Agalthias, till 559. The 
historian is thought to be too severe upon the emperor, though his 
performance, in other respects, has a high character. Some con- 
sider him as the last of the Roman classic authors. 

4. Cassiodorus was a man of eminence, in many respects, and 
called, by way of distinction, " the senator." He united the states- 
man and author in his character. He was born in Italy, about 463, 
and died at near one hundred years of age. His writings relate 
chiefly to history, theology, and criticism. He was inferior in abili- 
ties to Boethius, but still was very respectable. 

5. Belisarias was truly a Roman in spirit, and the greatest gene- 
ral of his age. His life and exploits have been already told us, as 
particularly as this work will admit. In a degenerate and effemi- 
nate age, he put forth an energy, and acquired a fame in war, which 
would bear a comparison with the first leaders of the most favoured 
days of the republic. He was, however, as distinguished by his 
misfortunes as he was by his victories, owing to the ingratitude of 
Justinian; and he spent his last days, it is said, under the frown of 
his master, and, as some report, in actual want. 

6. Gildas was a native of Wales. He was surnamed, The Wise. 
As the most ancient of the British writers, he deserves a notice 
here. His famous " Epistle," was written A. C. 560, and is a most 
severe censure of the depravity of the Britons at that time. He 
has some things well calculated to invite the attention of the learned. 



PERIOD IV. 

The Period of the establishment of the Saracen Domi- 
nion; extending from the flight of Mahomet, 622 years 
A. C. to the crowning of Charlemagne, at Rome, 800 
years A. C. 

ARABS OR SARACENS. 

During this period, the darkness in Europe very much increased, and 
the times exhibited a melancholy contrast to the former splendid 
eras of Grecian and Roman refinement and literature. But while 
the human mind sunk in Europe, it rose in the East, under the 
auspices of the Saracens, where it was for a short time displayed, 
not only in the energies of a w^'like superstition, but, at length, in 
the cultivation of the arts and learning. The history of this people is 
connected with a remarkable change in the aspect of human affairs. 
Sec. 1. The Arabs, in all ages, have lived as wander- 
ers, in a state of independence, and have never been sub- 
dued by any of the great conquerors of the world, though al- 
most always at war with their neighbours. They derive 



ARABS OR SARACENS. 85 

their origin from Ishmael, and, before the time of Mahomet, 
they professed a religion which was a mixture of idolatry and 
Judaism. 

The name Saracen, which was at length applied to most 
of the Arabian nations, is derived from a tribe that occupied 
the north-western part of the country. This people, before 
the time already referred to, had forsaken their deserts, and 
made themselves useful or formidable (according as their ser- 
vices were purchased or neglected) to the respective empires 
of Rome and Persia. 

Mecca, on the Red Sea, in 569, gave birth to Mahomet, 
(or Mohommed.) their pretended prophet. In 609, when he 
was about 40 years old, he began to concert a system of mea- 
sures, the issue of which, was the establishment of a new re- 
ligion in the world, and of an empire, which, spreading over 
many countries, lasted more than six centuries. The reli- 
gion still remains. 

His impostures were not, at first, well received. The citi- 
zens of Mecca, even, opposed them. Forsaking his native 
city, where his life was in jeopardy, he fled to Medina, at the 
epoch called by the Mahometans, the hegira, or flight, which 
was in the year 622, and the 54th year of Mahomet's age. 
By the aid of his disciples at Medina, he returned to Mecca 
as a conqueror, and making numerous proselytes, he soon 
became master of Arabia and Syria, was saluted king in 627, 
and, in the midst of his successes, died suddenly in 632. He 
left two branches of his family, who became powerful caliphs 
of Persia and Egypt. 

§ As Mahomet will be spoken of again, as one of the distinguished 
characters of this period, it will be unnecessary to add many par- 
ticulars here, respecting either his life, or the religion of whicli he 
was the founder. Some historians are of the opinion, that he at- 
tempted only an inconsiderable change in the creed of his coun- 
trymen, and that the mighty revolution which followed his efforts, 
was, in respect to Arabia, almost wholly political. 

In his flight, this bold leader gained Medina with much difficulty, 
but being well received, he made it the place of his future residence. 
Besides those who fled with him, and shared his fate, he was soon 
followed and joined by many of the principal citizens of Mecca. 
Amongst his followers were Amrou, the future conqueror of Egypt ; 
Saad, who afterwards overran Persia; Obeidah, whose fortune it 
was to subdue Syria and Palestine ; and the very celebrated Kaled 
Efaen al Walid. 

ft 



bO MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IV. 

Though Mahomet met with some reverses at first, he was no 
sooner aided by such men as Amrou and Kaled, than he overthrew 
whatever opposed him. After the submission of Arabia to his arms, 
the Arabs and Greeks were brought into contact ; and the former 
were prepared to encroach on the remnant of the Roman empire. 

Mahomet owed his success, in part, to several moral causes, origi- 
nating in the state of society ; such as the corruption of the true re- 
ligion, the ignorance of mankind, and the prevailing licentiousness 
of the times — also to the nature of his doctrines, which, among other 
things, promising a sensual heaven, were suited to the depravity of 
the heart, and the taste of the voluptuous Asiatics ; and, not least of 
all, to powerful political revolutions. It happened the same year in 
which Mahomet left Mecca, that a destructive war, as already men- 
tioned, took place between the Eastern empire and Persia. Hera- 
clius, the emperor, in six campaigns, penetrated to the heart of the 
Persian dominions, almost destroying that power, and greatly weak- 
ening his own. Neither of them, therefore, were in a condition to 
resist the torrent of Arabian fanaticism. Such was the prospect of 
Mahometanism, when its author met his fate. 

The followers of this impostor, term their religion Islam, 
and themselves Musslemen, or Moslems, i. e. true believers. 
The book containing their creed, which was produced by 
Mahomet, in successive portions, and which he pretended t<? 
derive from the angel Gabriel, is called the Koran. Theii 
priests are called moolahs or imans. Mahomet propagated 
his religion by the sword, and taught, that to profess any 
other religion, was a just cause of hatred, and even of murder. 

2. The successors of Mahomet, in the dominion which he 
established, are called Caliphs, a word which means suc- 
cessors, or vicars. The first caliph w r as Abu-beker, the fa- 
ther of one of the wives of Mahomet. It is said that the im- 
postor, on his death-bed, appointed Ali, his son-in-law, as hi? 
successor, but the influence of Abu-beker with the army was 
such, that he, by this means, secured the caliphate. 

Thus the foundation was laid for a mighty contention, 
and over the body of Mahomet arose that schism, w r hich, at 
this distant period, weakens the power of Mahometanism, and 
may eventually terminate its very existence. The sects are 
two, and the ground of dispute is the right of succession r.o 
Mahomet. Their names are Sheas or Shiites, and the Son- 
nites. The Sheas, who believe in Ali, as the true successor, 
are chiefly Persians. The Sonnites, who believe in Abu- 
beker, consist of the inhabitants of East Persia, Arabia, Tur- 



ARABS OR SARACENS. 87 

ksy, (fee. The Sonnites receive the Koran only, whereas the 
Sheas adopt the traditions also. 

In respect to conquest, Abu-beker pursued the course of 
Mahomet, and, with the aid of his general, Kaled, obtained 
an important victory over the emperor Heraclius, and en- 
larged the Saracen dominion. He died in the third year of 
his reign, having bequeathed the sceptre to Omar. 

§ When the sceptre was offered to Omar, he modestly observed, 
" that he had no occasion for the place." " But the place has occa- 
sion for you," replied Abu-beker. He died, praying that the God of 
Mahomet would ratify his choice. It was so far regarded by AH, 
his rival, that the latter treated him with the respect due to a consti- 
tuted superior. 

Omar commenced his reign in 633. In one campaign he 
wrested from the Greek empire, Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopo- 
tamia, and Chaldea. In the next campaign, the whole em- 
pire of Persia was brought under the Mahometan yoke. 
Egypt, Lybia, and Numidia, were at the same time con- 
quered by the generals of Omar. 

§ Amrou, one of his generals, by the order of Omar, destroyed the 
famous library at Alexandria, consisting of 700,000 volume**. The 
order of Omar betrayed the ignorance of a savage, and the illibera- 
lity of a fanatic. "If," said he to Amrou, "these writings agree 
with the Koran, they are useless, and need not be preserved ; if 
they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." Omar 
was finally assassinated. 

Othman succeeded Omar, in 645. He added Bactriana, 
and a part of Tartary, to the Saracen empire. Upon the 
death of Othman, Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, was elect- 
ed to the caliphate. His name is still revered in the east, and 
by none of the caliphs was he excelled, either in virtue or 
courage. After a si )rt but glorious reign of five years, he 
was assassinated by a Mahometan enthusiast, or reformer. He 
had removed the seat of the caliphate from Mecca to Cuja, on 
the Euphrates. 

§Ali married Fatema. the daughter of Mahomet, but Ayesha, the 
widow of the prophet, and daughter of Abu-beker, bore an immortal 
hatred against the husband and posterity of Fatema. In a battle 
which Ali fought with a superior number of rebels, who were ani- 
mated by the counsels of Ayesha, he was entirely victorious. 
Ayesha, it is said, had seventy men, who held the bridle of her 
camel, successively killed or wounded ; and the cage or litter in 
which she sat, was stuck throughout with javelins and darts. 

3. Within less than half a century, the Saracens reared a 



SB MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. 

powerful empire, and were formidable to all the nations 
around them. In 100 years, their dominion extended from 
India to the Atlantic, comprehending Persia. Syria, Asia 
Minor, Arabia, and other regions in the east, as also Egypt, 
North Africa, and Spain. 

Of the race of Omar, already mentioned, there were nine- 
teen caliphs who reigned in succession ; after which, began 
the dynasty of the Abassidre, descended from Ahbas, the 
uncle of Mahomet. Almansor, second caliph of this race, 
built Bagdad, and made it the seat of the Saracen dominion, 
in 762 A. C. He introduced the culture of the arts and sci- 
ences among the Saiacens. 

§ It was during the reign of Almansor, that Abu Hani fa, the 
founder of the first of the four sects ol the nonnitesj died in prison at 
Bagdad. He had been confined there for refusing to be made a 
judge, declaring that he had rather he punished by men than by 
God. Being asked why he declined the office, he replied, " If I 
speak the truth, I am unfit ; but if I tell a lie, a liar is not fit to be a 
judge." It is said that he read over the Koran 7000 times, while he 
was in prison. 

Haroun al Itaschid, a caliph who ascended the throne in 
785 A. C, and was contemporary with Charlemagne, was a 
famous prince, and celebrated patron of letters. His reign is 
regarded as the Augustan age of Saracen literature. Many 
of our proverbs and romances are to be referred to this period. 
Al Raschid was also a brave and victorious sovereign, and 
distinguished by equity and benevolence. He died in about 
809 A. C. 

The sciences to which the Arabians chiefly devoted their 
attention, were medicine, geome***y, and astronomy. Poetry, 
and works of fiction, especially the One Thousand and One 
Nights, were the products of that period. Literature was cul- 
tivated also in Africa and Spain, under the auspices of the 
Saracens. 

§ Soon after Al Raschid's accession to the Caliphate, he invaded 
and ravaged a part of the Greek empire, with an army of 135,000 
men. Having taken the city of Heraclea, he reduced it to ashes ; 
a**ter which conquest he made himself master of several other places. 
He then attacked the Island of Cyprus, whose inhabitants suffered 
extremely from the invasion. The Greek emperor was so intimi- 
dated by this success, that he immediately made peace with the 
caliph, accompanied with a tribute. 

Several interesting anecdotes arc related of this caliph, two of 
which follow. Being once in Egypt, lie said to his courtier*;. 



EASTERN OR GREEK EMPIRE. 



99 



The king of this country formerly boasted himself to be God ; in 
consequence, therefore, of such pride, I will confer the government 
of it on the meanest of my slaves." 

As he was marching one day at the head of his troops, a woman 
came to him to complain that some of the soldiers had pillaged her 
house. He said, " woman, hast thou not read m the Koran, that 
princes, when they passed with their armies through places, de- 
stroyed them V" " True," replied she, " but then it is also written in 
the same book, that the houses of those princes shall be desolate on 
account of their acts of injustice." This fearless repartee, was so 
well liked by the caliph, that he forthwith ordered that restitution 
should be made. 

EASTERN OR GREEK EMPIRE. 

4. The Eastern Empire, which had alone survived the 
ruin of the Roman world, retained a portion of its ancient 
splendour. Tt was destined, however, soon to lose several 
valuable provinces, as has already appeared, in relating the 
victorious career of the Saracens. The conquests which 
Heraclius I. made in Persia, were wrested from him by that 
enthusiastic and warring people. They next deprived the 
empire of its Syrian and African dependencies. 

During these events, several emperors successively filled 
the throne of Constantinople, after Heraclius. But very 
little need be said concerning any of them, it was in the 
reign of Constantine III., Pagonatus, that the Saracens, 672 
A. C. besieged Constantinople for five months, but were 
obliged to retire. They returned for seven years in succes- 
sion, but were every time defeated by Caliinicus, who in- 
vented an inextinguishable fire, by which he destroyed their 
ships. 

§ The Greek, or liquid fire, was made principally of naptha, or liquid 
bitumen, mixed with some sulphur and pitch, extracted from green 
firs. Water, instead of extinguishing, quickened this powerful 
agent of destruction. It could be damped only by sand, wine, or 
vinegar. It was a period of four hundred years, before the secret of 
its composition was obtained from the Greeks. The Mahometans at 
length discovered and stole it. It continued to be used in war, down 
to the middle of the fourteenth century, when gunpowder was in- 
troduced. 

Justinian II., who succeeded Constantine in 685, was a 
second Nero, or Caligula. He ordered, at one time, a general 
slaughter of the inhabitants of Constantinople, but he was de 
throned the same day, and sent into exile with mutilated 



90 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IV. 

features He recovered his throne by the assistance of the 
Bulgarians, and exacted a dreadful vengeance on his ene- 
mies. He was at last beheaded. Some of the emperors who 
followed during the remainder of this period, were, Leo HI., 
Constantine IV., Leo IV., and Constantine V. The first three 
of these were strongly opposed to images, as used in churches. 

§ The motherof the last Constantine, was regent during her son's 
minority. Her name was Irene, and she proved herself a monster 
of wickedness. She obliged the sons of Constantine IV. to receive 
the priesthood, and afterwards ordered them to be murdered. She 
was singularly cruel towards her own son, who, for attempting to 
govern by himself when of age, was, by her orders, scourged and 
confined in the interior of the palace. In 790, he was restored to 
liberty by the people, when he, in his turn, imprisoned his mother. 

Two years after, she was apparently reconciled to Constantine, 
and by encouraging him in his vices, obtained an unhappy ascend- 
ency over him. Being rendered odious to his subjects, especially 
in consequence of repudiating his queen and marrying one of her 
women, by the advice of Irene, an insurrection took place. This 
was as she expected ; and afforded a pretext for her cruel machina- 
tions. Being left with the army in Bvthinia, she despatched several 
officers to depose her son. 

Arriving' at Constantinople without being suspected of such a 
design, they put out the emperor's eyes in so barbarous a manner, 
that he died, three days afterwards, in the most excruciating pain. 
Irene then remained in possession of the empire f' r five years ; and 
in order to confirm her authority, she made overtures of marriage to 
Charlemagne, king of France. Her design, however, being di- 
vulged, a revolt ensued, in which Nicephorus, great treasurer of the 
empire, being leader, was proclaimed, and Irene deposed. 

Having thus obtained the purple, and secured the riches of Irene, 
Nicephorus banished her to the isle of Lesbos, where the want of a 
decent provision obliged her to earn a scanty subsistence by the la- 
bours of the distaff. Here this miserable woman died of vexation, 
having enjoyed her ill-gotten power but six years after the murder 
of her son. 

KINGDOM OF ITALY. 

5. The Kingdom op Italy, which was formed as 
already related, continued until nearly the close of the pre- 
sent period, viz. 774 A. C. It had been fifty years under 
the sway of the Lombard kings. During the remainder of 
its existence, (viz. 150 years,) seventeen kings reigned over 
the country. The principal of these were Cunibert, Luit- 
prand, Rachisius, Astolphus, and Desiderius or Didier. 
Luitprand possessed the greatest talents of all the Lombard 



KINGDOM OF ITALY. 91 

kings. Under Didier the kingdom of Italy came to an end. 
He was defeated by Charlemagne, his father-in-law, and 
Italy was afterwards incorporated into the new empire of the 
West. 

§ A few particulars concerning these kings, are as follows. Under 
Cunibert, Italy was invaded by the duke of Brescia, and they met 
in battle on the banks of the Adda. Before the battle, a deacon of Pa- 
via, named Zeno, who bore a great likeness to Cunibert, offered to 
take his armour and supply his place at the head of the army. 
Zeno was consequently killed, and Cunibert obtained a signal vic- 
tory, and afterwards enjoyed a peaceable and happy reign. 

Luitprand availed himself of an opportunity, soon after the com- 
mencement of his reign, to add to his dominions by conquest. His 
first efforts were directed against Ravenna, which was betrayed into 
his hands. He afterwards took several other cities. The next year, 
however, Eutychius, exarch of Ravenna, reconquered a great part 
of his dominions, with the help of the Venetians, whom Pope Gre- 
gory II. excited against Luitprand. 

The king, resolving to avenge himself on the Pope, became re- 
conciled to Eutychius, and they both advanced towards Rome. The 
Pope, however, met the king, and appeased him by his eloquence. 
In two successive instances, in his attempts upon the Pope and Rome, 
he was diverted from his design. 

Rachisius, in 749, five years after the commencement of his 
reign, under the pretence of some infractions of a treaty with the 
people of Rome, besieged a city which belonged to the Pope. But 
the Pope had such influence with him when they met, that the king 
was persuaded to renounce the world, and retire to the abbey of 
Moute Cassino. His queen and daughter, at the same time, founded 
a monastery of nuns, near that abbey, whither they retired and took 
the veil. 

Astolphus took Ravenna, and seized upon all the dependencies of 
that principality, not far from the year 750, but soon lost them, by 
the intervention of Pepin, king of France, who made war upon him. 
He died in 756, of a fall from his horse. 

Didier, meditating the conquest of Ravenna, sought the protec- 
tion of the French King, by marrying one of his daughters to 
Charlemagne, and the other to his brother Carloman. A difference, 
however, having arisen between Charlemagne and his father-in-law, 
the French monarch divorced his wife. Didier highly resented this 
act. 

Applying to the Pope to favour his projects, and failing in the at- 
tempt, he attacked the papal territory, and endeavoured to seize on 
the person of the Roman pontiff. Charlemagne, however, coming 
seasonably to his assistance, met the Lombard king in battle, and 
taking possession of his sovereignty, sent the royal family to be con- 
fined in monasteries in France." The French king thus put an end 
to the Lombard dominion in Italy, and was himself declared, by the 
Pope, king of Italy, and patrician of Rome. 



92 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. 

SPAIN. 

6. Spain continued under the dominion of the Visogoths 
till the year 712. It was then conquered by the Saracens, 
who invaded the country from Mauritania, in Africa, whence 
they were called Moors. A small part of the north of Spain, 
never fell under the dominion of that people. Pelagius, the 
successor of the Gothic sovereigns, founded there the little 
kingdom of Asturias, in 718 ; and Garcias Ximenes, that of 
Navarre, in 758. 

§ The Saracens, in their descent upon Spain, easily overran the 
country. They had lately founded, in Africa, the empire of Mo- 
rocco, which was governed by Muza, viceroy of the caliph Waled 
Almansor. Muza sent his general, Tariff, into Spain, who attack- 
ing Don Rodrigo, or Roderic, the Gothic king, in a decisive battle, 
overcame and slew him. The conquerors succeeded to the sove- 
reignty. Abdallah, son of Muza, married the widow of Roderic, and 
thus the two nations formed a perfect union. 

7. Spain, in this manner conquered by the Saracens, was 
allotted to governors dependent on the viceroy of Africa, till 
Abdalrahman, the last heir of the family of the Omiade3, 
formed it into an independent kingdom, and fixed his resi- 
dence at Cordova. Tniis was about the year 756 A. C. 

It may be remarked here, that all that part of the kingdom 
of Spain which was under the dominion of the Moors, em- 
braced the religion of their conquerors ; but the two northern 
provinces above named, remained true to the Christian faith. 

Abdalrahman, at Cordova, laid the foundation of a flour- 
ishing empire, which lasted for a considerable period. He 
greatly encouraged learning, and thus vied with Haroun Al 
Raschid at Bagdad, as a patron of letters. Cordova became 
renowned as one of the most enlightened spots in Europe, 
under several succeeding reigns. 

§ The part of Spain which remained independent of the Moorish 
yoke, presents little that is important in its history. We may there- 
fore pass it over with the remark, that its Christian sovereigns be- 
came rather strengthened than weakened in their power from time 
to time. 

FRANCE. 

8. In France, the weak race of the Merovingian kings 
continued to hold the sovereignty, till the year 751 A. C. 
On the death of one of them, viz. Dagobert II., (638) who 
left two infant sons, the government, during their minority, 
was assumed by their chief officers, termed Mayors of the 



PRANCE. U3 

Palace. Under the management of these ambitious men, 
the kings of France enjoyed little more than the name. 

In the time of Thierry, grandson of Dagobert II., the ce- 
lebrated Pepin d'Heristel was mayor of the palace. He re- 
stricted Thierry, nominally the sovereign of the two great 
divisions of the Frank monarchy, (Austrasia and Neustria) 
to a small domain, and ruled France during thirty years with 
great wisdom. 

The son of Pepin, whose name was Charles Martel, was 
still more celebrated than his father. Under three kings, he 
governed France with signal ability, having succeeded to the 
office of mayor of the Palace. 

§ After his father Pepin's death, Charles was confined by his mo- 
ther-in-law, in prison. But escaping thence, he was proclaimed duke 
of Austrasia, and took possession of the sovereign authority over all 
the kingdom. He made war several times on Childeric, his first 
nominal sovereign, and finally secured him as a prisoner. 

9. Charles was victorious over all his domestic foes, and 
his arms kept in awe the neighbouring nations, whom he fre- 
quently defeated. But the most signal service which he ren- 
dered to France, to Europe, and to mankind at large, was 
his victory over the Saracens, in 732 A. C. These destroying 
fanatics threatened all Europe with subjugation to the Maho- 
metan dominion and religion ; and, but for their providential 
defeat by Charles Martel, might have been, to this day, the 
masters of the civilized world. 

§ The Saracens penetrated into France from Spain. They were led 
by Abderame, a consummate general, who commanded in the name 
of the caliph, and who soon defeated the duke of Aquitain. After 
this victory, his desperate bands were about to overrun the king- 
dom. Here, however, the genius and bravery of Charles rescued 
the nation from destruction. He brought them to a general action 
between Poictiers and Tours, and notwithstanding their bravery 
and numbers, he succeeded in defeating them with immense slaugh- 
ter. They afterwards rallied in the vicinity of Narbonne, but were 
again defeated, and at last driven out of the French territory. 

By this event, the terror with which the Saracens had inspired 
Europe was greatly diminished, and Charles obtained for himself 
the surname of Martel, or the Hammer. 

After the death of Thierry IV., Charles, without placing 
another king on the throne, continued to govern as before, 
with the title of duke of France. After several more victo- 
ries over his enemies, Charles dying, bequeathed the govern- 
ment of France, as an undisputed inheritance, to his two sons 



94 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD IV. 

Pepin le Bref, and Carloman. As mayors of the palace, the 
one governed Austrasia, and the other Neustria and Burgun- 
dy. The nominal sovereign, at this time, was Childeric III., 
a weak and insignificant prince. The sole administration 
devolved at length on Pepin, as Carloman renounced the world 
and became a monk. Pepin, whose talents were powerful} 
and whose turn of mind was warlike, governed with great 
efficiency, and conquered several of the neighbouring tribes. 
In the year 751, he assembled a parliament at Soissons. 
where he was proclaimed king of France, having first obtain- 
ed the sanction of Pope Zachary. Childeric was confined in 
a convent, and thus ended the Merovingian race of kings. 
The Carlovingian now succeeded. 

§ Pepin was called Le Bref, or the short, on account of the lowness 
of his stature, his height being only four and a half feet Soon alter 
he was crowned, he marched against the revolted Saxons, whom he 
defeated ; and pursuing his brother Grippo into Aquitain, he united 
Septimia, now Languedoc, to the crown. His brother, who was a 
turbulent spirit, and gave him disquiet, at length perished. Pepin 
was thus left to pursue without molestation his useful designs. 

10. Having been crowned the second time, by Pope Ste- 
phen II., in return for this service, Pepin marched against the 
Lombards, who had invaded the principality of Ravenna, and 
threatened Rome itself. The Lombards were spared, only 
by the surrender of Ravenna, which Pepin bestowed on the 
Holy See. Thus commenced the temporal authority of the 
popes. 

The Saracens, who still possessed a part of the south of 
France, were forced by his arms from the country, and thus 
the limits of his dominions were extended in that quarter. 
After a splendid and successful reign, he died of a dropsy in 
the chest, at the age of fifty-three or fifty -four years, 768 A. C. 
§ It is related of this monarch, that his diminutive size was compen- 
sated by an uncommon strength of body. Having been told thai 
several of his courtiers had secretly ridiculed his personal appear- 
ance, he invited them, on the next day, to attend the spectacle of a 
fight between a lion and a bull. When the two combatants were let 
loose, the lion leaped on his adversary, and the bull was in danger 
of instant destruction. " Is there any among you," exclaimed tht 
king to the courtiers that surrounded him, " who has sufficient re- 
solution to oblige the lion to let go his hold ?" No one spake. 
"Mine, then, shall be the task," said Pepin, elevating his voice ; and 
leaping into the amphitheatre with a drawn sword, he approached 
the lion, and with a single blow separated the head from the body. 

11. The dominions of Pepin were, at his death, divided 



FRANCE. 95 

between his two sons Charles and Carloman. The latter 
dying two years afterwards, Charles came into possession of 
the whole kingdom. The exploits and policy of this prince, 
procured for him the title of Great, which was incorporated 
with his name, Charlemagne,* as he is known in history. He 
excelled all the sovereigns of his age, both as a warrior and 
statesman, although he is said to have been extremely illite- 
rate. With a great reputation for talent, he has, however 
descended to us as being deficient in several moral qualities, 
particularly in humanity. 

His cruelty was exercised chiefly upon the Saxons, with 
whom he was engaged in war during thirty years. Their 
bravery and love of freedom gave him infinite trouble. They 
revolted no less than six times, and were as often reduced by 
force of arms. As a means of subduing their bold and fero- 
cious character, he attempted to convert them to Christianity ; 
but their obstinacy induced him to resort to compulsory pro 
cesses for this end. Several thousands of them were but- 
chered on their refusal to receive Christian baptism. 

Besides his success against the Saxons, Charlemagne put 
an end to the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy, as has al- 
ready been narrated ; he successfully encountered the arms 
of the Saracens : defeated numerous barbarous tribes, and ex- 
tended his empire beyond the Danube. 

§ Notwithstanding the short stature of his father. Charlemagne is 
said to have been seven feet in height, and of a robust constitution. 
He was no less signalized for activity and vigour of mind. His su- 
pervision of his dominions was most strict and vigilant. He heard 
and saw every thing for himself. He discountenanced luxury, en- 
couraged industry, and sought to elevate the social and intellectua. 
character of his subjects. 

When he saw any of his courtiers sumptuously dressed, he would 
invite them to a hunting party, in the course of which he led them 
into the wilds and forests. On their return, he w r ould not permit 
them to change their garments which the thorns had torn. Afte~ 
showing them his uninjured sheepskin cloak, as a contrast to their 
tattered vestments, he would say, by way of advice or reproach, 
" Leave silks and finery to women ; the dress of a man is for use, 
not for show." 

In his wars, Charlemagne met with scarcely a disaster. The only 
considerable reverse that he ever experienced, was when he was re- 
crossing the Pyrenees, after conquering Navarre, and a part of Ar~ 
ragon. The rear of his army was then cut to pieces by the Gascons, 
in the plains of Roncevaux. On this occasion, his nephew, the cele- 

* Charlemagne — Charles the Great. 



96 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. 

brated champion Roland, lost his life— an event which laid the foun 
dation of the " Orlando Furioso" of Ariosto. 

As the reign of Charlemagne extends several years into 
the following period, we shall resume it, at the commence- 
ment of that period, with a sketch, in the biographical de- 
partment, of his more private history and character. 

Distinguished Characters in Period IV. 

1. Mahomet, an Arabian impostor, and founder of the re 
ligion which is called by his name. 

2. Adhelme, a British theological writer. 

3. Bede, a venerable English historian. 

4. Charles Martel, the father of a race of kings, and con 
queror of the Saracens. 

5. John Damascenus, a Christian writer, strongly tinctured 
with the Aristotleian philosophy. 

§ From the paucity of great men during this period, genius and 
learning must have been at a low ebb indeed, and the human mind 
greatly debased and neglected. 

1. Mahomet, as has already been stated, was born at Mecca, in 569 
A. C. The tribe from which he descended, was that of the Koras- 
hites, the most noble in Arabia. His immediate ancestors seem, 
however, to have been undistinguished ; and though his natural ta- 
lents were great, it is certain that his education was inconsiderable. 
He acquired knowledge, but not from books. Intercourse with man- 
kind had sharpened his faculties, and given him an insight into the 
human heart 

The steps he took in propagating his religion have already been 
detailed in part. It may be added, that the main arguments which 
Mahomet employed to persuade men to embrace this imposture, were 
promises and threats, wha ., he knew would work easiest on the 
minds of the multitude. 11 6 promises related chiefly to paradise, 
and to the sensual delights to ue enjoyed in that region of pure wa- 
ters, shady groves, and exquisite fruits. Such a heaven was very 
taking with the Arabians, whose bodily temperament, habits, and 
burning climate, led them to contemplate images of this sort with ex- 
cessive pleasure. ~s 

On the other hand, his threats were peculiarly terrific to this peo- 
ple. The punishment attending a rejection of his religion, he made 
to consist of evils, that seemed most insufferable to their feelings. 
The reprobates would be permitted to drink nothing but putrid and 
boiling water, nor breathe any, save exceedingly hot winds ; they 
would dwell forever in continual fire, intensely burning, and be sur- 
rounded with a black, hot, salt smoke, as with a coverlid, &c. ; and. 
to fill the measure of their fears, by joining the present with the fu- 
ture life, he threatened most grievous punishments in this world. 

As it was one of the impostor's dogmas, that his religion mi&to 'm 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 9T 

defended and propagated by the sword, he invented the doctrine of 
a rigid fate, to reconcile the minds of the timid, and add ardour to 
the brave, under the exigencies of war. He taught that those whc 
were slain in battle, though they had tarried at home in their houses, 
must, nevertheless, have died at that very moment, — the time of 
every man's life being before appointed by God, in that unqualified 
sense ; that is, without reference to means. 

Mahomet was distinguished for the beauty of his person. He had 
a commanding presence, a majestic aspect, piercing eyes, a flowing 
beard, and his whole countenance depicted the strong emotions of 
nis mind. His memory Was retentive, his wit easy, and his judg- 
ment clear and decisive. In his intercourse with society, he observed 
the forms of that grave and ceremonious politeness, so common to 
his country. His natural temper may not have been Worse than that 
of many others ; but the imposture which he forced upon mankind, 
Was an instance of most daring impiety and wickedness. 

Mahomet persisted in his religious fraud, or fanaticism, to the last. 
On his death bed he had asserted, that the angel of death was not 
allowed to take his soul, till he had respectfully asked the permission 
of the prophet. The request being granted, Mahomet fell into the 
agony of dissolution ; he fainted with the violence of pain, but re- 
covering his spirits in a degree, he raised his eyes upwards, and look- 
ing steadfastly, uttered with a faltering voice, the last broken, though 
articulate words, " O God ! — pardon my sins. — Yes, — I come — among 
my fellow-citizens on high ;" and in this manner expired. 

2. Adhelme was the first bishop of Sherbourne, (England.) He 
is said to have been nephew to Ina, king of the West Saxons. The 
period of his death was 709. He composed several poems concern- 
ing the Christian life, but his fancy was quite indifferent. He wrote 
in Latin, and is reported to be the earliest Englishman who wrote in 
that tongue. A translator of his writings, speaks of him as pro- 
foundly versed in Greek, Latin, and Saxon. 

3. Bede, who was surnamed the Venerable, was an English monk. 
His birth place was Wearmouth, in the bishopric of Durham, where 
he was born in 672 or 673. He is celebrated as a writer on Eccle- 
siastical history. In his youth he studied with great diligence, and 
soon became eminent for learning. Such was his fame, that he was 
frequently consulted on various subjects, by scholars from different 
parts of the country. 

He published his excellent Ecclesiastical history of England, in 
731, when he was about fifty-nine years of age. He wrote other 
works, particularly an epistle to the bishop of York, which exhibits 
a more curious picture of the state of the church at that time, than 
is elsewhere to be found. That epistle was the last of Bede's wri- 
tings. His last sickness, was a consumption, ending in an asth-na, 
which he supported with great firmness. During his weakn^s, he 
never remitted the duties of his place, being employed the » uole of 
the time in instructing the monks. He appears to have been a 
person of genuine piety. His death was in 735. 

4. Charles Martel was the son of Pepin d'Heristel, and duke of 



98 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. 

Austrasia. He succeeded his father as Mayor of the Palace, as has 
before been stated. That he was a man of great capacity, appears 
from the record of his exploits. As the progenitor of the Carlo- 
vingian race of kings, and conqueror of the Saracens, when they 
were upon the point of overrunning all Europe, he is entitled to a 
very respectful notice in the page of history. Divine Providence 
seems to have raised him up for a great purpose, in checking the 
conquering career of the followers of the false prophet. The pro- 
digious number of 375,000 Saracens, he is said to have defeated and 
slain. He died in 741. 

5. John Damascenus flourished in the eighth century, dying about 
the year 750. His birth-place was Damascus. He was liberally 
educated, and early made great progress in literature. He succeed- 
ed his father, as counsellor of state to the Saracen Caliph of Damas- 
cus. Becoming zealous for the forms of religion, and warmly es- 
pousing the cause of images, he greatly offended Leo Isauricus, the 
Eastern emperor. 

There is a wild legend of the times, that the emperor caused the 
hand of Damascenus to be cut off, and that it was miraculously re- 
placed by the kind interposition of the Virgin Mary. After a while, 
he is said to have retired from public affairs, and spent the remain- 
der of his life in solitude. Tn this situation he wrote books of divini- 
ty, of which he left many behind him. He is not generally thought 
to have been an evangelical writer. Mosheim says that he surpassed 
all his contemporaries among the Greeks and Orientals, but was su- 
perstitious, and absorbed in a vain philosophy. 



PERIOD V. 

The Period of the Neio Western Empire; extending from 
the Crowning of Charlemagne, 800 A. C, to the First 
Crusade, 1095 years A. C. 

NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Sec. 1. The New Western Empire, so called, included the 
dominions of Charlemagne, or the countries of which he was 
acknowledged as the sovereign, in 800 A. C. It was at this 
period that the title of Emperor of the West, was conferred 
upon him. He was established in that august sovereignty, 
by being crowned at Rome, by Pope Leo III. 

It is thought by some, that had he chosen Rome as the 
seat of his government, and at death transmitted an undivi- 
ded dominion to his successor, the fallen empire of the Ro- 



NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. 99 

mans might have once more been restored to prosperity and 
greatness. But Charlemagne had no fixed capital, and divi- 
ded, even in his life-time, his dominions among his children. 

The countries, included under the title of the New Western 
Empire, were principally France, Burgundy, Germany, Ita- 
ly, and a part of Spain. The Empire, as such, continued 
but a short time. One country after another separated from 
it under the successors of Charlemagne, and Germany, at last, 
became the sole seat or representative of the Empire. Bc*- 
fore the expiration of the present Period, the structure reared 
by the French monarch, was dissolved. After pursuing the 
few details of the empire as a body, we shall resume our 
narrative of the individual countries, in their separate or in- 
dependent state. 

§ The occasion and the manner of the crowning of Charlemagne, 
v/ere as follows : 

He was wont to pass annually, from the Pyrenees into Germany, 
and thence into Italy. In approaching Rome for the last time, the 
Pope despatched a messenger to meet him with the keys of the Con- 
fession of St. Peter, and the standard of the city of Rome. From 
this union of religious and military attributes, it was evident that 
Charlemagne was on the eve of becoming emperor. 

Accordingly, on Christmas day, which was then the day of the 
new year, being present at the service of the mass, and on his knens 
before the altar, the Pope came suddenly behind him, and placed on 
his head the Crown of the Caesars. This act was followed by loud 
acclamations among the populace. An august title, which had lain 
dormant for several centuries, was thus revived, but it did not restore 
Rome to its ancient splendour, for reasons which were given above. 

Charlemagne lived nearly 14 years after he became Emperor of 
the West. He died at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the 72d year of his age, 
and the 46th of his reign. 

2. Charlemagne was succeeded, 814 A. C, by his son, Louis 
the Debonaire, or the Mild. Of the lawful children of Charle- 
magne, Louis alone survived his father, and all the imperial 
dominions came of course into his hands, except Italy, which 
the emperor had settled on Bernard, one of his grandsons. 

The reign of Louis was highly calamitous. In 817, lv» 
associated his eldest son, Lothaire, in the empire, and gave 
Aquitain to Pepin, his second son, and Bavaria to Louis, his 
third. 

A disagreement occurring between Louis and Bernard, 
king of Italy, the latter was subdued, and had his eyes put 
out, in consequence of which he died three days after. The 



LOO MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. 

murder of his nephew affected Louis with such a degree of 
remorse, that he performed public penance on account of the 
crime. 

The children of Louis greatly embittered, and even short- 
ened his life. First quarrelling among themselves, they then 
attacked their father ; and as he was alternately subdued 
and restored, his spirits were at length broken, and he died 
after an inglorious and turbulent reign, 840 A. C. 

§ Louis had a son by a second wife, named Charles, who, as will 
soon appear, became king of France upon the death of his father.— 
As a second partition of the empire was made, in order to give a 
share to this younger son, the other brothers were highly disaffect- 
ed. This was one occasion of their contention. 

When Louis found his end approaching, he set aside for Lothaire, 
a sword and a golden sceptre, the emblems of the empire he intend- 
ed for him, on condition, however, that he should abide by the parti- 
tion in favour of Charles. As he did not make any mention of his 
son, Louis of Bavaria, (Pepin had already deceased,) it was intimated 
to the old kin,?, that as a christian, he ought not to leave the world, 
without bestowing upon Louis his pardon. The dying monarch 
shook his hoary locks, and pointing to them with emotion, replied, 
"I pardon him, but you may tell him, that it was he who has brought 
clown my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave." 

3. Charles, surnamed the Bald, succeeded Louis the mild, 
in a part of his original dominions, 840 A. C. Soon after 
his accession, followed the terrible battle of Fontenay, between 
the three brothers now left, viz. Lothaire, Louis and Charles, 
in which Charles and Louis were victorious. Lothaire, as 
the appointed emperor, had wished to obtain the possession of 
all his father's territories, and refused to allow the partition in 
favour of Charles. But being overcome in the battle of Fon- 
tenay, he was obliged to relinquish his pretensions, and to 
accede to such a division of the empire, as his brothers now 
made among themselves. 

Lothaire, who preserved the title of emperor, had, assigned 
to him, Italy, and several of the southern provinces of France, 
Louis had the whole of Germany. France, including Neus- 
tria and Aquitain, fell to the lot of Charles. Thus the fine 
Empire of the West, founded by Charlemagne, was lost to 
the house of France, by the separation of Germany from 
that house. Instead of remaining hereditary, the crown be- 
came elective, after it had passed, as it did finally, into the 
hands of the Germans. 

§ The battle of Fontenay was fought with the greatest obstinacy 



NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. 1°* 



Historians a»ree in stating that 100,000 men perished on that occa- 
rirTrfffited to thlsaxons, yet laid Iris plans in such a man- 
ner n to obtain from his brothers a portion of the empire 

in thp rPian of Charles France was plundered by the JNormans, 
who had beirfheXvedations even £„ the tune of Char emagne 
Bin their progress was then inconsiderable. In 843, however, iney 
wiled ud the Seine, and plundered Rouen; while another fleet en- 
S d'the Lotrf aS laid waste the country il > «^ *gS 
rauders not only securing great quantities of spo 4 buMauj ng 
men women and children into captivity. In 845, they enierea me 
Seine ag" n with a fleet, and advanced to Pans. Its inhabitants fled, 
and the citv was burnt. With another fleet they approached to Bor- 
deaux aS ft. Charles, instead of repressing the mcurs.ons 
ofTeU baiSns with his arms, purchased their forbearance with 

UV LotMre, the emperor, died in 855. Before his death, 
lie divided his dominions among his throe sons. Lows 11. 
was the son who succeeded him with the tide of emperoi. 
He was a hrave and virtuous sovereign, and died Vto. 
f21 Louis, to whom Germany was assigned, was a power- 
f,l 'monarch, and rendered himself formidable to his neigh- 
bours. He died 876. Upon this event, Char es matched 
with a large army to seize his dominions, hut he was soon 
defeated by his nephew Carloman, the son of Louis 11., ha- 
ving been first crowned emperor by the 1 ope. 
m Charles, on the death of Louis II., son of Lothane, 
(875) assumed the empire, or, as is said, purchased it from 
Lne John VIII, on condition of holding it as a vassal to the 
Holv See This prince, after contending for the space oi two 
vears with the possessors of the other portions of the empire, 
Hi 'virions success, died of poison, 877 A. C. His reign 
must be pronounced, on the whole, to have been a weak and 
inglorious one. _ . , -,. 

He was the first of the French monarchs, who made dig- 
nities and titles hereditary. Under the distracted reigns of the 
Carlovingian kings, the grandees obtained great power, and 
commanded a formidable vassalage. They chose to reside 
on their territorial possessions, and refused to take any inter- 
est in the general concerns of the country. Intrenched in 
their castles and fortresses, they defied the _powe. : of the go- 
vernment, while the country was disturbed and desolated by 

lh The Empire of the West being now effectually dismem- 
Q* 



**^ MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. 

bered I, though there were afterwards temporary junctions ol 
is different parts, we may properly resume our narrative of 
the several countries in their separate state. As the power 
which formed this empire emanated from France, it is natural 
to speak of this first. Indeed, we have been under the neces 
my of noticing it already more than the rest. Germany, not 
nnving had a political existence before the era of Charlemagne, 
will be new on the list of nations. 

FRANCE. 

. 4 - Louis IT the Stammerer, succeeded Charles, as 
king of France, 877 A. C. Nothing of importance occurred 
during his reign, which was a short one, of only nineteen 
months. His two sons, Louis III,, and Carloman, became 
joint possessors of the throne upon his death. Their rei ff n 
was short, but it was characterized by union, vigour, and a 
degree of success against their enemies, the Normans. They 
died, the one m 882, and the other in 884. 

§ Their deaths were each accidental. Louis, in pursuing a voim* 
female who fled from him, struck his head a'aaiifsUh doo? 

Kt2l^, Carloman ' ^»rriSSW?M 

time, in hunting a wild boar, was wounded by a spear which one of 
his attendants launched against the animal. To save Se attendant 

eSTha h &** might ^ f aChed t0 the act > Carloman 1 eport- 
severa ^ wounded by the wild boar. Though he lived 

secreT J ' P ersevered W keeping the cause of his death a 

5. Charles, surnamed the Fat, was chosen by the peers of 
France to fill the vacant throne, 885. He was brother and 
successor to Louis II, the German, and son of the Louis, to 
whom Germany was originally assigned. For a short time, 
I ; ranee and Germany were again under the same sway. Ai 
the expiration of two years, however, Charles was deposed 
on account of his cowardice, and the imperial dignity was 
^transferred to Germany. * y 

The nobility then elected Eudes, count of Paris, to fill 
the throne, 887, till Charles, a younger brother of Louis III, 
and Carloman, should attain to the age of manhood. Upon 
the death of Eudes, Charles, who was surnamed the Simple, 
was introduced to the sovereignty, 898, but he was deposed 
by Robert, the brother of Eudes, in 922. Robert was suc- 
ceeded by Rah ho, or Rodolph, duke of Burgundy, the year 



FRANCE. 



103 



§ Charles the Simple, died in prison, 929. He was a weak mo- 
narch, and despised by his nobles. It is said, however, that in bat- 
tle, he killed the valiant Robert with his own hand. Upon the death 
of Charles, Rodolph was in quiet possession of the throne. 

It was during the reign of Charles that the Normans invaded 
Neustria, which was ceded to them in 911. To Rollo, their chief, 
the king gave his daughter, Giselle, in marriage. From this peopi 
the country was called Normandy, and it is from this race of v?at- 
riors, that we shall trace the future conquerors of England. 

6. Louis IV., the son of Charles the Simple, was called to 
the throne of France, in 936. He was surnamed Outremer, 
or Transmarine, on account of having been brought up in 
England. During his reign, and that of his successor, Lo- 
thaire, Hugh the Great, the most powerful lord of France, 
directed, for the most part, the government. The same situ- 
ation was held by his son, Hugh Capet, under Louis V., the 
successor of Lothaire. When Louis died, Hugh, like another 
Pepin, placed himself on the throne of France. 

§ The corruption of these times, and the peculiar uncertainty and 
infelicity attending the condition of kings, are manifest, from the 
fact, that both Lothaire and Louis were poisoned by their queens. 

7. Hugh Capet, the head of the third dynasty of kings 
in France, called the Capetian, began to reign in 987 A. C. 
He was crowned at Rbeims, on the third of July. His 
administration was marked with ability. He enacted several 
salutary laws and ordinances, and established his residence 
in Paris, which had been deserted by his predecessors during 
more than two hundred years. He delegated a portion of 
the supreme authority to his son Robert, near the beginning 
of his reign. 

§ The true heir to the crown, was Charles of Lorrain, uncle to 
Louis V. Attempting to secure his rights by force, he was at last 
betrayed and confined in prison, where he soon died. 

Hugh, either through modesty, or the fear of exciting the jea- 
lousy of his nobles, never assumed the insignia of royalty. He al- 
ways, even on great and solemn occasions, appeared in a plain dress 
and simple style. 

8. Robert, the son of Hugh Capet, succeeded his father in 
996. Marrying a cousin in the fourth degree, Bertha, who 
was the daughter of the king of Burgundy, his marriage was 
annulled, himself excommunicated, and his kingdom put 
under an interdict by the pope. This was the first instance 
of such an exercise of the papal authority in France. The 
distress and confusion that ensued, obliged Robert, rauch 



104 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD ▼. 

against his inclinations, to dismiss Bertha, and to expiate hia 
offence by a solemn penance. 

He soon after married Constantia of Toulouse, who proved 
to be a vexatious partner, and cruel queen. 

§ The superstition of the times was seen in the affair of the Pope's 
interdict. The mass was no longer celebrated ; the sacrament re- 
fused to the sick; and the dead left without burial. There were no 
longer any regulations of police ; and, as all dreaded to approach an 
excommunicated person, the king was abandoned. He commanded, 
however, the services of two faithful domestics, who passed through 
the fire whatever he had touched, and threw to the dogs the refuse 
of the table. 

The king, in his second marriage, was extremely unhappy. Con- 
stantia continually tormented him. She caused the king's favourite, 
grand master of the palace, to be assassinated. She sowed discord 
between the sons of Robert. And her intolerance in religion was 
such, that she ordered thousands of a certain sect of heretics to be 
burned at the stake. 

It is a circumstance worthy of notice, that in the province of Lan- 
guedoc, where these cruelties were particularly exercised, the pro- 
tectant faith has since constantly predominated over Catholicism. 

Robert is said to have been the first of the French kings who, accord- 
ing to the superstitions of the vulgar, received the supernatural gift of 
curing scrofulous affections, thence denominated the king's evil, by 
touching the sick, and pronouncing these words, " The king touches 
thee, and may God cure thee." 

9. On the death of the king, his two sons, Henry and Ro- 
bert, both aspired to the throne. It belonged to Henry r but 
the infamous Constantia had contrived to create an interest in 
favour of Robert. After some bloodshed, Henry was invested 
with the sovereign authority, 1031 A. C. He was an ac- 
tive sovereign, who knew how to maintain, and even extend 
his dominion, but he was not always judicious in his en- 
terprises. 

§ He subdued several of his rebellious nobles, defeated an army ol 
a younger brother who had claimed an inheritance in the monarchy, 
and espoused, for a time, the cause of William of Normandy, against 
the Norman grandees. He, however, soon attacked the latter— a 
rash step, which laid the foundation of long and disastrous wars. 

About the commencement of Henry's reign, a dreadful famine 
desolated not only France, but the rest of Europe. The dead were 
disinterred to serve as food for the living. The passengers were 
intercepted on the high ways, and carried into the woods to be 
devoured by the famishing peasantry. In one place, human flesh 
was public^ exposed for sale ; and in another, an innkeeper massa* 
cred the poor during the night, so as to furnish his table for guests 



ITALY. 10ft 

on the following day. The season was such that corn could not be 
raised, and the want of pasture occasioned the death of cattle. 

10. Henry left the crown to Iris son Philip I., then seven 
years old, 1060 A. C, under the regency of Baldwin, count 
of Flanders. Philip was rather a spectator than an actor in 
(fie political events of his reign. He lived beyond the com- 
mencement of the first crusade, having swayed the sceptre 
during forty-eight years. His principal war was with Wil- 
nam of Normandy, now become king of England. From 
in is date commenced a long hostility between the English 
and French monarchies. 

ITALY. 

11. In the division of the Western Empire among the sons 
of Louis the Debonaire, Italy, as we have seen, was assign- 
ed to Lothaire, with the title of emperor. His successor, as 
we have also seen, was Louis II., his son, who died in 875. 
The succeeding year, Charles the Bald, king of France, was 
proclaimed king of Italy by a diet at Pavia. But he retain- 
ed this sovereignty only two years, his death occurring in 877, 

Italy was afterwards ravaged by contending tyrants ; but 
in 964, Otho, the Great, reunited it to the dominions of the 
German empire. A series of wars, however, continued dur- 
ing at least two centuries, occasioned by the invasions of the 
Normans, and the claims of the emperors, till Italy was di- 
vided into several independent states. These wars are too 
unimportant and uninteresting to be noticed in this, or the 
following period. Italy, therefore, once the mistress of the 
world, must, for a time, be left out of the records of nations, 
except as her affairs shall be incidentally noticed in the his- 
tory of Germany. Her independent sovereignties, formed at 
different times, as Naples, the estates of the Church, Tusca 
ny, Parma, Lombardy, the Genoese, and the Venetian territo- 
ries, may, in some subsequent period, be duly noticed. 

§ A transaction, in which Otho II., the second German emperor 
after Italy was re-united to the empire, was engaged, may be here re- 
lated. Several cities of Italy took occasion to throw off their alle- 
giance to the emperor. Otho, hearing oi" it, soon entered Italy with 
an army, and adopted the following most cruel method to punish 
the authors of the tumults. 

He invited the nobles of Rome to a grand entertainment in the 
Vatican palace and when the guests had placed themselves at the 



106 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. 

table, he forbade them, under pain of death, to speak or move at 
what they should hear or see. Instantly they were surrounded by 
armed men, and while they sat trembling, the emperor composedly 
ordered the names of those con< erned in the late disturbances to be 
read over, and the guilty to be put to death in the midst of the hall. 
After the bloody mandate was rxecuted, he was all smiles and com- 
plaisance to the other guests, during the entertainment. 

It may be recorded here, that it was during the present 
period, the foundation of the temporal power of the popes 
was laid. In 1080, Matilda, countess of Tuscany, bequeath- 
ed a large portion of her dominions to pope Gregory the VII. 
From that time the popes possessed great power in the states 
of Europe. Although the emperors (German) asserted their 
sovereignty over Italy and the popedom, and claimed the 
absolute right of electing the pope ; yet it was with a con- 
stant resistance on the part of the Romans, and a general 
repugnance of the popes, when once established. 

SPAIN. 

12. The empire of Charlemagne, in Spain, comprised but 
a small part of that country. Indeed, all that the Christians, 
(including the native Spaniards and the French,) possessed, 
constituted only about a fourth of the kingdom, viz., Asturia, 
part of Castile and Catalonia, Navarre, and Arragon. Cata- 
lonia and Navarre were subdued by Charlemagne, but his 
successors seem to have taken no interest in the conquest ; it 
probably soon reverted back to the Christians of Spain. All 
the remainder of the Peninsula, including Portugal, was oc- 
cupied by the Moors. 

Cordova, a luxurious and magnificent city, was the 
Moorish capital. It was a great school for the sciences, and 
the resort of the learned from all parts of the world. In the 
tenth century, their dominions were divided among a num- 
ber of petty sovereigns, who were constantly at war with 
one another. Had the Christians availed themselves of this 
state of things, they might perhaps have then regained the 
whole kingdom ; but they were unhappily contending among 
themselves, and it was sometimes the case, that the Christian 
princes formed alliances with the Moors against one ano- 
ther. 

§ T,aste and the sciences flourished in Cordova, and the south ol 
S>pain ; when the rest of Europe had become involved in barbarism 



GERMANY. 107 

and ignorance. Cordova, as the seat of government, enjoyed a 
splendid period of two hundred years, reckoning from the middle of 
the eighth, to the middle of the tenth century. During that period, 
the Moorish portion of Spain boasted of a series of able princes, 
who gained the palm over all the nations of the West, both in arts 
and arms. 

It was only after the Moorish princes became luxurious and effe- 
minate, that the nation was divided into a number of petty states, 
the principal of which, were Toledo, Cordova, Valentia, and Seville. 

To add to the divided state of Spain, both among the Moors and 
Christians, the country abounded with independent lords, who were 
warriors and champions by profession, making it their business to 
decide the quarrels of princes, or to volunteer their service and that 
of their vassals and attendants, on such occasions. Of this descrip- 
tion of persons, termed knights-errant, the most distinguished was 
Rodrigo the Cid, who undertook to conquer the kingdom of New 
Castile, for his sovereign, Alphonso, king of Old Casiile. Of the 
passion for knight errantry, however, it is proposed to speak in some 
other place. 

The contentions among the petty kingdoms of Spain need 
not detain us here, nor will it be expedient to dwell on the 
subsequent history of Spain, until the expulsion of the Moors, 
and the union of the whole country under one head, towards 
the conclusion of the fifteenth century. 

GERMANY. 

13. Germany was known in ancient times, but it possess- 
ed no political importance till the era of Charlemagne. Pre- 
viously, it was a rude and uncivilized country, and fluctuating 
in its government. Charlemagne may therefore be consider- 
ed the reviver^ if not the founder of the German empire. 
As a component part of his sovereignty, it has been already 
noticed so far down as the termination of the short reign, or 
rather usurpation, of Charles the Bald, of France, in 877. At 
that period, or perhaps a few years subsequent, it may be con 
sidered as having been effectually separated from France; and 
of all the dominions of Charlemagne, it has alone descended 
as an empire, and the representative of the sway which he 
once held over the nations of J,he West. The emperor of 
Germany is to this day, nominally at least, regarded as suc- 
cessor to the Emperors of Rome, 

§ Germany, is said to be compounded of the Celtic word <re?', 
brave, and man, signifying a warlike people. In ancient times, it 
comprehended all the country from the Baltic to Helvetia, and from 



108 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. 

the Rhino to the Vistula. The primitive inhabitants were most pro- 
bably the Celts. But our information respecting Germany is scanty 
till the period of the Roman conquests in that country. Some age<3 
before that time, the Goths, or Teutones, had migrated from the 
eastern part of Europe, along the Euxine, and established them- 
selves on the shores of the Baltic, in Belgica, in the north of France, 
and the south of England ; driving the original inhabitants into the 
northern and western regions.* 

When Rome was in the zenith of its power, Germany seems to 
have been divided into a number of independent principalities ; but 
the inhabitants frequently united in the defence of their common li- 
berty, and many bloody battles established their reputation for bra- 
very, before they sunk under the power and policy of their in- 
vaders. At length, however, their country was reduced to a state 
of provincial subjection to the masters of the world ; and upon the 
decline of the Western Empire of Rome, Germany became a prey to 
the Franks, and a considerable part of it remained under the do- 
minion of earls and marquisses, till Charlemagne extended his 
power, both military and civil, over the whole empire. 

14. The successor of Charles the Bald, was Charles III, 
called the Fat, after an interregnum of three years, 881 A. C. 
France was also under his sway at the same time, but he 
was soon afterwards deposed, and reduced to the greatest ex- 
tremities. 

15. In 887, Arnold, a natural son of Carloman, and 
nephew of Charles III., was proclaimed emperor of Germany, 
In the course of his reign, he defeated the Normans, took 
Rome, and was crowned there by the pope. His son Louis 
III., became his successor in 899, when only seven years of 
age. He was the last emperor descended in the male line from 
Charlemagne. 

§ The reign of Louis is said to have been so much agitated by di- 
visions between the lords and the bishops, that the young emperor 
died of grief. 

From the death of Louis, the empire became strictly elect- 
ive, although, during the hereditary succession, the consent of 
the bishops and grandees had always been asked. 

16. Conrad, duke of Franconia, was elected to fill the 
vacant throne in 912. He reigned seven years, during which 
time he quelled several revolts, and purchased peace of the 
barbarous Hungarians 

§ The German grandees, who assembled at Worms, first offered 
the imperial diadem to Otho, duke of Saxony; but he declining it 

* Webster's Elements, &c. 



GERMANY. " 109 

on account of his advanced age, persuaded them to appiy the invi- 
tation to Conrad. The latter was of imperial descent by his mother, 
who was a daughter of Arnold. During his reign, the affairs ol 
Germany were conducted with great prudence. 

17. Upon the death of Conrad, the imperial dignity was 
bestowed on Henry I., surnamed the Fowler. This prince 
possessed great abilities, and introduced order and good go- 
vernment among his people. He built and embellished cities, 
reduced and conciliated many of the revolted lords, and con- 
quered several tribes, as the Hungarians, Danes, Sclavonians, 
Bohemians, &c. He added Lorrain to his dominions. 

§ Great as Henry was as a statesman, he manifested considerable 
zeal in propagating the Christian faith. A portion of the Vandals 
whom, he subdued, were, under his auspices, converted to this religion. 
He maintained no correspondence with the See of Rome, inasmuch 
as he had been consecrated by his own bishops. 

18. His son Otho I., the great, was elected emperor, 936. 
He carried on the system of his father, in repressing the usur- 
pations, of the lords. The conquest of Bohemia he began in 
938, and finished in 950. In 961 he expelled Berenger II. 
and his son, Adalbert, from Italy, and caused himself to be 
crowned at Milan. The next year he was crowned by Pope 
John XII, and from that time he may be justly styled the 
emperor of the Romans. John afterwards revolted against 
him, but was soon deposed. 

Otho was the greatest prince of his time. After an active 
and commendable reign of thirty years, he died of an apo- 
plectic disorder, in 972. His remains were interred in the 
cathedral church of Magdebourg, where his tomb may be 
still distinguished by a Latin inscription. 

§ Otho owed his ascendancy in Italy to the disorders and crimes of 
the Papacy. Being invited into that country by the Pope and the 
Italian states, while they were contending with Berenger, he defeat- 
ed the latter, and in return for the honours which the Pope conferred 
upon him, he confirmed the donations made to the Holy See by 
Pepin, Charlemagne, and Louis the Debonaire. 

§ The treachery of the Pope, (John XII.) obliged the emperor, in 
two or three successive instances, to visit Italy to compose the dis- 
orders that took place. The last time, he executed exemplary ven- 
geance on his enemies, by hanging one half of the senate. Calling 
together the Lateran Council, he created a new Pope, and obtained 
from the assembled bishops, a solemn acknowledgment of the abso- 
lute right of the emperor to elect to the papacy, to give the investi- 
ture of the crown of Italy, and to nominate to all vacant bishoprics 

The power of parental affection is strikingly exhibited in the foj- 
10 



110 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. 

lowing incident of Otho's life. Ludolphus, his son, had engaged in 
an unnatural revolt, which produced some serious hostilities, and 
occasioned the destruction of the city of Ratisbon ; but after some 
time, the prince was made sensible of his error, and seized an op- 
portunity while the emperor was hunting, to throw himself at his 
feet, and implore his clemency. " Have pity," said he, " upon your 
misguided child, who returns, like the prodigal son, to his father. If 
you permit him to live after having deserved death, he will as- 
suredly repent of his folly and ingratitude, and the residue of his 
life shall be spent in the faithful discharge of filial duty." To this af- 
fecting appeal, Otho couid reply only by a flood of tears and a pa- 
ternal embrace ; but when his agitation subsided, he assured the 
penitent of his warmest favour, and generously pardoned all his 
adherents. 

19. Otho II., surnamed the Sanguinary, succeeded his 
father in 973, during whose reign, and that of several others, 
nothing of importance occurred. The names of the sovereigns 
who followed, down to Henry IV., are Otho III., St. Henry, 
Conrad II., and Henry III. They occupied a period of about 
eighty-three years. 

20. Henry IV., the Great, succeeded his father at the age 
of six years, in 1056. He maintained a perpetual struggle 
with the popes, who insisted, that only the cardinals should 
elect the bishop of Rome. It was the lot of this emperor to 
experience a large share of papal insolence and tyranny. 
After a spirited contest with Pope Gregory VII., during 
w T hich, the pope was twice his prisoner, and the emperor as 
often excommunicated and deposed, Henry fell, at last, the 
victim of ecclesiastical vengeance. At the instigation of 
Pope Urban II., the two sons of the emperor, Conrad and 
Henry, rebelled against their father, and to such an extremity 
was he reduced, through their barbarity and the pope's act of 
excommunication, that he could scarcely obtain the means of 
subsistence. 

His sufferings were terminated by death soon after the ex- 
piration of the present period, viz. in 1106, he having lived 
sixty-four years, and reigned forty-eight. Henry, in his 
youth, was vicious to an uncommon extent, and gave up 
himself freely to the indulgence of his passions. Misfortune, 
afterwards, abated his sensual excesses, if it did not thorough- 
ly reform his character. He lived to acknowledge, that " the 
hand of the Lord had touched him." On the whole, he was 



ENGLAND. Ill 

endowed with many excellent qualities — courage, clemency, 
liberality, and, finally, with contrition and resignation. 

§ The insolent treatment he received from the Pope, appears from 
the following. On one occasion, he set out for Italy, with his wife 
and infant, in order to humble himself at the foot of his holiness. 
On his arrival at the place where the Pope was, he was admitted 
within the outer gate, and informed that he must expect no favour 
until he should have fasted three days, standing from mcyning to 
evening, barefooted amid the snow, and then implored forgiveness 
for his offences. This penance was literally performed, notwith- 
standing the fatigue of the journey, and on the fourth day he re- 
ceived an absolution. 

The liberality of Henry's disposition was such, that he is said to 
\ave entertained the sick, the lame, and the blind, at his own table, 
>nd even to have lodged them in his own apartment, that he might 
ie at hand to minister to their necessities. 

ENGLAND. 

Saxon Kings. — Norman Family. 

21. England, which had been divided into seven distinct 
sovereignties during more than two centuries, became one 
entire kingdom, in 827 A. C. This change was effected by 
the prudence and valour of Egbert, prince of the West Sax- 
ons, who inhabited that part of the heptarchy, which was 
called Wessex and Sussex. 

The occasion which offered for the conquest and union of 
the heptarchy, arose from the fact, that Egbert alone remain- 
ed of the descendants of the Saxon conquerors of Britain ; 
he, therefore, naturally looked to the dominion of the several 
states, as a sort of right ; nor did he hesitate to claim it, also, 
with his sword. Success attended his undertaking, and four 
hundred years after the arrival of the Saxons in Britain, 
were they united into one powerful kingdom. 

22 The English, who were so happily united under Eg- 
bert, enjoyed their prosperity but a short period. The pirati- 
cal Danes, or Normans, who had molested the English coasts 
for fifty years, now became still more troublesome. During 
the life of Egbert, they twice attempted an invasion, but were 
repulsed with much slaughter. 

The death of Egbert, and the character of his successor, 
Ethel wolf, a prince of a very yielding disposition, encouraged 
the Danes to multiply their depredations. They were oftea 



1152 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. 

defeated, but could not be expelled. By his will, Ethelwolf 
divided England between his two eldest sons — Ethelbald 
and Ethel bert. Alfred, afterwards so illustrious, was a young 
er son. 

§ It was Ethelwolf who, through facility of disposition, not only 
granted to the priesthood a perpetual right to tithes, but exempted 
it from all services and imposts. 

The reign of Ethelbald and Ethelbert was short, — com- 
mencing in 857, and ending in 866. To Ethelred, a third 
brother, the sceptre was bequeathed. He died bravely, in 
battle against the Danes, and then the immortal Alfred suc- 
ceeded, in 872. 

23. This prince, who was only twenty-two years of age, 
when he ascended the throne, found his kingdom in a most 
miserable condition. It was scourged and afflicted by an- 
archy, domestic barbarism, and foreign aggression. By his 
efforts, however, he succeeded in raising it to an eminence 
and happiness, surpassing what might have been expected at 
that period. His talents, virtues, and character, were of the 
highest order, and have justly endeared his name and 
memory to the bosom of every Englishman. The institu 
tions which he founded are, to this day, the glory of the Bri 
tish realm. 

He patronised learning and the arts — encouraged manu 
factures and commerce — appropriated a seventh of his reve 
nue to restore the ruined cities, castles, palaces, monasteries- 
founded or revived the university of Oxford — divided Eng- 
land into counties and hundreds — took a survey of the coun- 
try, and formed a code of laws, which, though now lost, is 
generally deemed the origin of the common law. 

§The wisdom of his civil institutions may be seen in his division 
of the country. This plan was resorted to with a view to restore 
the order which the violence and rapacity of the Danes had sub- 
verted. Besides a division into counties and hundreds, there were 
the smaller divisions of tithings. Ten householders formed a tith- 
ing, who were answerable for each other's conduct, and over 
whom a hea^borough was appointed to preside. Every man was 
registered in some tithing, and none could change his habitation, 
without a certificate from theheadborough. 

In the decision of differences, the headborough, also called tith- 
ing-man, summoned his tithing to assist him. In affairs of great 
moment, or in controversies between the members of different tith- 
ings, the cause was brought before the court of the hundred, which 



ENGLAND. llS 

was assembled every four weeks. Here we may trace the origin of 
juries. Twelve freeholders, sworn to do impartial justice, tried the 
cause in this court The county court, which met twice a year, 
and consisted of the freeholders of the county, was superior to that 
of the hundred, from which it received appeals. Here disputes be- 
tween the inhabitants of different hundreds were settled. The ulti- 
mate appeal from these several courts, lay to the king in council. 

The reign of Alfred was signalized by his contest with the 
Danes. Within the space of one year, he defeated them in 
sight battles ; but a new irruption of their countrymen, forced 
aim to solicit a peace, which these pirates frequently inter- 
rupted by fresh hostilities. At this juncture, Alfred was com- 
pelled to secure his person by retreating into an obscure part 
of the country. Here he continued, disguised in the habit 
of a peasant, for many months, until the disorders in the Da- 
nish army oifered a fair opportunity for attacking them. This 
he embraced with great effect Instead of cutting them off en- 
tirely, as he might have done, he incorporated many of them 
with his English subjects. It was after these exploits, that he 
turned his attention, as already mentioned, to the internal 
improvements of his kingdom. He died in the full vigour 
of his age and faculties, after a glorious reign of twenty-nine 
years, and was justly sur named the Great. 

§ Alfred having perceived the remissness of the enemy, from whose 
pursuit he had secreted himself, ventured at length to quit his retire- 
ment. With a few of his retainers, he had made some sudden and par- 
tial attacks on the Danes ; but before he attempted to assemble his 
subjects generally in arms, he was determined to explore the state of 
the enemy. His skill as a harper procured him admission into their 
camp. Having been introduced to Guthrum, their prince, he played 
before him in his tent. Here he witnessed their supineness. 

Encouraged by what he had seen, he sent private emissaries to 
the most considerable of his friends, and summoned them to meet 
him with their retainers, at a certain place. The English crowded 
around the standard of a monarch whom they so fondly loved, and 
before their ardour could cool, he led them victoriously against the 
enemies of their country. 

24. Edward, surnamed the Elder, succeeded his father Al- 
fred, in 901. He lived in a stormy period, being continually 
molested by the Northumbrian Danes ; yet he was generally 
successful in his wars, and his administration of government 
was honourable to his character. He reigned twenty-four 
years. 

§ Ethel wald, a younger son of Alfred, inherited his father's passion 

10* 



114 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. 

for letters, and lived a private life — a happy turn and destiny tor 
the son of a prince. 

25. Athelstan, a natural son of Edward, succeeded him, 
925. He was an able and popular sovereign, and opposed 
with success the Northumbrian Danes, Welsh, Scots, &c. 
He encouraged navigation, by conferring the rank of thane, 
or gentleman, on every merchant who had made three voy- 
ages to the Mediterranean on his own account. His reign 
was of sixteen years continuance. 

§ He effected the laudable design of translating the Scriptures into 
the Saxon tongue, which appears to have been the earliest version 
of that book into the language of Britain. 

26. Edmund, a legitimate son of Edward, next ascended 
the throne, 941. He reigned about five years, having perish- 
ed by the hand of Leolf, a notorious robber. 

Edred, a brother of Edmund, became his successor, 946. 
In this prince, was the singular mixture of courage and su- 
perstition. His courage he manifested in reducing to obe- 
dience the Northumbrian Danes — his superstition, in becom- 
ing the dupe of the famous Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury. 
He abandoned his conscience to this deceiver. 

§ Dunstan invented several marvellous legends of his conflicts with 
the devil— pretended piety, but possessed an inordinate ambition — 
and was at last canonized as a saint. 

27. Edwy, a nephew of Edred, now filled the throne of 
the Saxon kings of England, 955. By marrying within the 
degrees of affinity prohibited by the canon law, he and his 
beautiful princess Elgiva, both became objects of monkish per- 
secution. 

§ Archbishop Odo, with a band of soldiers, seized Elgiva, burned 
her face with a hot iron, and forcibly carried her into Ireland. 
When afterwards she attempted to return to the arms of her hus- 
band, she was secured by this detestable ecclesiastic, and by his 
order so mutilated, that she died in a few days in the sharpest torment. 

2S. Edgar, the younger brother of Edwy, succeeded to the 
throne, 959. His reign lasted sixteen years. His private 
character was detestable, on account of his licentiousness ; but 
energy and success distinguished his public administrations. 
He promoted the inhuman and fanatical Dunstan to the arch- 
bishopric of Canterbury, and paying that prelate a forced ho- 
mage, he was able to carry into effect his various plans of go- 
vernment. 

§ Edgar obtained his wife Elfrida, in the following manner. Shu 



ENGLAND. 115 

was a daughter of the Earl of Devonshire, and the greatest beauty 
of the English court. Edgar designing to marry her if her charms 
were found answerable to report, sent his favourite, Athelwold, to 
visit her, and bring him an account of her person. 

The courtier's fidelity was overcome by the beauty of Elfrida, 
and with a view to secure her for himself, he gave an unfavoura- 
ble account to the king, at the same time intimating that she would 
on the whole be an advantageous match for himself, on account of 
her riches and birth. The king forwarded his favourite's views, and 
he obtained the hand of the fair damsel. 

The truth, however, soon came to the ears of the king, and inform- 
ing Atholwold that he would like to be introduced to Elfrida, and 
the courtier being afraid to decline the honour, he had an opportu- 
nity, of witnessing with his own eyes, the loveliness of her person. 
Atholwold, in the mean time, had been obliged, in the hope of saving 
his wife, to reveal the whole transaction to her, and besought her to 
disguise her beauty on the occasion. 

She, however, resenting the artifice by which she had lost a crown, 
purposely sought to captivate the king by a display of her person, 
and easily succeeded. Edgar soon after embraced an opportunity 
in hunting, of stabbing Athelwold, and reaped the fruit of his 
crime in the possession of the enchanting fair one. 

29. The reign of Edward, son of Edgar, by his first wife, 
was short and uninteresting. He perished by assassination, 
which was instigated by his step-mother Elfrida, 978. 

Ethelred II., son of Edgar, by Elfrida, was placed on the 
throne at the age of eleven. His surname was Unready, the 
reproachful epithet of his weakness. His hatred of the Danes, 
who again molested England, was so great, that he ordered 
a massacre of all those of that people who had been retained 
as mercenaries in his army. This barbarous mandate was 
strictly executed. 

The Danes at home, however, resolved on vengeance, and 
accordingly under Sweyn, their king, they invaded and rava- 
ged the country. London was saved from destruction, only 
by the payment of a tribute. The weak Ethelred fleeing to 
Normandy, the English nobility were ashamed of their prince, 
and in despair of relief, offered the kingdom to Sweyn. 

The Dane, however, died soon afterwards, and Ethelred 
was restored ; but Canute, the son of Sweyn, asserted his 
claims to the crown by force of arms. He was opposed by 
Edmund, son of Ethelred, with various success. 

In the mean time, Ethelred died, after a long and inglorious 
reign, and Edmund succeeded to the government, 1016. In 



116 MODERN HISTORY — PERIOD V. 

the war which he carried on with Canute, he was obliged, at 
length, to divide his kingdom with the latter. But he sur- 
vived this treaty only a month, having been cut off by the 
treachery of his brother-in-law, Edric. 

j Edmund was surnamed Ironside, from his strength and valour ; 
but though he put forth every effort, he could not save his realm. 
He left two children, who, however, never succeeded to the throne. 

Canute became sole monarch, upon the death of Edmund, 
in 1017, and proved to be the most powerful sovereign of his 
time. He was surnamed the Great, and possessed eminent 
abilities. He was terrible in his resentments, but an impar- 
tial dispenser of justice. 

§ In the distribution of justice, he made no distinction between the 
Danes and English ; he restored the Saxon customs, and gradually 
incorporated the victors with the vanquished. His mind was affected 
with religious considerations towards the close of life, and he became 
alarmed in view of the crimes he had committed, (for he had put 
many of his subjects to death without cause,) but his piety was of 
that superstitious kind, which displayed itself in building churches 
and endowing monasteries, the great virtues of those ages. 

30. Of the three sons whom Canute left, two ruled in suc- 
cession over England, viz. — Harold, surnamed Harefoot, from 
his speed in running, who reigned only four years, and Har- 
dicanute, who reigned but a few months. 

Upon the death of the latter, the English freed themselves 
from the Danish yoke, and restored the Saxon line in Ed- 
ward, a younger son of Ethelred, 1041. He was entitled the 
Confessor, and reigned twenty-five years without merit of 
any kind, unless it were his ability to conciliate the esteem 
of the monks. Having no children, and wishing to defeat 
the views of Harold, the son of the Earl of Godwin, an as- 
pirant to the throne, he appointed his kinsman, William, Duke 
of Normandy, his successor. Edward was the last of the 
Saxon kings of England, 

§ Edward united all the laws of England in one body, called the 
Common Law. He was the first king of England, who pretended 
to cure the king's evil by his touch, a practice which was continued 
till the Hanover succession. 

31. On the death of Edward, Harold actually took posses- 
sion of the throne, but William determined to secure it as his 
rightful inheritance. His preparations were very formidable, 
and he was aided in this romantic age, by many sovereign 



ENGLAND. 117 

princes, and a vast body of nobility from the different king- 
doms on the continent. 

With an army of 60,000 men, he set sail for the English 
coast. Harold, with nearly the same number of soldiers, met 
him, and was defeated and slain in the field of Hastings. 
The English army was nearly destroyed, while the Normans 
lost about 15,000 men. William, from this time styled the 
Conqueror, soon assumed the prerogatives of sovereignty, 
1066 A. C The princes of the Norman family ruled till the 
time of Henry II. 

William's administration of government was marked with 
ability, and in general, with success. In consequence of the 
discontent often manifested by his English subjects, he began 
10 treat them too much as a conquered people, and the natural 
tyranny of his disposition increased by the commotions in 
which this policy involved him. Hence his measures were 
frequently arbitrary and cruel. 

He alienated the minds of the conquered, by conferring on 
his Norman followers, all the important places in the govern- 
ment ; by causing the Norman language to be the vehicle of 
the church service, and also of judicial proceedings ; by re- 
serving to himself the exclusive privilege of killing game 
throughout the kingdom, and by depopulating a tract ot 
country about thirty miles round, in order to form a forest. 

§ He was the author of several other regulations of an inauspicious 
nature, some of which were greatly vexatious to the people. He 
introduced the feudal system ; substituted the murderous practice of 
single combat for the trial by jury ; compelled the people to rake 
up their fires, and put out their lights at the sound of the curfew 
bell ; and he made it a greater crime to destroy an animal, than to 
murder a man. One useful act of his reign, was a survey of all the 
lands and estates of the kingdom, with an estimate of their value, an 
enumeration of every class of inhabitants who lived on them, and 
other important specifications. This record is called the Doomsday- 
book, which is still in being. 

The children of William brought on him no small share 
of trouble. His eldest son Robert, attempted to wrest from 
him the sovereignty of Maine, and his foreign subjects assist- 
ed the rebel. The king led against them an army of the 
English, and during the battle was on the point of being kill- 
ed in a rencounter with his son. Soon after, while waging 
a war with Philip I. of France, who had aided in the rebel- 
lion, he was accidentally killed by a fall from his horse, 1087. 



118 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD V. 

He reigned nearly twenty-one years over England, and be- 
queathed the sceptre to his second son William. 

William was eminent as a statesman and warrior, and was 
at times capable of generous emotions ; but the prominent 
traits of his character were very unamiable. His pride, am- 
bition, austerity, and cruelty, both inflicted sufferings on his 
people, and robbed his own mind of peace. In his adminis- 
tration, though he was sometimes politic, he erred on the side 
of severity. 

§ The person of William, was such as befitted a sovereign, espe- 
cially in a rude and warlike age. He was tall, majestic, and well 
proportioned. His strength was so great that scarcely any other 
person could bend his bow, or wield his arms. He was, however, 
near being overcome by the prowess of his son Robert, on a certain 
occasion. 

While contending with the forces of that rebel, he happened to 
engage with him in person. They were mutually unknown to each 
other, as they were concealed by their armour. Both being vigo- 
rous and resolute, a fierce combat ensued. Robert at length wound- 
ed and dismounted his father, nor did he discover who his antago- 
nist was, till at that instant, in his cry for assistance, William's voice 
was recognized by his son. 

Struck with remorse and horror, the young prince threw himself 
at his father's feet, and implored forgiveness, at the same time assist- 
ing him to mount his own horse. William was implacable at first, 
but reflecting on his son's generosity, he soon became reconciled to 
him, and invited him into England. 

32. William II., surnamed Rufus, from his red hair, ascend- 
ed the throne in 1087. He was destitute of the few virtues 
of his father, and inherited all his vices. Perfidy, tyranny, 
and cruelty, were the chief ingredients of his character. Af- 
ter the defeat of one conspiracy at the beginning, his reign 
was a series of despotic acts, which conferred neither peace 
nor honour, on his country. After a reign of thirteen years, 
he was accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrrel, with an ar- 
row 7 , while hunting in the New Forest. 

§ Tyrrel, from fear of the consequences, fled to France. The body 
of William, after several days, was found by the country people, 
and conveyed in a cart to Winchester, where it was interred. The 
person who carried the corpse of the kin^ to interment, was named 
Purkis, and it is remarkable, that some of his decendants, are known, 
at this very day, to reside near the same spot. 

The chief monuments that perpetuate the name of Rufus, are the 
Tower, Westminister Hall, and London Bridge. 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 119 

EASTERN EMPIRE. 

33. The Eastern, or GreekEmpire, during the present 
period, was ruled by thirty-nine emperors, most of them fol- 
lowing in succession, though in a few instances, two or more 
ruled at the same time, and jointly. None of them were very 
distinguished, though a very few were respectable sovereigns. 
In general they were a weak or vicious race, yet scarcely too 
degraded to be rulers of the degenerate Romans. A few 
names will appear below. 

This people, compared with what they had been, were low ; 
yet still they were on an equality, at least, with the first na- 
tions of Europe, at that time. Their degeneracy was rather 
in moral and intellectual qualities, than in external show and 
consequence. There remained among them much of ancient 
wealth and splendour. 

§ In the 10th century, the provinces that still acknowledged the au- 
thority of the successors of Constantine, had been cast into a new 
form by the institution of the themes, or military governments. Of 
these, there were twenty-nine, viz. twelve in Europe, and seventeen in 
Asia; but their origin is obscure. The victories of a few of the em- 
perors had enlarged the boundaries of the Roman name ; but in the 
eleventh century the prospect was darkened. The relics of Italy 
were swept away by the Norman adventurers, and the Turks had 
removed many of the. Asiatic props of the empire. Still the spa- 
cious provinces of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, were obedient to 
their sceptre, and they possessed Cyprus, Rhodes, and Crete, with 
the fifty islands of the yEgean Sea. 

The subjects of the Byzantine empire, were more dexterous than 
other nations, and in the support and restoration of the arts, their 
patient and peaceful temper, and refined taste, are highly to be com- 
mended. The first demand of the public revenue was the pomp 
and pleasure of the emperors. The coasts and islands of Asia and 
Europe,. were covered with their magnificent villas. The great pa- 
lace, the centre of imperial residence, was decorated and enlarged 
by the wealth of successive sovereigns ; and the long series of apart- 
ments were adorned with a profusion of gold, silver, and precious 
stones. 

Of the numerous emperors of this period, whose reigns in general 
must have been short, the following only can be noticed. 

Basil I., who ascended in 867, was from an obscure family, but 
proved himself worthy of his elevation. He defeated the Saracens 
in the east, and in Italy, but could not prevent them from ravaging 
the Peloponnesus. 

An incident of this emperor's reign is the following. His son, Leo, 
had oeeii imprisoned on a false accusation of an attempt to assas- 



120 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. 

sinate the emperor. Frequent intercessions were made bj those 
who believed in the son's innocence, to have him released, till the 
emperor in his impatience, forbade Leo's name to be mentioned in his 
hearing. It happened, however, one day, that a parrot which had often 
heard a regret expressed for the unhappy prince, on a sudden broke 
out with, " Alas, poor Leo !" in the emperor's presence. Basil, struck 
with the sounds, was so moved that he consented to his son's libera- 
tion. 

Nicephorus Phocas possessed the reputation both of a hero and 
saint. His saintship, however, was only a pretence. He proved his 
claim to heroism in his wars with the Saracens. He invaded Asia, 
and overran Mesopotamia. His vices, especially his avarice, render- 
ed him odious to his subjects. He was assassinated by John Zime- 
sees, who succeeded him in the empire, and who afterwards met 
with the same fate. 

Basil II. marched against the kingdom of Bavaria, and finally de- 
stroyed it. On this occasion, it is related of him, that having taken 
a great number of prisoners, he divided them into companies of an 
hundred each, caused all their eyes to be put out, and ordered them 
to be conducted to their king by a man who h&d one eye left. This 
horrible spectacle so affected the king of Bulgaria, that he fainted 
away, and died two days afterwards. 

CHINA. 

34. The thirteenth dynasty of the emperors of China ter- 
minated during the present period, which included also five 
other dynasties. The number of emperors was thirty-three. 
Some of them were very wise men. In the reign of Tai- 
tsong, of the thirteenth dynasty, Christianity was introduced 
into a small part of China. 

§ Tai-tsong was one of the greatest of the Chinese princes. He 
was wise, frugal, and affable. His ministers attempted to excite in 
him apprehensions from his too great familiarity with his subjects; 
but he replied, "I consider myself in the empire as a father in his 
family. I carry all my people in my bosom, as if they were my 
children. What then have I to fear V 1 

Chwang-tsong, of the fifteenth dynasty, from a general, stepped to 
the throne. As emperor, he preserved his martial habits, lived very 
frugally, and slept on the bare ground with a bell about his neck to 
prevent his sleeping too long. He was devout, and all his prayers 
were offered for the good of his subjects. Block printing was in- 
vented among the Chinese during his reign. 

SARACENS. 

35. At the commencement of the present period, the Sa- 
racens were flourishing in science and the arts. Their mi- 
litary distinction was perhaps on the wane. Nearly forty 



SARACENS. 121 

years had elapsed, since the seat of their empire was trans- 
ferred to Bagdad, and Arabia, in consequence, had lost much 
of its importance. Many of the chiefs of the interior provin- 
ces became independent, and withdrew themselves from the 
civil jurisdiction of the caliph. 

§ It is supposed, that the Saracens, had they acknowledged only 
one head, might have established and perpetuated an immense em- 
pire. But after the extension of their conquests, they were broken 
up into separate states. Egypt, Morocco, Spain, and India, had, at 
an early period, their own sovereigns, who, though they paid a reli- 
gious respect to the caliph of Bagdad, awarded him no temporal 
submission. Divided among themselves, they were destined ere 
long to fall. 

36. The principal military expedition of the African Sara- 
cens in this period, was the invasion of Sicily, and the project- 
ed conquest of Italy. They actually laid siege to Rome, which 
was strenuously defended by Pope Leo IV. They were en- 
tirely repulsed, having their ships dispersed by a storm, and 
their army cut to pieces, 848. 

37. The house of Abbas, which now enjoyed the caliphate, 
furnished twenty-two caliphs during this period. These reign- 
ed in succession, and Bagdad continued to be the seat of their 
power. In the year 1055, however, Bagdad was taken by the 
Turks, and the caliphs, from that time, instead of being tem- 
poral monarchs, became only the supreme pontiffs of the Ma- 
hometan faith. 

At the time of the first crusade, in the beginning of the 
next period, Arabia was governed by a Turkish sultan, as 
were Persia, and the greater portion of lesser Asia. 

§ We can notice only one or two of the caliphs of Bagdad. Adad- 
odawla was deemed a great prince. He was magnanimous, liberal, 
prudent, and learned ; but he was also insatiably ambitious. A re- 
mark which he made when at the point of death, is a melancholy 
comment on human greatness. With a faultering tongue, he cried, 
" What have all my riches and prosperity availed me ? My power 
and authority are now at an end. ?J 

Mahmud Gazfii, was a famous conqueror. He invaded and con- 
quered a part of India. The following striking anecdote is related 
of him by historians. A poor man, who had complained to him 
that one of his soldiers had driven himself and family out of his 
house in the night, was told to inform the prince if that occurrence 
should take place again. The poor man had occasion to inform the 
prince, who went to the house, and causing the lights to be extin- 
guished, cut the intruder in pieces. The prince then commanded 
the flambeaux to be lighted, and after closely inspecting the corpse, 

11 



122 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. 

offered thanks to God, and asked for some refreshment. This being 
afforded, he ate heartily of the mean fare. 

Being interrogated by his host respecting the reason of his con- 
duct, he replied, " Ever since your complaint, my mind has been 
harassed with the thought, that none but one of my own sons would 
commit such an act of audacity. I had resolved to show him no 
lenity, and commanded the lights to be put out, that the sight oi 
him might not affect me ; but on seeing that the criminal was not 
my son. I returned thanks to the Almighty." 

Distinguished Characters in Period V. 

1. Charlemagne, a successful warrior and able sovereign. 

2. Photius, a learned Christian writer and philosopher. 

3. Erigena, a Scotch philosopher and learned divine. 

4. Alfred, a wise, learned, and virtuous prince. 

5. Al Razi, an eminent Arabian scholar, and physician. 

6. Avicenna, an Arabian philosopher and physician. 

7. Suidas, a Greek lexicographer. 

§ 1. Charlemagne, of whom some account has already been given, 
was king of France, by succession, and emperor of the west, by 
conquest, in 800. He laid the foundation of the dynasty of the 
Western Franks. Though his empire did not hold together, long 
after his death, his successors in the several states of which it had 
been composed, reigned several centuries, in the line of the Franks. 
Indeed, this was the case, till the house of Austria was founded. 

Charlemagne was in many respects an admirable sovereign. Ho 
excelled in war ; and although he was so illiterate that he could 
not spell his name, he was great in the cabinet, and patronised 
learning. He invited into France, literary and scientific men from 
Italy, and from the Britannic Isles. The latter, in those dark ages, 
preserved more of the light of learning, than any of the western 
kingdoms. 

His private character has been much eulogized, though it is ac- 
knowledged that he was sometimes rigid and cruel. He was simple 
in his manners and dress, and opposed to parade and luxury. Eco- 
nomy, industry, and plainness, characterised him in a domestic state 
His daughters were assiduously employed in spinning and house- 
wifery, and his sons were trained by himself in all manly exercises 
Except when he held his general assemblies, his dress, table and at- 
tendants were like those of a private person. 

He was a man of almost incredible activity. Instead of confiding 
in the reports of others, he personally saw that his orders were ex- 
ecuted. The condition of his subjects was constantly in his view. 
In one place, he ordered the repairs of a highway; in another, the 
construction of a bridge ; and in another, he afforded the necessary 
aid to agriculture and commerce. Each of the provinces partook 
in its turn of his benefits. 

Charlemagne founded several seminaries of learning ; but the 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 123 

darkness of the times could scarcely be alleviated by all his efforts. 
He suppressed mendicity, and established a fixed and invariable 
price for corn. The meanest of his subjects were thus enabled to 
provide against their wants, and all complaints on this head were 
banished. After rearing a splendid empire, he departed this life at 
the age of seventy-one years. 

2. Photius was patriarch of Constantinople in the ninth century, 
and the greatest man of the age in which he lived. He possessed 
the patriarchate only ten years, during which, he was exposed to a 
most turbulent opposition and cabal. He was at last deposed, ana 
died in a monastery. He deserves a high rank in point of erudi- 
tion. He was the author of a commentary on the ancient writers, 
a collection of the canons of the church, epistles, &c. These are 
yet valuable on several accounts. In commenting on the scriptures, 
although he followed reason, rather than authority, he is not on the 
whole a model fit to be taken. He explained with ability the cate- 
gories of Aristotle. He died in 886. 

3. Erigena, John Scotus, was born at Ayr, in Scotland, according 
to some authorities, and was very learned, in a very barbarous age. 
He was employed by king Alfred to promote learning and the liberal 
arts. For this purpose he was appointed to preside at Oxford, over 
the studies of geometry and astronomy in particular. He spent 
three years in this situation ; but some disputes and disturbances 
arising at Oxford, he left that place and retired to a monastery at 
Malmsbury. There he opened a school, but his harshness and se- 
verity to his scholars so provoked them, that they stabbed him with 
the iron bodkins they then wrote with, in such a manner, that he 
died, 8S3. Mosheim speaks of Erigena as an eminent philosopher 
and learned divine, and as manifesting uncommon sagacity and 
genius. He wrote a book on Predestination, and translated into 
Latin four pieces of Dionysius, the Areopagite, and was the author 
of some other works. 

4. Alfred, so justly surnamed the Great, was born in 849, as is 
supposed, at Wantage, in Berkshire. He succeeded to the crown on 
the death of his brother Ethelred in 871 ; but he had scarcely time 
to attend to the funeral of his brother, before he was obliged to 
fight for his kingdom and life, with the piratical Danes. His mili- 
tary exploits, with several other things, have been above related. The 
particulars which may with propriety be added, are the following. 

Alfred was both a wise and a pious prince. His qualities were 
most happily blended together, so that no one encroached on ano- 
ther. He reconciled a most diligent attention to business, with the 
purest and warmest devotion — the severest justice with the most ex- 
emplary lenity — the brightest capacity and inclination for science 
with the most shining talents for action. He was equally a warrior 
and a legislator. He united with rich mental endowments, every 
personal grace and accomplishment. 

The darkness and superstitions of the age, were too powerful for 
his efforts and institutions. He could not expel them to any great 



124 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. 

extent. Yet he did considerable to elevate the character of his 
countrymen, and he aimed at much more. In addition to the schools 
and seminaries of learning which he founded, he afforded the attrac- 
tive influence of his own example. 

His time he usually divided into three equal portions — one was 
employed in exercise or the refection of the body — another in the 
despatch of business — and a third in study and devotion. He con- 
veyed his instructions to the people in parables, stories, &c. couch- 
ed in poetry ; as he considered these best adapted to their capa- 
city. He translated the Fables of ^Esop, the histories of Orosius 
and Beda, andBoethius on the Consolation of Philosophy. In these 
various literary engagements, he sought the good of his people, as 
well as his own personal, intellectual improvement. 

5. Al Razi, a name not perhaps well known in European literature, 
was famous in the Arabian annals; and the Arabians at this era 
were the most enlightened of the nations. This person is said to 
have been extremely well versed in all kinds of ancient learning: 
though he excelled most in physic, and is styled the Phcenix of the 
age. He applied himself to the study of philosophy with such suc- 
cess, that he made a wonderful progress in every branch of it, and 
composed a great number of books upon physical and philosophical 
subjects. He composed 12 books on alchemy, in which he asserted 
the possibility of a transmutation of metals, and was the first writer 
on the small-pox. 

He is said to have contracted webs in his eyes by the immoderate 
eating of beans ; and towards the close of his life, lost both of them 
by cataracts. He would not permit an occulist, who came to couch 
him, to perform the operation, because he could not tell of how 
many little coats the eye consisted ; saying at the same time, that he 
was not very desirous of recovering his sight, as he had already seen 
enough of the world to make him abhor it. He died about the year 935. 

6. Avicenna, who is much celebrated among his countrymen, the 
Mahometans, was born in the year 980, and died in 1036. The num- 
ber of his books, including his smaller tracts, is computed at near 
one hundred, the majority of which are either lost, or unknown 
in Europe. At the age of ten years, he had made great progress in 
classical literature. It is said that ho read over Aristotle's metaphy- 
sics 40 times, got it by heart, but cotad not understand it. Acciden- 
tally meeting with a book which treated of the objects of metaphy- 
sics, he perceived what Aristotle meant, and out of joy at the disco- 
very, gave alms to the poor. 

7. Suidas flourished between 975 and 1025. His native country 
is not known. He is the author of a very useful Greek Lexicon 
The work contains much historical and geographical information 
No particulars seem to have been recorded respecting his life, either 
by himself or by others. He is known oniy by his book. 



The cRusAbtes. 125 



PERIOD VI. 

The period of the Crusades ; extending from the First 
Crusade, 1095 years A. C, to the founding of the 
Turkish Empire, 1299 years A. C. 

During this period. Ave have manifold proofs of the darkness o 
the times, with a singular mixture of a spirit of adventure, and lofty 
daring. The age was peculiarly characterised by the crusades, the 
passion for pilgrimages, the exploits of chivalry, and the production 
of romances. Barbarism and turbulence extensively prevailed, while 
the lights of science were few and dim. In England, however, there 
was the early dawn of literature. 

THE CRUSADES. 

Sect. 1. In giving an account of the Crusades, we include 
a portion of the history of the principal European nations. For 
this reason, less of the separate history of those nations will 
appear during this period, than would otherwise be introdu- 
ced. The Crusades were common to all Christendom, and 
all felt a deep interest in them. The other peculiarities of the 
times, as pilgrimages, chivalry, the feudal system, &c. since 
they belonged to the established customs and institutions of 
Europe, will be unfolded in the General Views. In the Cru- 
sades, the political and military history of a great part of the 
world is carried on for a long time. 

2. The Crusades were wars undertaken principally during 
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, by the Christian nations 
of Europe, on account of religion. They were termed Cru- 
sades, from the cross which was the badge of the combatants. 
The object of these wars was the deliverance of Palestine, 
and particularly the tomb of Jesus Christ from the dominion 
of the Turks or Mahometans. 

The Turks, or Turcomans, a race of Tartars, having, in 
1055, taken Bagdad, and thus overturned the empire of the 
caliphs, came into the possession of the countries which these 
caliphs had governed, and the caliphs themselves, instead of 
temporal monarchs, became sovereign pontiffs of the Mahome- 
tan faith. Palestine, and particularly Jerusalem, were of course 
under the sway of the Turks, and the seat of their religion. 

11* 



126 MODERN HISTORY. — -PERIOD VI. 

Tft this situation of things, the resort of pilgrims to the 
tomb of our Saviour was attended with much difficulty and 
danger. While the Saracens held possession of the country, 
the pilgrims were permitted to have free access to the holy 
city ; but its new masters, the Turks, were a more wild and 
ferocious people. They insulted and robbed those fanatical 
devotees — a circumstance, in such an age, of sufficient im- 
portance to arouse all Europe for the deliverance of Jerusalem 
from the infidels. The Roman pontiffs were the principal 
instigators of these desperate adventures. 

§ In an age of religious enthusiasm, and in an unenlightened state 
of society, it is not surprising that Judea should have been an object 
of veneration, or superstitious regard to the Christian world. Here 
the great events recorded in the sacred scriptures transpired — the 
chosen people of God subsisted through many generations — unnum- 
bered miracles were performed — the Mosaic and Christian dispen- 
sations were set up — even God's own Son, the Messiah, lived, suffer- 
ed, and died. Here prophets and apostles had preached, and writ- 
ten, and shed their blood in testimony of the truth, and every tenant- 
ed part, especially the Holy City, was marked by some divine inter- 
position or manifestation, most dear to the lover of piety. 

A country so hallowed, is capable, even now, of exciting the most 
delightful associations; and though we are in no danger of attempt- 
ing any thing like a crusade, yet nothing relating to such a land can 
be contemplated without deep emotion. What sensations then must 
have been excited in a deeply enthusiastic and superstitious age ! 
And much as we smile at their folly, how easily can we account for 
the ardour which was displayed by unlettered minds and fanatical 
tempers, on the subject of the crusades ! Connected also, as was a 
pilgrimage to the holy land, with the idea of merit, and merit even 
sufficient to purchase salvation, nothing can be conceived more cal- 
culated to arouse every honourable and indignant feeling, than the 
obstructions in the way of such a devotion. It was a hardship not 
to be endured, that the Christian disciple should be prevented from 
approaching and musing over, with a sort of adoration, the sepul- 
chre in which his blessed Redeemer was laid. 

2 k There were five* expeditions of the kind here spoken 
of, which, during nearly two centuries, drained from Europe 
most of its life-blood and treasures. All western Europe be- 
came involved in these destructive wars, but the French en 
tered upon them with more enthusiasm than any other na- 
tion. 

The first crusade was preached by Peter, commonly styled 

* Some reckon a larger number. 



THE CRUSADES. 127 

the hermit. After having sufficiently excited Christendom by 
his rude eloquence, he found vast multitudes ready to engage 
in the hazardous undertaking. The popes, however, had 
for some time contemplated the same design, and Urban II., 
the reigning pontiff, availed himself of this opportunity of 
executing his splendid project of arming the whole of Chris- 
tendom against the Mahometans, through the instrumentality 
of Peter. Two general councils were called and held on the 
subject, one at Placentia and the other at Clermont, and were 
attended by many thousands. The pope himself harangued 
the multitude, and offered to all who would engage in the ser- 
vice, plenary indulgence, and full absolution of sins. 

Peter, who possessed none of the necessary qualities of a 
military leader, was placed at the head of this motley crowd 
of all ages, conditions, and character, amounting to eighty 
thousand men. They commenced their march towards the 
East, in the spring of 1096, and were soon followed by an 
addition of two hundred thousand persons of the same pro- 
miscuous description. They were any thing rather than a 
regularly appointed army, or efficient military force. Their 
progress was marked by outrages ; not more than one third 
of them reached the scene of action; and those who did, 
were nearly all cut off in battle on the plain of Nice. 

§ Peter the Hermit, was a native of Amiens, in Picardy, (France.) 
He seems to have been the first effectual mover of this mighty, and 
it may be properly added, mad project. His own pilgrimage to the 
tomb of our Saviour, had made him acquainted with the dangers and 
vexations to which pilgrims were exposed in Asia, and became the 
occasion or cause of the enterprise in which he embarked. Fired 
with a sense of his own wrongs, and those of his fellow pilgrims, 
he sought the gratification of revenge, or at least, the means of 
preventing the recurrence of those evils, in future. For this purpose 
he travelled from city to city, and from kingdom to kingdom, repre- 
senting with a rude but pathetic eloquence, the grievances of the 
pilgrims, and urging the necessity of making a common effort against 
the common enemy of Christians and their religion. On this sub- 
ject he exhorted all whom he met, and hesitated not to call on no- 
bles as well as their vassals — the rich as well as the poor. 

His applications of this kind were aided by his. personal appear- 
ance. He was a monk, and exhibited all the austerity of that cha- 
racter. He was an enthusiast, and displayed more than an enthu- 
siast's madness. He travelled bare headed, and with naked arms 
and legs, having only a part of his body covered with a coarse gar- 
ment. He seemed wasted with fasting, and exhausted with anxiety 



128 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD Vt. 

and toil. He bore aloft in his hand a ponderous crucifix, to which 
he pointed with the most animated gestures ; nor did he restrain his 
prayers, whatever his situation might be, but poured his whole soul 
in loud and prolonged supplications in the streets and highways. 

The body of enthusiasts who crowded around him was immense. 
Princes, noblemen, artisans, peasants, monks, and even women, ma- 
nifested equal anxiety to bend their steps to the East, and expel the 
infidel hordes from the consecrated land. To the vicious and aban- 
doned in character— to the ambitious and disorderly — to robbers, in- 
cendiaries, murderers, and other offenders, a fit opportunity was pre- 
sented of procuring the pardon of their sins, and at the same time 
of indulging in unbounded lust and rapine. 

As Malmsbury curiously observes, "the report of the council oi 
Clermont, wafted a cheering gale over the minds of Christians. 
There was no nation so remote, no people so retired, as did not re- 
spond to the papal wishes. This ardent love not only inspired the 
continental provinces, but the most distant islands and savage coun- 
tries. The Welshman left his hunting ; the Scotch his fellowship 
with vermin ; the Dane his drinking party ; the Norwegian his raw 
fish." Robert of Normandy, after mentioning in general terms the 
contributions of men which France and England made to the holy 
war, thus singularly mixes other nations : 

" Of Normandy, of Denmark, of Norway, of Bretagne, 
Of Wales, and of Ireland, of Gascony, and of Spain, 
Of Provence, and of Saxony, and of Allemagne, 
Of Scotland, and of Greece, of Rome and Aquitain " 

At this time, " every wonderful event in the natural world was 
regarded as an indication of the divine will. Meteors and stars 
pointed at and fell on the road to Jerusalem. The skies were in- 
volved in perpetual storms, and the blaze and terror of anxious and 
disordered nature showed the terrific harmony of heaven with the 
sanguinary fury of earth. Man fully responded to the supposed 
calls of God. The moral fabric of Europe was convulsed ; the re- 
lations and charities of life were broken ; society appeared to be 
dissolved. Persons of every age, rank, and degree, assumed the 
cross. The prohibition of women from undertaking this journey 
was passed over in contemptuous silence. They separated them- 
selves from their husbands where men wanted faith, or resolved to 
follow them with their helpless infants. Monks, not waiting for the 
permission of their superiors, threw aside their black mourning 
gowns, and issued from their cloisters full of the spirit of holy war- 
riors. They who had devoted themselves to a solitary life, mistook 
the impulses of passion for divine revelations, and thought that hea- 
ven had annulled their oaths of retirement. A stamp of virtue was 
fixed upon every one who embraced the cause; and many were 
urged to the semblance of religion, by shame, reproach, and fashion. 
When families divided, nature and fanaticism contended for the 
mastery. A wife consented to the departure of her husband, on his 
vowing to return at the end of three years. Another in whom feat 



THE CRUSADES. 129 

was stronger than hope, was lost in violence of grief. The husband 
wore the semblance of indifference, unmoved by the tears of his wife 
and the kisses of his children, though his heart reproached him for 
the sternness of his countenance. On the other hand, fathers led 
their sons to the place of meeting — women blessed the moment of 
separation from their husbands, or if they lamented, it was from 
the cause they were not permitted to share the honours and perils of 
the expedition. In some instances, the poor rustic shod his oxen 
like horses, and placed his whole family in a cart, where »t was 
amusing to hear the children, on the approach to any large town or 
castle, inquiring if the object before them was Jerusalem.' 7 

Such was the disordered rabble that attempted the conquest of 
Palestine, and such the circumstances under which the expedition 
commenced. Only a small part of the vast multitude ever reached 
Asia. From the beginning they were illy provided with necessaries, 
and therefore had recourse to acts of rapine. Their progress, so de- 
structive to the countries through which they passed, was frequently 
arrested by collision with their inhabitants. The Jews of Germa- 
ny were the first sufferers ; but it was in Hungary and Bulgaria 
especially, that the outrages committed by the Crusaders were visit- 
ed upon their own heads. When they arrived at -Constantinople, 
the emperor, Alexius Commenus, to whom they behaved themselves 
with the utmost insolence and folly, was not slow to rid himself of 
his troublesome guests. For this purpose he furnihsed them with 
every aid which they required, and lent his ships to transport them 
across the Bosphorus. 

They thence pursued their march, but the Sultan Solyman meet- 
ing them on the plains of Nice, their numbers were too much redu- 
ced to offer him any thing else than an easy victory. Of their bones, 
Solyman erected a pyramid near the city, as a monument of his own 
fortune, and of their headlong counsels. 

3. A new host, which was the most valuable part of this 
expedition, arrived in the mean time, at Constantinople, as a 
general rendezvous. The commanders were experienced 
generals and men of renown. Among them, were Godfrey 
of Bouillon, by some called commander in chief; Baldwin 
his brother; Robert, duke of Normandy ; Hugh, count of Ver- 
mandois ; Raymond, count of Thoulouse ; Bohemond, prince 
of Tarentum ; and Tancred, his cousin. These and other 
warlike princes and captains, inspired by religious enthu- 
siasm, 01 military ardour, pledged themselves to redeem the 
holy sepulchre from the infidels. The troops, when reviewed 
in the neighbourhood of Nice, amounted to 100,000 horse, 
and 600,000 foot, including women and servants. 

Alexius, the eastern emperor, did not suffer them to remain 
long at Constantinople ; but after seeking to obtain an as- 



130 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

cendency over them as a superior ally, he had the address to 
accelerate their departure. They at length met the Sara- 
cens, whom they overpowered hy numbers. Having twice 
defeated the enemy, they took, after immense difficulty, losses, 
and delay, the cities of Nice, Edessa, and Antioch. 

§ Constantinople, at the period when the crusaders met there, was 
the ]r* gest and most beautiful city of Europe. The most that re- 
mained of ancient elegance in manners and in arts, was included in 
that emporium. It was the mart of the world, and the seat of em- 
pire. Though the Greeks were degenerate, yet such was the splen- 
dour of their capital. 

The hardy warriors of the north, beheld with amazement, these 
scenes of magnificence and wealth, whilst they despised the effemi- 
nate manners and unwarlike character of the people. On the other 
hand, the accomplished inhabitants of Constantinople, looked upon 
the northern warriors as barbarians. They speak of them as illit- 
erate, fierce, and savage, and as nearly resembling their ancestors, 
the Goths and Vandals, who overturned the Roman empire. They 
treated their guests sometimes with respect, but oftener with the 
most hateful duplicity. 

The gold and artifices of the emperor were employed not without 
effect — most of the leaders of the Croises taking the oath of fealty 
to him as their liege lord. He was not averse to the destruction ol 
his enemy, the Turk ; but the numbers and bravery of the warriors 
of the north, filled his bosom with jealousy. On various pretences, 
many of them were cut off in his own territories, and they experi- 
enced several alternatives of peace and war in the country of the 
Greeks. 

The characters of the celebrated leaders of the Croises, on this oc- 
casion, may require a passing notice. Godfrey was endowed by na- 
ture with her choicest gifts. He possessed all the knowledge of the 
times; and the gentlest manners w T ere united with the firmest spirit. 
He was capable of the grandest enterprises; his deportment was 
moral, and his piety was fervent. To sum up his character, in 
arms he was a hero— in his closet a saint. 

The qualities of Baldwin were not so conspicuous. He was brave 
indeed, but he was ambitious; and his courage was stained with sel- 
fishness, cruelty, and injustice. Hugh, who was brother of the 
French king, called to his side the armed pilgrims from Flanders, 
and England, and a part of France. He was a brave and accom- 
plished cavalier, but undevout, and of a proud deportment. Robert, 
who was a son of William the Conqueror, entered upon the holy 
war with a furious and precipitate passion. He was eloquent and 
skilful, but imprudent, yielding, and voluptuous. 

Bohemond posessed neither religion nor probity ; yet to the eye of 
the vulgar, he was one of the most devoted soldiers of Christ. lie 
was intriguing, rapacious and versatile. Tancred was a compara- 



THE CRUSADES. 131 

tively pure and brilliant spirit. He was bold and generous, and would 
have been humane to all mankind, had it not been for the spirit of 
.he age. Raymond was inexorable in his hatred of the Musselmans ; 
pride, selfishness, and avarice tarnished his character. 
The soldier pilgrims all convened on the plains of Nice. 

"There the wild Crusaders form, 

There assembled Europe stands, 
Heaven they deem awakes the storm, 

Hell the paynims' blood demands." 

The details of the siege and capture of Nice, and the subsequent 
operations against Edessa and Antioch, cannot be narrated. Suffice 
it to say, that Nice fell by means of the policy of Alexius, who had 
joined the Franks or crusaders. While the latter, who had with 
much difficulty and loss, effected some breaches in the wall, were 
about to storm anew the repairs, the emperor snatched the victory 
from their grasp, by secretly proposing more favourable terms to the 
besieged, than could be expected from an enemy that would enter 
the city sword in hand. The soldiers clamoured ; while the Latin 
generals, thinking of greater objects, dissembled their disgust, and 
endeavoured by fair persuasions to stifle the anger of their troops. 

The conquest of Edessa, beyond the Euphrates, was achieved by 
a few ambitious and courageous soldiers, who had separated for a 
time from the main body of the Franks, under the command of 
Baldwin and Tancred. 

Before Antioch could be reached, some fighting was necessary, and 
the Christians triumphed — much fatigue was to be borne, and here 
many of them sunk. The horrors of the way, and the heat of a 
Phrygian summer, were fatal to multitudes. Five hundred perished 
in one day. Mothers, no longer able to afford sustenance to their 
infants, exposed their breasts to the swords of the soldiers. Many 
of the horses perished : the baggage was then placed on the backs 
of goats, hogs, and dogs. When the crusaders came to a country of 
streams, they threw themselves without caution into the first river 
that presented itself, and nature could not support the transition 
from want to satiety. 

The siege of Antioch was protracted, nor was this wholly sur- 
prising, considering the state of defence in which the city was 
placed ; as well as on the other hand, the unskilful operations of the 
Croises, the famine in their camp, the numerous desertions from 
among them, and the relaxation of their morals. The Latin chiefs 
put forth prodigious efforts of valour ; but the city was finally taken 
by stratagem. A traitor delivered it into the hands of the Franks, 
and 10,000 Turks were massacred. When the thirst of blood was 
slaked, the assassins turned robbers, and became as mercenary as 
they had been merciless. They seized all the wealth of the place, 
and exchanged their fierceness for the more civilized vices of de- 
bauchery and hypocrisy. While they rioted in unbounded indul 
gence, they gave God thanks. 

The taking of Axtioch was very soon followed by a set battle 



132 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

with the Musselmans ; for the hosts of the Moslem world pitched 
their tents round the fallen capital. The excesses of the crusaders 
were followed by famine in its every horrid form ; and had not 
some superstitious frauds been practised, by which their zeal and 
courage were re-excited, they would have shrunk from a contest 
with the formidable army which now opposed them under the ex- 
citements of religion ; however, they met it, and triumphed in the 
affray. 

4. The Croises pursued their successes, and after various 
desertions and delays they penetrated to Jerusalem. This 
venerable city, which had been so often destroyed and rebuilt, 
was taken by storm after a siege of six weeks, and the whole 
of its inhabitants, both Mahometans and Jews, were barba- 
rously put to the sword, 1099 A. C. The crusaders were by 
this time reduced to a very inconsiderable number. Of the 
700,000 that appeared before Nice, 40,000 only encamped 
around Jerusalem. Of these, only 21,500 were soldiers. In- 
cluding the rabble of Peter, the possession of Nice, Edessa, 
and Antioch, had cost the lives of more than 850,000 Euro- 
peans. 

§ The victories of the Crusaders were gained with difficulty. 
After the capture of Antioch, their embarrassments were not a 
few. Alexius had acted a cowardly and perfidious part. Hugh, 
count of Vermandois, soon abandoned the holy cause, and returned 
to France. The march of the Christian forces was purposely 
delayed several months, by the commanders, although the soldiers 
were impatient to proceed to Jerusalem. This delay, however, was 
attended by the most serious evils. Discord prevailed among the 
princes — rapine and theft among the people. A pestilence spread 
throughout their hosts, which, in a few months, destroyed more 
than one hundred thousand persons. In the mean time, several 
wars of ambition were waged, in the neighbouring provinces. The 
forces which attacked the town of Marra, were so urged b) 7 famine, 
that many of the soldiers turned cannibals, and devoured the flesh 
of their enemies, whom they massacred with the utmost cruelty. 

At length, the Christian warriors set their faces towards the holy 
city. When it came in view, every heart glowed with rapture — 
every eye was suffused with tears. The joy of a moment out- 
weighed years of sorrow. In their heated imaginations, the sepul- 
chre was redeemed, and the cross triumphed over the crescent. But 
the anticipation of success was much easier than the reality. The 
most strenuous exertions were necessary, and the enthusiasm and 
valour of the Christians were carried to the greatest height. After 
several alternations of partial victory and defeat, the walls of the 
sacred city were carried, and all Jerusalem was in possession of the 
champions of the cross. The blood of the Saracens attested the 
ferocity of the victory, and the price at which their conquest was 



THE CRUSADES. 133 

obtained. Ten thousand of the vanquished were butchered in the 
mosque of Omar alone, to which they had fled as a sacred asylum. 
In this place, the croises are said to have ridden in the blood of the 
Saracens up to the knees of their horses. Ten thousand, or accord- 
ing to some, a much larger number, were massacred in the streets. 
The Christians committed these dreadful deeds from principle rather 
than from passion. It was a horrid principle indeed ; but intoler- 
ance was unhappily the spirit of the age. 

5. With considerable foresight, the conquerors of Jerusalem 
established a Christian kingdom in the heart of Palestine. 
An extension of territory was indispensable to the security of 
the city from the Mussulman hordes that surrounded it. At 
the head of this kingdom, Godfrey, the most worthy of the 
heroes of Christendom, was placed by the suffrages of the 
Christians. He reigned however but one year, during which 
time he defeated the sultan with an immense army at Asca* 
Ion. At the expiration of the year, he was compelled to give 
up his kingdom to the pope's legate. Several kings reigned 
after him, but their history need not be told. 

An impolitic act of the crusaders, by which their power was 
weakened, was. at length, the division of Syria and Palestine 
into four separate states. Having accomplished their object, 
they began to return to Europe ; but in proportion as they 
withdrew, the Turks recovered their strength. The crusa- 
ders, who remained in Asia, found themselves so surrounded 
by foes, that they were at last obliged to solicit aid from Chris- 
tendom. 

§ The fruits of this first crusade ill repaid its immense loss and ex- 
pense, and were comprised within the small territory of Jerusalem, 
the dominion of which was bounded by the term of eighty years. 
The holy war, nevertheless, continued to be recommended by 
the pops and the clergy with unabated earnestness. It was still re- 
presented to be the cause of the Son of God, an engagement in which 
was the most meritorious of all acts, and insured salvation, whether 
in the success or defeat. 

6. The aid which was needed in the East was soon afford- 
ed. Europe sent forth a second crusade in 1147. St. Ber- 
nard, who was the great oracle of the age, ha4 the influence 
to excite Louis VII. of France, and Conrad 111. of Germany, 
to undertake the defence of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Three 
hundred thousand of their subjects assumed the cross. The 
issue of this enterprise was disastrous in the extreme. 

Manuel, the emperor of the Greeks, gave intelligence of their 
plans to the Turkish sultan, and provided them with treache- 



1254 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

rous guides. The army of €onrad, which took the lead, fell 
first into the snare. Those who did not perish by hunger in 
the deserts, fell into the jaws of the Mussulmans. Only a 
tenth part secured their retreat to the army of Louis. Louis, 
also duped by the Grecian emperor, advanced through the 
same country to a similar fate. In the defile of a mountain near 
Laodicea, his army was totally defeated. 

At Jerusalem, these unfortunate monarchs met to lament 
tneir sad reverses of fortune. The feeble remains of the mighty 
armies which they had led, were joined to the Christian pow 
ers of Syria, and a fruitless siege of Damascus was the final 
effort of the second crusade. 

§ A few particulars may be given respecting the preacher of the se* 
cond crusade. St. Bernard, by the superiority of his talents, and also 
of his consideration in the eyes of Europe, was far more capable than 
Peter the Hermit, of exciting enthusiastic emotions. His ardent and 
religious mind soon disdained the follies of youth ; and casting offthe 
desire of celebrity as a writer of poetry and songs, he wandered in the 
regions of spiritual reverie, or trod the rough and thorny paths of 
polemical theology. 

At the age of 23, he embraced the monastic life, and soon after- 
wards founded the monastery of Clairvaux, in Champaigne. His 
miraculous eloquence separated sons from their fathers, and husbands 
from their wives. His earnestness and self-denial in religion, gained 
him the reverence of his contemporaries, and in disputes he was 
appealed to as an incorruptible judge. Such was his austerity, 
that happening once to fix his eyes on a female face, he immediately 
reflected that this was a temptation, and running to a pond he leap- 
ed up to his neck into the water, which was of an icy coldness, to 
punish himself and vanquish the enemy. 

Such a man was the fit tool of the pope, Eugenius III., who order- 
ed him to travel through France and Germany, and to preach a 
plenary indulgence to those who would, under the banners of their 
kings, bend their way towards the holy land. As Peter had repre- 
sented the scandal of suffering the sacred places to remain in the 
hands of the infidels, the eloquent Bernard thundered from the pul- 
pit the disgrace of allowing a land, which had been recovered from 
pollution, to sink into it again. This voice raised armies and depo- 
pulated cities. According to his own expression, " the towns were 
deserted, or, the only people that were in them were widows and 
orphans, whose husbands and fathers were yet living." 

7. The state of the holy land between the second and 
third crusades deserves a passing notice. A feeble sway was 
held by most of the chiefs of the kingdom of Jerusalem. The 
death of Baldwin III., however, was lamented as a public 
calamity. His successors were Almeric, Baldwin IV., and 



THE CRUSADES. 135 

Guy de Lusignan. The miseries of war were often expe- 
rienced from their Musseiman enemies. It was during this 
period, that the celebrated Saladin, nephew of the Sultan of 
Egypt, attained the height of his glory, and became lord of that 
country. He formed the design of recovering Palestine from 
the Christians. 

8. The occasion of the third crusade was, the success of Sa- 
ladin against the Latins in Jerusalem. He had previously 
subdued Tiberias, and received the submission of Acre, Jaffa, 
and some other places. Jerusalem offered an obstinate resist- 
ance, but in vain. The city was taken after a siege of a few 
days, and Guy de Lusignan was made prisoner, 1187 A. C 
The conqueror treated the inbabitants with singular clemency. 
The infidels were now once more established in the city of the 
prophets. 

§ The conquered Latins, on being obliged to leave Jerusalem, con- 
sumed four days in weeping over and embracing the holy sepulchre. 
The women entreated the conqueror to release to them their fathers, 
husbands, and brothers. With courteous clemency Saladin released 
all the prisoners whom they requested, and loaded them with pre- 
sents. 

9. The conquests effected by the infidels, filled Europe with 
grief, and almost with despair. The losses occasioned by the 
former crusades, had rather dismayed the public mind. Small 
masses of men continued indeed to move towards the East, 
but it required a degree of management and much exhorta- 
tion to wake up a general interest in favour of a third crusade. 
Pope Clement III. at length prevailed on three sovereigns to 
engage in the holy enterprise. These were Philip Augustus, 
of France, Richard I., sut named the Lion-hearted, and Fre- 
derick Barbarossa, of Germany. 

The forces of Philip and Richard are computed at one hun- 
dred thousand soldiers ; it does not appear how many follow- 
ed the standard of Frederick. The latter, in passing through 
the Greek empire, was prudent and humane, although the 
haughtiness and duplicity of the emperor Isaac Angelus, sub- 
jected him to much inconvenience. The Germans defeated 
the Turks in a general engagement, and took Iconium. But 
unfortunately, their sovereign lost his life in consequence of 
bathing in the river Calycadnus. After the death of Barba- 
rossa, his army dwindled to a small number. 



136 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

The English and French, for a short time, proceeded K* 
moniously in the career of victory. They took Acre, a place 
of great strength. Soon, however, the bitter feelings of mi- 
litary envy and national hatred began to be excited, the con- 
sequence of which was, that the French monarch returned 
home, leaving a portion of his army under the command of 
Richard. Left alone to sustain the contest, Piantagenet dis- 
played all the heroism of chivalry. He found himself at the 
head of nearly thirty thousand French, German, and English 
soldiers. With this force he defeated the illustrious Saladin, 
near the plains of Ascalon. Political disturbances in England, 
made Richard solicitous to return thither, especially, as his 
ranks were now thinned by disease and famine. With this 
object in view, he concluded a favourable treaty with his ene- 
my, and attempted to return to his dominions. In passing 
through Germany, however, unaccompanied by his troops, he 
was seized by the order of the duke of Austria, and made 
prisoner. It was not until after a long captivity, and the pay 
ment of an immense ransom, that he was restored to his na- 
tive land. Not long after the departure of Richard, Saladin 
paid the debt of nature. 

§ In the treaty which was formed between Richard and Saladm, 
the Christian monarch, and the sultan of Egypt, interchanged ex- 
pressions of esteem. The grasping of each other's hands, was the 
only and sufficient pledge of fidelity. A truce was agreed upon for 
three years and eight months ; the fort of Ascalon was to be destroy- 
ed ; but Jaffa and Tyre, with the country between them, were to be 
surrendered to the Christians. 

In leaving Palestine, Richard, with his queen, embarked in a ship; 
but the violence of a tempest dispersed his fleet, and so shat- 
tered the vessel he was in, that it became impossible for him to 
reach England in that way. He then made for Germany ; but his 
person was endangered as he travelled the country, since the fact ot 
his being there became known to some of his enemies. After va- 
rious escapes, he arrived at a town near Vienna. Two individuals 
only were with him, one of whom was a boy, who understood the 
German language. 

The party were too harassed to proceed. The German boy was 
sent to the market-place to purchase provisions. Through the libe- 
rality of his master, he was so neatly and elegantly dressed, that the 
people could not but notice him. The consequence was that he was 
questioned, and giving unsatisfactory answers, he was seized and 
scourged. Being at length threatened with the cutting out of hia 
tongue, if he did not tell the truth, he was obliged reluctantly to dis 
close the secret of the real quality of his master. 



THE CRUSADES. 137 

Richard was immediately secured, and though at first treated 
with respect, was soon confined in prison. Being sold at length to 
the emperor, Henry VI. removed him to a castle in the Tyrol. But 
th^ strongest walls are not sufficiently secure for the fears of a ty- 
rant. Armed men were sent into his chamber, and commanded to 
watch him with the utmost strictness^ 

Here, sometimes, the royal captive calmed his angry soul, by sing- 
ing the warlike deeds of the heroes of romance. At other times, he 
diverted melancholy by the composition of poems. Occasionally, 
he forgot his misfortunes, and the apparent negligence of his friends. 
His native hilarity conquered the bitterness of his spirit; he laugh- 
ed at the frequent intoxication of his gaolers, he sported the keen- 
ness of his wit, and in the boisterousness of his merriment, displayed 
his personal strength and agility. 

At the request of his mother, the queen Eleanora, the Pope inter- 
fered for his release ; and, after a trial on some pretended crime, it 
was concluded to ransom the English monarch, as though he had 
been a prisoner of war, the English people paying about 150,000 
marks of silver to the German emperor. 

10. By the energy of Richard, Palestine was saved from 
becoming a Mussulman colony ; and so much of the sea coast 
was in the hands of the Christians, and so enfeebled was the 
enemy, that it w T as safe to commence hostilities, whenever 
Europe should again pour forth her religious and military fa- 
natics. This event was not long delayed, notwithstanding 
the infinite losses and sufferings, which had hitherto resulted 
from the crusades. 

A fourth crusade was fitted out in 1202, by Baldwin, count 
of Flanders, who collected an army of the Flemish and 
French, professedly to attack the Mahometans, though it 
seems to have found another enemy. Like the other crusa- 
ders, he made the eastern Christians first feel the effect of 
European adventure and military enthusiasm. Indeed, his 
efforts ended here ; for, arriving at Constantinople, at a time 
when there was a dispute for the succession, his interference 
afforded the occasion of plundering the city, and securing the 
possession of the imperial throne of the East. The Venetians 
lent their vessels for the enterprise, and participated in it. 

§ Some historians reckon a crusade anterior to the war carried on 
by Baldwin, denominating his the fifth. There were expeditions 
from Germany in the intermediate time ; but it may be doubtful 
whether they deserve the name of a distinct crusade. Indeed, there 
were so many different expeditions, some public and others private, 
that the designation of a certain number of separate crusades, seems 
fomewhat arbitrary. According to the common accounts, we have 

12* 



138 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

assigned the name of the fourth crusade, to the expedition of which 
the count of Flanders was the leader. 

The third crusade was created by the ordinary influence of papal 
power and royal authority ; but the fourth sprang from genuine 
fanaticism. Fulk, who was worthy of companionship with Ber- 
nard, became a preacher distinguished by the vehemence with which 
he declaimed against certain vices of the age. With his celebrity, 
increased his desire to be generally useful to mankind. The natu- 
ral consequence in that superstitious age, was, that he turned his 
eye towards the east, and assumed the cross. The copious matter 
of his sermons was the war with the infidels. Around the man 
of God, all classes thronged, and thousands were eager to assume 
the insignia of holy warriors. Nor was Pope Innocent III. inactive 
in the cause, having required the various temporal and spiritual 
chiefs of Christendom to take up arms for the defence of Palestine, 
or at least to send him considerable succours of men and money. 

Application having been made to the Venetians for the loan of 
their ships, and the Venetians themselves desiring to embark in the 
enterprise, the croises at length set sail for Constantinople. That 
proud city, once the sister and rival of Rome, was fallen so low, 
that the aid of the western barbarians was invoked by a claimant to 
the throne of the Caesars. In his behalf, war against the Greek em- 
pire was resolved on, and Constantinople was made the point of 
attack. The particulars of the assault need not be given, but it is 
a striking account drawn up by an old writer, that when the inva- 
ders, at the distance of three leagues, beheld the city, " the magni- 
tude and splendour of Constantinople awed the courage of the 
bravest ; and not without reason, for never since the creation of the 
world, had so bold an enterprise been undertaken by so small a 
force." The Greeks made a display of numbers and strength, but 
the nerves and soul of war were not in them. The partisans of the 
usurper, Alexius, made only a feeble defence, and soon abandoned 
the city to its fate. The city was captured, and the young Alexius 
sat on the throne. 

After one or two revolutions in the government, the allied army 
of French and Venetians, who had been paid the tribute which they 
required, and had been kept in the vicinity of Constantinople, deter- 
mined to seize the city on their own account. This, after a severe 
struggle, was effected ; and a severe struggle it ought to have been 
on the part of the invaders, when only 20.000 men captured the 
largest city in the world. There were 400,000 men capable of bear- 
ing arms in Constantinople. The excesses of the barbarians were 
enormous. To their eternal infamy, they destroyed most of the re- 
mains of the noble monuments of genius, in the sculpture and sta- 
tuary of the Pagan world. In no conquered city, it is thought, was 
there ever obtained so much booty. One historian remarks, that the 
gold and silver, the silk, the gems, and precious stones, and all 
those things which are accounted riches, were found in more abuu 
dance than all the Latin world could furnish." 



THE CRUSADES. 13 f J 

11. Baldwin, as the reward of his success against the capi- 
tal of the East, was invested with the Roman purple, 1204, 
But he was dethroned and murdered, after a reign of a few 
months. The Imperial dominions were shared among the 
principal leaders ; the Venetians obtained the Isle of Candia, 
as their portion. By the acquisition of Constantinople, the 
injuries of the crusaders were avenged ; and, for the present 
they looked for no other conquest. The dominion of the La- 
tins, however, lasted but fifty-seven years. Few events on 
die page of history have been equally curious and interesting, 
with the establishment of this people in the city of Constan- 
tine. 

12. In the former part of the thirteenth century, succeed- 
ing the crusade against the Greek empire, several expeditions 
were fitted out against the Musseimans. In these, the Ger- 
mans, Hungarians, French, English, and Italians, were prin- 
cipally concerned. Their object seems to have been, not so 
much Palestine, as Egypt. Success crowned their efforts at 
first, and one of the expeditions, under the duke of Austria, 
captured Damietta, an event which filled the Musselman em- 
pire with alarm ; but the mortality of the country, and the 
relurn of many of the European soldiers, with other causes, 
finally rendered the acquisitions of the crusaders, in that coun- 
try, of no avail, and the unbelievers still retained their power. 

13. The fifth and last of these extraordinary expeditions 
against the infidel world, was led by Louis IX. of France, 
There had been previously a few smaller adventures, espe- 
cially by the English, who had the good fortune to redeem 
the holy sepulchre. But it was soon lost, and the fears of the 
Christian world were in a degree aroused. It was, however, 
obvious that the crusading spirit in Europe had at length be- 
gun to languish, and it would at this crisis have entirely died 
away, had not Louis felt the strong stirrings of fanaticism and 
chivalry. He kept it alive a few years, after which, this folly 
of a dark and barbarous age was heard of no more. 

The warlike heroism and religious devotion of the French 
monarch, commanded the reverence of mankind. Indeed, in 
many respects, he was an amiable and estimable prince, though 
deeply imbued with the unworthy superstition of the times. 
His efforts preserved to the Christians, for a time, the land of 
Palestine, which was m danger, not from the Saracens, but 



340 : MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IV. 

from the Tartars. This fierce people were then pouring over 
the face of Asia. 

Louis spent three years in preparation, when he set out for 
Palestine, with his queen, three brothers, and a powerful train 
of French knights, 1248 A. C. He had greatly encouraged 
the fainting hearts of the Christians in Palestine, by the men 
and troops he had sent thither before his own departure. The 
invasion of Egypt was his first object. Here, he lost one half 
of his army by sickness, was defeated in battle, and fell a 
prisoner into the hands of his enemy. 

After ransoming himself and his followers, he proceeded to 
the Holy Land, in which he continued a considerable time. 
On his return, to France, he devoted himself, wisely, to the 
regular cares of government, during thirteen years, and would 
probably have long continued useful and happy, had not the 
mad spirit of crusading seized him again. In obedience to 
its dictates, he embarked on a crusade against the Moors in 
Africa. In this adventure, he and the greater part of his 
army perished, in consequence of a pestilence. Louis has 
been honoured with the title of saint. 

§ History records, that on the subject of crusading, the mind oJ 
Louis was influenced by the following circumstance. Agreeably to 
the temper of the times, he had vowed, whilst afflicted by a severe 
illness, that in case of recovery he would travel to the holy land. 
In the delirium of his fever he had beheld an engagement between 
the Christians and the Saracens ; the infidels were victorious, and 
the brave king of a valiant nation fancied himself called upon to 
avenge the defeat. 

The following incident indicated the king's zeal for a crusade. 
One night, during the Christmas festival, Louis caused magnificent 
crosses, fabricated by goldsmiths, to be sewn on the new dresses, 
which, as usual upon such occasions, had been bestowed upon the 
courtiers. The next day the cavaliers were surprised at the religious 
ornaments that had been affixed to their cloaks ; piety and loyalty 
combined to prevent them from renouncing the honours which had 
been thrust upon them, and the good king obtained the title of the 
hunter for pilgrims -md fisher of men. 

Louis could have adopted the lines of a French rhymer of the 
thirteenth century. 

" Lo, now the fruitful hour at hand ! 

To thee the precious boon is given, 

For Paynims waste the holy land, 

And spoil the heritage of heaven. 

Shall we such faithless works behold, 

With craven courage slack and cold 1 

How else, but to the Giver's praise, 

JVTny we drvotf our wealth and days. 



THE CRUSADES. 141 

The French, on landing in Egypt, captured Damietta ; but the 
rashness of the Count d'Artois was the means of checking 
them in the career of victory. Sad reverses soon ensued, and 
though Louis defended himself with the greatest bravery, he was 
obliged to yield to the enemy. Being taken prisoner with his army, 
he offered for his own ransom the city of Damietta, and for the de- 
liverance of his soldiers 500,000 livres. One filth part of the latter 
was remitted through the generosity of the sultan. 

In Louis' second expedition against the infidels, he was joined by 
the English ; so that his force amounted to sixty thousand men. 
(lis fleet being driven into Sardinia, a change was made in the de- 
sign of the pilgrim hero, and an attack upon the Musselman Moors 
of Africa was fixed upon. Pestilence, however, prevented the me- 
ditated blow, and the great stay of the crusades fell. 

The English portion of the forces, which had not reached Africa, 
when the death of Louis took place, made their way to Palestine, 
under the conduct of Prince Edward. Feats of arms were per- 
formed; but the Turks were fast overurming the holy land, and 
with the capture of Acre, by that adventurous people, was connected 
the final loss of a country, on which the eyes of fanatical Europe 
had been fastened for more than two hundred years. 

14. Among the causes of the decline and cessation of the 
fanatical military spirit of Europe, may be enumerated the 
following', viz. the decrease of the moral influence of the popes, 
&nd the increase of their tyranny, which the people were loth 
to bear — the avarice of the popes and priests, in converting to 
their own purposes the funds which were raised to support the 
holy wars — the consequent unwillingness of the people to be 
taxed — the scandal which was cast on the crusades, when 
many of the soldiers of the cross were diverted from their re- 
ligious purpose, to promote the secular objects of the court of 
Rome — and most of all, the increasing conviction on the part 
of the people, that no lasting conquest of Palestine could be 
made by the sovereigns of Europe. These causes were too 
powerful even for the deep darkness and superstition of the 
age, ambition, love of military achievement, and desire of 
plunder. 

15. Various opinions have been formed and maintained 
respecting the tendency and effects of the crusades. By some, 
they are thought to have benefitted Europe on the whole — 
by others, they are supposed to have been positively disadvan- 
tageous. We incline to the latter opinion. They who look 
upon the crusades in a favourable light in respect to their con 
sequences, nevertheless admit, that, the} r were immediately 



142 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

distressing and pernicious. It is in the final result that they 
imagine the crusades to have been beneficial on the whole. 
In the final result, it has been maintained that they improved 
the political condition, the manners and customs, the naviga- 
tion and commerce, the literature, and the religion of Europe 

That there was a very gradual amelioration of the wes- 
tern nations in the above particulars, is admitted. But this 
was a state of things, which it is natural to believe, time 
might have produced, aided as it was by other causes. In 
deed, from the nature of the convulsions which attended, or ra- 
ther constituted the crusades, it is certain that they must have 
tended to retard the progress of society, learning, and religion, 
so far as they produced any effect, That they were not pro- 
ductive of any good, in any shape, it would be hazardous to 
assert. But providence can overrule the greatest evil, so that 
it shall be less evil than it would otherwise be ; and our point 
is made out, if the evil flowing from the crusades overbalan- 
ces the good, in quality or amount. 

Let any one who doubts this, reflect that the crusades 
were the offspring of a dark and ignorant age — that they 
were kindled by the false fires of fanaticism and superstition, 
and moreover, were perverted, if so base a project could be 
perverted, by ambition, love of military renown, and a savage 
desire of plunder. They agitated, convulsed, and distressed 
Europe, and every family in Europe, for two centuries. They 
drained that portion of the globe of men and money, to an in- 
supportable degree. The bones of two millions of Europeans 
were entombed in Asia, or whitened her plains. The trea- 
sures that were expended are past computation. Under the 
sacred name of religion, every crime and every folly was me- 
ditated and committed. The path of the fanatical warriors 
of the west was everywhere marked with blood. They were 
too stupid and too superstitious to regard with complacency 
or with a desire of imitation, those superior modes of life and 
specimens of genius which they met with in their excursions 
into the East. They even laid their sacrilegious hands on the 
monuments of ancient art, which chance or bravery put into 
their power, and in the repeated conflagrations of Constanti- 
nople, they rejoiced to see, in many instances, the destruction 
of those works, the remains of which the world has since 
been proud to own. 



FRANCE. 143 

They err, who count it glorious to subdue 
By conquest far and wide, to over-run 
Large countries, and in field great battles win, 
Great cities by assaults : what do these worthies, 
But rob and spoil, burn, slaughter and enslave 
Peaceable nations. * * * * 

tl A view of the heroic ages of Christianity," says an interesting 
historian, "in regard to their grand and general results, is a useful 
and important, though a melancholy employment. The Crusades 
retarded the march of civilization, thickened the clouds of ignorance 
and superstition, and encouraged intolerance, cruelty and fierceness. 
Religion lost its mildness and charity ; and war its mitigating quali- 
ties of honour and courtesy. Such were the bitter fruits of the Ho- 
ly Wars. We can follow with sympathy, both the deluded fanatic, 
and the noble adventurer in arms, in their wanderings and marches 
through foreign regions, braving the most frightful dangers, patient 
in toil, invincible in military spirit. So visionary was the object, so 
apparently remote from selfish relations, that their fanaticism wears 
a character of generous virtue. The picture, however, becomes 
darkened, and nature recoils with horror from their cruelties, and 
with shame from their habitual folly and senselessness." 

FRANCE. 

16. In 1108 the throne of Prance was ascended by Louia 
VI., suf named the fat, son of Philip I. He carried on a war 
with Henry I. of England, but was not successful. The 
English defeated his army at the battle of Brenneville, 1119 
A. C. He was an accomplished and energetic sovereign. 

§ In Louis' flight after the battle, an Englishman seized his horse's 
bridle, exclaiming, " the king is taken." u The king is never taken," 
said Louis, "not even in a game of chess," and then struck his, ene- 
my dead at his feet. 

17. Louis VII., the young, succeeded his father in 1137. 
The extent of his reign was 46 years. He quarrelled with 
the Pope about the nomination of an arch hi: bop, and had 
his kingdom put under an interdict. He was very unsuc- 
cessfully engaged in the holy wars, and in consequence of 
having divorced his queen, heiress of the great dutchy of 
Guienne, who soon married Henry Plantagenet, (afterwards 
Henry II. of England) he lost one fifth part of the French 
monarchy, including the provinces before held by the En- 
glish. 

§ Louis was educated in an Abbey, and the Abbeys at this period 
produced several distinguished men, among whom were Suger, his 
minister, a man of great political sagacity ; St. Bernard, whose agen« 



144 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

cy in the second crusade has already appeared ; and Abelard, wht i 
story remains to be told. 

In conformity to the spirit of the age, and his own education, Louis 
made several pilgi images, and among others visited the tomb of Tho- 
mas a. Becket, at Canterbury. In one of these pilgrimages he died. 
His tomb, in the abbey of Barbeau, was opened in 1556, by Charle* 
IX., and the body found in a high state of preservation. On the fin 
gers were several gold rings, which, having been taken off, were 
worn by Charles, together with a gold chain, which was found in 
the tomb. 

18. The son of Louis, Philip II., surnamed Augustus, 
ascended the throne in 1180. His reign was a long one also, 
being 43 years. Since the clays of Charlemagne, France 
had seen no sovereign so ambitious and enterprising in war, 
as Philip, The most signal events of his reign, were his 
expulsion of the Jews from France ; his engagement in the 
third crusade, with Richard Cteur de Lion ; his invasion ol 
Normandy during Richard's absence ; his victory over Oth o 
IV., emperor of "Germany ; and the offer of the crown of 
England to him for his son Louis, by the English barons 

§ His engagement in the third crusade has already appeared. On 
the return of Richard to England, a disastrous war ensued between 
him and Philip, the English king determining to punish him for 
seizing Normandy. Richard, dying during the prosecution of this 
war, was succeeded by his brother John, whose pretensions to the 
crown of England were, however, disputed by his nephew, Arthur, 
aided by Philip. Arthur having been made prisoner, and put to 
death by his inhuman uncle, the latter was summoned by Philip, to 
appear in his quality as duke of Normandy, before a tribunal of his 
peers. On his refusal, -Philip attacked and subdued several of the 
French provinces that were then held by the English, and united 
Normandy to the crown of France, 300 years after it had been detach- 
ed from it by the incapacity of Charles the simple. 

From the reign of Philip, may be dated the Inquisition, 
which was fiLot established in France, whence it found its 
way into Italy, Spain, and Portugal. 

19. Louis VIII., surnamed the Lion, mounted the throne 
of his father in 1223, and died in 1226. He was a man of 
valour, and hence his surname. He took all the possessions 
of the English on the continent, as far as the Garonne. His 
character was that of a persecutor. 

§ Louis prosecuted a barbarous crusade against certain sectaries in 
Languedoc and Gascony, who presumed to attack the dogmas ol 
the Church of Rome. At the siege of Avignon, he was poisoned 
by the count of Champaign. 



FRANCE. 145 

20. Louis I2t., styled Saint Louis, became king at the age 
cf twelve years, in 1226, under the regency of his mother. 
Louis possessed many excellent qualities — was pious, upright, 
and benevolent. His single fault was fanaticism; though in 
every thing he did, the purity of his motive was conspicuous. 
He conferred a considerable benefit on his country, notwith- 
standing the errors into which his fanatical spirit led him. 
With Henry III. of England, he waged a successful war. 

§ An account has been given of the two crusades in which he was 
so unfortunately engaged, and in the last of which he perished. 

Henry HI. demanded the provinces which, it seems, Louis' father 
nad promised to restore. A tender was made of Poitou, and of the 
best part of Normandy ; but this did not satisfy Henry, who resolv- 
ed to try the issue of a battle, in which he was defeated. 

21. Philip III., surnamed the Bold, succeeded his father in 
1270. His surname, it is thought, was not well deserved. 
He was the dupe of the artifices of his courtiers, and had no 
predominant trait, except a passion for amassing wealth. He 
brought back from Africa the miserable remains of his 
father's army. He died on his return from an expedition 
against Peter III., of Arragon, who had usurped the kingdom 
of Sicily, and through whose instigation, eight thousand 
Frenchmen were massacred in that island. 

§ Charles of Anjou, uncle of Philip, had lately become king of 
Sicily, and acted the tyrant towards its inhabitants. By a deed of 
cruelty towards a brother of the wife of Peter, he made the latter 
his enemy. Peter, in revenge, excited the Sicilians to revolt and 
murder. All the French of the island were, by a previous concert, 
butchered in cool blood, on the evening of Easterday. Philip un- 
dertook to avenge this massacre, but the general failure of the ex- 
pedition, afflicted the French king so much, that he fell into a de- 
3ay, of which he died. 

22. Philip IV., the Fair, ascended the throne of his an- 
cestors, in 1285. He was remarkable for his personal beauty 
and accomplishments. His disposition, however, was sin- 
gularly contrasted with his features and form. He was am- 
bitious, deceitful, perfidious and cruel. Refusing to obey the 
summons of the Roman pontiff*, Boniface VIII., to march 
against the Saracens, he was excommunicated, and his king- 
dom laid under an interdict. A severe contest ensued, the 
result of which was the humiliation of the Pope, and even- 
tually his death. 

In 1314, Philip suppressed the order of the Knights Temp- 

13 



14.6 MODERN HISTORY.--PERIOD VI. 

lars, from a desire, it was thought, to obtain their immense 
wealth. 

§The haughty Boniface, in a bull, had declared, that " the Vicar of 
Christ is vested with fuJl authority over the kings and kingdoms of 
the earth." Philip, in return for the indignity put upon him, de- 
nounced Boniface as an impostor, heretic, and simoniac, and declar- 
ed the see of Rome vacant. He contrived also, by means of a trusty 
agent, to seize the person of the pope. The persons concerned in 
the transaction, caused his holiness to ride on a horse without sad- 
dle or bridle, with his face turned towards his tail. He was, how- 
ever, rescued at length ; but the loss of his immense treasures, 
while he was retained from his palace, threw him into a frenzy 
that killed hiii* 

ENGLAND. 

23. Norman family, Plantagenets. The throne of Eng- 
lar>!, on the death of Rums, was secured by his younger 
oromer, Henry I., surnamed Beauclerc, or the Scholar, 1100. 
The rightful heir was Robert, an older brother ; but as lie 
was absent on a crusade, Henry availed himself of so favoura- 
ble an opportunity to fill the vacant throne. 

Robert, who was duke of Normandy, soon arrived in Eng- 
land to claim tils right ; but he was prevailed upon to forego 
it, by the offer of a sum of money. Still, Henry was not 
satisfied, but ere long invaded Normandy ; and at last defeat- 
ed Robert, brought him prisoner to England, caused his 
eyes to be burned out, and confined him for life, in a castle 
in Wales, 

The injustice with which he had treated 'lobert, seems to 
have been visited upon him by the hand of Providence, in 
the calamities of his after life; particularly in the death of his 
only son, who was drowned on his passage from Normandy 
to England. 

Henry w r as one of the most accomplished of the English 
sovereigns — brave, affable, and learned ; but his conduct in 
many instances, shewed that he was wanting in moderation, 
purity, and gratitude. 

§ Henry married a Saxon princess, Matilda gr°at grand-daughter 
of Edmund Ironside, and thus united the Saxon and Norman jlood. 
This circumstance endeared him to the English, and procured then- 
support. 

The story of th* death of Henry's son, v ose name was William. 
«d briefly the following. The captain an • seamen of the vessel b» 



ENGLAND. 14i 

which he set sail for England, becoming intoxicated, carelessly struck 
her upon a rock. She foundered immediately, but William was 
•saved by being put into a long-boat. He had already got clear cl 
the wreck, when hearing the cries of his natural sister, the countess 
of Perche, he ordered the seamen to row back, in hopes of saving 
her. But the numbers who then civ vvded in, soon sunk the boat; 
and the prince with all his retinue perished. 

The effect of the news on Henry was melancholy indeed. Ho 
fainted away, and during the remainder of his life, was never known 
to smile. 

24. Henry's cousin, Stephen, earl of Blois, was crowned 
king of England, 1135. His popularity enabled him to usurp 
tiie throne, when of right it belonged to the empress Matilda, 
or Maud, and her son Henry. 

§ Matilda first married Henry V., emperor of Germany— afterwards 
Henry Plantagenet, earl of Anjou. By the latter she had several 
children, of whom Henry was the oldest. 

In behalf of Matilda, the earl of Gloucester, natural bro- 
ther of the empress, took up arms against Stephen, defeated 
him in the battle of Lincoln, and made him prisoner. But 
the fortune of war soon turned against Gloucester. He was 
defeated in the battle of Winchester, and taken prisoner, 
but was exchanged for the king. 

Four years after this event, young prince Henry, son of 
Maud, invaded England ; but the great men on both sides, 
fearing the consequences of a battle, compelled the rival 
princes to a negociation. The succession was secured to 
Henry, after the death of Stephen. This event taking plaix; 
the next year, Henry became king. 

Stephen was well calculated to be an efficient sovereign ; 
out he reigned under unfavourable circumstances, and his 
elevation brought suffering on himself and his people. Dur- 
nig his whole reign, England w r as rent with civil broils. 

§ From the beginning, Stephen dreaded Robert, earl of Glouces- 
ter, a man of honour and abilities, and zealously attached to Maud. 
He took, indeed, the oath of fealty to Stephen ; but he took it with 
the reserve, that the king should never invade any of his rights or 
dignities. This was an example for others ; and many of the cler- 
gy and nobility, as the price of submission, required the right of 
fortifying their castles. England was soon filled with fortresses. 
and the power of the aristocracy rose to a formidable height. 

25. Henry II. succeeded to the throne in 1154. He was 
the first of the Plantagenets who wielded the sceptre, till 
the time of Henry IV, In him w r as mingled the bloc*- 



14S MODES Ji HISTORY.- -PERIOD VI. 

of the Saxon kings >f England, and of the Norman family 
He was the most pov erful monarch of Christendom. H:s do 
minions were more extensive than those of any of his pre- 
decessors, as, in addkion to England, he owned by inheritan^ 
and by marriage, nearly one half of France, and afterwards 
claimed Ireland by conquest. 

Happy in the affections of his people, he had the prospect 
of a prosperous reign ; but though England owed her first 
permanent improvements in arts, laws, government, and civil 
liberty, to his measures, he was personally subjected to many 
calamities. A most serious misfortune, was his contention 
with Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury. This 
arrogant ecclesiastic, a man of great talents and greater am- 
bition, availed himself of the authority of his station, to ex- 
alt the spiritual power above the crown ; and when the king 
undertook the reformation of the clergy, and to limit their 
prerogatives, he met with the most determined opposition from 
Becket. In the course of the contention, the ecclesiastic was 
killed. The horror excited in Henry's mind by this event, 
aided by the agitation into which England was thrown, led 
him to perform the most humiliating penance at the tomb of 
the saint. 

§ Becket was first promoted by the king, to the dignity of chan- 
cellor of England, to which station his talents and learning entitled 
him. Henry afterwards appointed him to fill the high place of me- 
tropolitan, falsely supposing that from his g'.y and splendid turn, he 
would not be attached to ecclesiastical priv' ,eges. But no sooner was 
he in his new situation, than he affected personally the greatest aus- 
terity, and recited continually prayers and pious lectures, maintain- 
ing his ancient pomp only ir nis retinue and attendants. In all this, 
his determination to exalt Q>, spiritual power, was visible to sagacious 
observers. 

That power was alrea< y 'oo great. The ecclesiastics of that age 
had renounced all imniel<ate subjection to the magistrate; and as 
many of them were of low character, they committed the most de- 
testable crimes with impunity. They were charged even with the 
foulest murders. The attempts of the king to puUhis order of men 
into a better state, resulted in what are called the Constitutions of 
Clarendon. These were the decisions of a general council of the 
nobi ty and prelates at Clarendon, in which, the limits between the 
civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions, are distinctly marked, and which, 
by the king's influence, were framed so as to favour his prerogatives. 

The clergy, generally, professed to submit to these decisions, but 
Becket stood aloof: and though at length he took oath to observe 
them, it was by no means in good faith. He repented of his tempo- 



ENGLAND 149 

rary subjection, and endeavoured to influence the other bishops to 
follow his steps. Henry, however, made him feel the royal power^ 
oy trie confiscation of his property on some pretence. This act,- 
Becket resented, by excommunicating the king's chief ministers, and 
abrogating the constitutions of Clarendon. On some further instance 
of his arrogance, the king was so vehemently agitated, that he ex- 
claimed, almost in reproaches, against his servants, whose " want of 
zeal," he said, "left him exposed to the machinations of that un- 
grateful and imperious prelate." Four knights of his household, 
taking these passionate expressions to be a hint for the primate 5 
death, instantly agreed among themselves, to avenge their prince's 
quarrel ; and pursuing Becket, found him, slenderly attended, in the 
cathedral of St. Benedict, and there, before the altar, clove his head 
with many blows. 

Nothing could exceed the consternation of the king upon this 
event, and with a view to avert the resentment of the pope, he sub- 
mitted to the most humiliating treatment, even to the scourging of 
his naked body, by the monks. 

Endless were the panegyrics on the virtues of Becket ;'V U the 
miracles wrought by his relics, were more numerous, more .11 ?u- 
lous, and more impudently attested, than those which ever fhlod the 
legend of any confessor or martyr. He was canonized ; a jubilee 
was established for celebrating his merits ; and innumerable pilgrim- 
ages were made to his tomb. In one year, 100,000 pilgrims are said 
to have resorted thither. 

An important event in the reign of Henry, was the con- 
quest of Ireland. He seized the opportunity of making war 
on the island, when one of its petty chiefs, expelled by his 
sovereign, sought his protection. Henry's arms were success- 
ful, and the island was formally annexed to the English crown, 
in 1172. From that time, however, for some centuries, there 
was little interc-owe between the kingdoms ; nor was the 
island ever considered as fully subdued, till the reign of Eli- 
zabeth, and of her successor, James I. 

§ The Irish were an early civilized people, and among the first of 
the nations of the West, who embraced the Christian religion. But 
by the frequent invasions of the Danes, and their own domestic com- 
motions, they were replunged into barbarism, for many ages. In the 
twelfth century, the kingdom was divided into five separate sove- 
reignties, but these were subdivided among a vast number of petty 
chiefs. 

Henry divided Ireland into counties, appointed sheriffs in each, 
and introduced the laws of England into a part of it ; the rest of 
the kingdom being regulated by their ancient laws, till the reign of 
Edward I., when, at the request of the nation, the English laws were 
extended to the whole kingdom. 

Henry, much as he acco mpl ished for the welfare of j?i 
13* 



150 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

realm, was seldom exempt from calamity for a long time to 
gether. His last years were particularly unhappy. Tht 
fault, however, was in a great measure his own. His illicit 
passion for Rosamond, whose extraordinary beauty made 
her the theme of many a ballad and romance, excited the 
resentment of his queen Eleanora, through whose means, 
three of his sons rebelled against him. Europe beheld with 
astonishment these sons, scarcely beyond the age of boy- 
hood, engaged in a series of efforts to wrest the sceptre from 
so potent a prince as Henry. They were, however, aided 
by the king of France. The contest began in Henry's French 
territories. He soon crushed his enemies there ; then return- 
ing to England, and obtaining a victory over the Scots, who 
had embraced the cause of the young princes, he immediate- 
ly restored tranquillity to the country. He was not suffered 
long to rest ; his unnatural sons, though leniently treated, re- 
volted again, joined by John, his fourth and favourite son. 
Henry, distracted with care, and overcome with the ingrati- 
tude of his children, died of a broken heart, in the fifty- 
eighth year of his age, and the thirty-fifth of his reign. 

§Two of his sons, Henry and Geoffrey, died suddenly while en- 
gaged in their rebellion. The force of parental affection, is remark- 
ably exemplified in Henry's death, and, to the honour of the king, 
deserves notice. When the son was seized with a fever, he was 
conscious of his approaching dissolution, and sent a message to his 
father, with a humble confession of his faults, and entreated th€ 
favour of a visit. The king was not very distant, but apprehensive 
that his sickness was feigned, durst not trust himself in his hands. 
But when he received intelligence of his death, he was overcome 
with grief; he fainted away, accused his own hard-heartedness, and 
lamented that he had deprived his son of the opportunity of pour- 
ing out his soul in the bosom of an affectionate and reconciled father. 

His son Richard associated his youngest brother, John, in the last 
insurrection. When the unhappy father heard this, already sinking 
in cares and sorrows, he broke out into expressions of the utmost 
despair ; cursed the day of his birth, and loaded his ungrateful chil- 
dren with maledictions which he never would recall. 

Henry II., was one of the ablest of the English kings. His 
reign was also highly beneficial to his subjects. He was en- 
dowed with a natural sensibility, which his long experience 
of the ingratitude of man never impaired. But his licentious- 
ness was too apparent, and his enmities too durable. His 
person was of a middle stature, strong and well proportioned, 
his countenance engaging, and his elocution easy. 



ENGLAND. 151 

26. Richard I., the Lion-hearted, succeeded his father in 
1189. He possessed a most heroic nature, and rivalled the 
heroes of Greece, in warlike enterprises. His disposition was 
open and generous, but at the same time, ambitious, haughty, 
and cruel. He spent most of his reign in the mad project of 
the crusades, which have already been described, and particu- 
larly the part which was acted by this chivalric king. After 
an absence of nine years, he reached England, but died within 
a few months, having first pardoned his traitorous brother 
John, and attempted to avenge the wrongs he had received 
from Philip of France. His foreign and distant wars exhaust- 
ed the resources of his country. 

27. John, surnamed Lackland, succeeded his brother upon 
the decease of the latter. His reign commenced in 1199, and 
continued to 1216 A. 0. It was marked with the most dis- 
gusting tyranny and crime. 

§ He received his surname from the loss of his territories in France, 
of which he was stripped by the French king. The latter supported 
the pretensions of Arthur, John's nephew, whom John finally mur- 
dered. 

Early in his reign, he made the pope his enemy, by ap- 
propriating to his own purposes, some of the treasures of the 
church, and he met with the full extent of the papal ven- 
geance. At first obstinate, he was finally intimidated into 
submission. His kingdom was put under an interdict, him- 
self excommunicated, and after several personal concessions, 
he engaged to hold his kingdom tributary to the Holy See. 
By this conduct he incurred the deep hatred and contempt 
of his people. 

§ So greatly did the court of Rome triumph over him, that John did 
homage to Pandulf, the pope's legate, in the most abject manner, 
and paid part of the tribute which he owed for his kingdom, while 
the legate, in the haughtiness of sacerdotal power, trampled on the 
money, as an earnest of the subjection of the kingdom. 

The subjects of John, treated with such indignity, and even 
sold, felt it necessary to vindicate their rights. The barons, 
under the command of Langton, the primate, assembled, and 
binding themselves by an oath, to a concert of measures, de- 
manded from the king a ratification of a charter of privileges, 
granted by Henry I. The king was highly exasperated; and 
refused the demand, till resort was had to the sword. Desert- 
ed by his people, he was obliged most reluctantly to yield a 



152 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

compliance. At Runnymede, where he met his barons, he 
signed, on the 19th of June, 1215, that famous deed called 
Magna Charta, (the Great Charter.) which has had so pro- 
pitious an effect on the liberty of Englishmen. It secured 
important rights to all classes of Lis subjects, though some of 
its stipulations, from the change of manners and institutions, 
appear at thio day trivial or ridiculous. 

§ The charter consisted of fourteen specifications, of which, two or 
three, the most important, were — that no aids or subsidies should be 
allowed to be levied from the subjects, unless in a few special cases, 
without the consent of the great council — that no person shall be 
tried on suspicion alone, but on the evidence of lawful witnesses — 
and that no person shall be tried or punished, but by the judgment ol 
his peers and the law of the land. 

John granted at the same time, the Charter of the Forest, which 
abolished the royal privilege of killing game over all the kingdom, 
and restored to the lawful proprietors their woods, which they 
were allowed to enclose for their own private purposes. 

The king, forced into these measures against his will, medi- 
tated a dreadful revenge against his barons, by the aid of fo- 
reign mercenaries, and began to lay his own realm waste 
with fire and sword. But, at a critical time when Louis, the 
eldest son of Philip of France, had arrived in England, to 
assist the barons, with the expectation of receiving the crown 
himself, John suddenly died. Louis was obliged to return to 
France, and the succession was settled on Henry, the son of 
John, a boy of nine years of age. 

§ In the person of John, the English were scourged with a tyrant, 
more odious and capricious than any other of their sovereigns, be- 
fore or since. To tyranny, he added cowardice, levity, licentious- 
ness, ingratitude, and treachery. His vices were, however, made, 
providentially, the occasion of great blessings to his subjects, in the 
enjoyment of a portion of liberty, which they wrested from his 
weakness. 

28. Henry III. began his reign in 1216, the earl of Pem- 
broke being appointed protector during the king's minority 
His disposition, which was easy and fickle, led him and his 
subjects into numerous difficulties and disasters. The weak- 
ness of his understanding scarcely preserved him from con- 
tempt, and joining profusion with oppressive exactions, and 
lavishing his favours on foreigners, he displeased both the no- 
bility and the populace. His reign was as unhappy as it was 
protracted, being marked with many bloody contentions. 



ENGLAND. 153 

§ Henry, though in general a mild and merciful prince, } ee violated 
the great charter in confiscating the estates of some of the obnoxious 
nobles, without a trial by their peers. When remonstrated with on 
the subject, he replied, " Why should I observe this charter, which 
is neglected by all my grandees, both prelates and nobility ?" to 
which it was justly returned, " You ought, sir, to set them the ex- 
ample." 

Henry's imprudent measures encouraged Simon de Mont- 
fort, earl of Leicester, to attempt to wrest the sceptre from 
the feeble hand which held it. He succeeded in part ; and 
as the consequence of a battle, he took both the king and his 
son Edward, prisoners. But through the interference of the 
parliament, which Leicester summoned, he deemed it prudent 
to release the prince, who was no sooner set at liberty, than he 
took the field against the usurper, and gained over him the 
famous battle of Evesham. In this battle Leicester was kill- 
ed, and the gallant Edward enjoyed the happiness of repla- 
cing his father on the throne. 

§ Leicester had assumed the character of regent, after having com- 
pelled the king to resign the regal power. In the parliament which 
was called, he summoned two knights from each shire, and deputies 
from the principal boroughs. From this era, is dated the commence- 
ment of the House of Commons. Deputies representing the boroughs, 
had not before constituted a portion of the national council. 

In the battle which took place between Prince Edward and Lei- 
cester, the rebels, who still retained the old king, had purposely pla- 
ced him in the front of the battle. Being clad in armour, and there- 
by not known by his friends, he received a wound, and was in dan- 
ger of his life ; but crying out "I am Henry of Winchester, your 
king," he was rescued from impending death. 

Edward, afterwards, sought and revived the glory of the 
English name, in the land of Palestine ; but the kingdom 
Buffered most severely in the mean time, under the imbecile 
reign of the aged monarch ; the barons oppressing the com- 
mon people, and the populace of London returning to their 
accustomed licentiousness. The death of Henry, after a 
reign of more than 55 years, left the kingdom in more vigor- 
ous hands. 

29. Edward I., (Longshanks) was crowned in 1272. His 
first object was to correct the disorders which the civil com- 
motions had introduced. In this work, he let loose the whole 
rigour of his justice on the Jews, who had been accused of 
adulterating the public coin. Multitudes of them lost their 
lives, or their property and homes. 



l5'l modern HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

Edward's next project was the conquest of Wales. He in- 
vaded the country with a force too great to be resisted ; and 
after killing Llewellyn, the Welsh prince, and the flower of 
his warriors, he received the submission of the Welsh nobili- 
ty, 1283. From this period Wales has been united to Eng- 
land, and the English laws established throughout the princi- 
pality, 

§ It is said that Edward, in order to conciliate the Welsh, gave 
them for a prince, his own son, who was born in their country. The 
title of Prince of Wales, has ever since descended to the eldest sons 
of the English kings. 

The Welsh, inhabiting the western part of the island of Great 
Britain, were the descendants of that portion of the ancient Britons, 
who had escaped the Roman and Saxon conquests, and preserved 
their liberty, laws, manners, and language. The occasion of Ed- 
ward's attack upon this people, was their prince's refusal to perfu v ra 
the customary homage to the English crown. 

The next project of Edward, was the conquest of Scotland. 
Great success attended his arms at different times, but he was 
never able to effect a total and final conquest of that part of 
the island. As the history of England and Scotland is so in- 
timately connected, a brief account of the latter, to the time 
at which we are now arrived, will be in place below, and 
will supersede the necessity of a separate narrative. 

§ The northern part of the island was anciently called Caledonia, 
from a word which is said to have signified a forest, or mountainous 
country. Subsequently, and at an early period, it received the name 
of Scotia, or Scotland ; and then it derived it from the Scots, who 
originally lived in the north of Ireland. The name Scot, is probably 
the same as Scuth, or Scythian — the people being emigrants from 
the Baltic countries. 

The history of Scotland, before the reign of Malcom III., is ob- 
scure, and in a degree uncertain. This prince, by the defeat of Mac- 
beth, the murderer of his father Duncan, succeeded to the throne in 
1057. A war which took place between him and William the Con- 
queror, was equally disastrous to both kingdoms. He prolonged the 
contest with Rums, the son of William, with credit to his bravery ; 
while to the virtues of his queen, Margaret, his kingdom, in its do- 
mestic policy, owed a degree of civilization scarcely known in those 
untutored ages. 

Under his successors, Alexander I., a spirited prince, and David 
I., a most excellent sovereign, Scotland successfully defended itself 
against the English, and, under the latter king, onquered the whole 
earldom of Northumberland ; but the dcfeat'of William J., (the Li- 
on) was disastrous to the kingdom, since he v r as taken prisoner by 
Menry II., and, as the price of his release, was compelled to do ho- 



ENGLAJMD. 155 

mage for his whole kingdom. This obligation, however. Richard I. 
generously discharged. 

Alexander III., dying without male issue, in 1285, Bruce and Bali- 
ol. descendants of David I., by the female line, were competitor? for 
the crown. Edward was chosen umpire of the contest, and on this 
ground, arrogated to himself the feudal sovereignty of the kingdom. 
He took possession of the country, and adjudged the crown to Bali- 
ol, on the condition of his doing homage to him, as liege lord. Ba- 
liol, however, soon renounced his allegiance, but was compelled at 
length by the English monarch, to abdicate the throne ; the latter 
having defeated him with great slaughter, in the battle of Dunbar. 

The war commenced by Edward against the Scots, did 
not terminate during his life time. Jt continued 70 years. 
and involved both countries in all the miseries of bloodshed. 
Edward twice defeated the ''cots and took possession of their 
country, and twice they re-asserted their liberties ; once under 
the heroic but unfortunate William Wallace, and once under 
the gallant and more fortunate Robert Bruce, the Scottish 
king. As Edward was preparing to invade Scotland the 
third time, with an immense army, he suddenly sickened and 
died, at Carlisle, in the 35f u year of his reign, and the 69th 
of his age. He was removed for interment to Westminster 
Abbey.* 

§ The conduct of Wallace was a remarkable instance of heroism. 
A few patriots, only, joined him at first, but his successes finally 
brought large numbers to his standard. While Edward was absent, 
and engaged in war on the continent, Wallace attacked his troops in 
a desperate engagement at Stirling, and obtained a complete victory. 

The disaffection of the Scotch nobles, who envied Wallace his dis- 
tinction as governor of the country, under Baliol, again exposed them 
to the attack of the English. Edward, in person, defeated them 
with an immense loss, hi the battle of Falkirk. After a fruitless re- 
sistance, the Scots submitted to Edward ; and the heroic Wallace, 
eventually betrayed, and carried in chains to London, was condemn- 
ed as a rebel, and infamously executed on Tower-hill, to the lasting 
dishonour of the English king. 

Robert Bruce, grandson of the Bruce who was the competitor of 
Baliol, redeemed the honour of his country. Resenting its humili- 
ation, he set up the standard of war. The genius of the nation then 
roused itself. Bruce was solemnly crowned at Srone, 1300, and fu- 
riously attacking the English, who were dispersed in their quarters, 
he again expelled them the kingdom. It was immediately after, 
that Edward died, on his way to Scotland. 

* The tomb of *h!s king was opened in 1774, when his body was found nn- 
consumed. 



156 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

Edward was an able prince, and excelled both as a warrior 
and statesman. The wisdom of his political measures is es- 
pecially conspicuous. In moral qualities, however, he was 
far from being' an example fit for imitation. Ambition, a 
spirit of revenge, and an unfeeling heart, too plainly charac- 
terized him. 

Und6r his reign, the Constitution of England gradually 
advanced. He passed a statute which declared that no tax 
or impost should be levied without the consent of lords and 
commons. He ratified magna-charta on several occasions ; 
and henceforward this fundamental law began to be regard- 
ed as sacred and inviolable, while parliaments have been held 
in regular succession. 

GERMANY. 

30. Germany, during this period, enjoyed but little tran 
quillity. The contest between the Empire and the Papal 
See, continued under a succession of emperors and popes, 
but ended commonly in favour of the latter. The treat- 
ment which some of the emperors received from the popes, 
was extremely humiliating. Frederick I., (Barbarossa) a 
prince of high spirit, after indignantly denying the suprema- 
cy of Alexander III., and refusing the customary homage, 
was finally compelled to kiss the feet of his Holiness, and ap- 
pease him by a large cession of territory. Henry VI., while 
doing homage on his knees, had his imperial crown kicked 
off by pope Celestinus, who, however, made some amends 
for this indignity, by the gift of Naples and Sicily. Henry 
had expelled the Normans from these places, and they now 
became appendages of the empire, 1194. 

The claims of the popes upon the empire, rose to such a 
height, that in the begining of the thirteenth century, In- 
nocent III., established the powers of the popedom on a settled 
basis, and obtained a positive acknowledgment of the papal 
supremacy, or the right irreversibly to confer the crown of 
the empire. 

Tt wa3 a consequence of the contentions between the im- 
perial and papal powers, to divide the states of Italy, several 
of which belonged to the empire, into two violent factions, 
by which Italy was so long devastated. These were known 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 157 

by the name of the Cuelphs,* and Ghibellines, the former 
maintaining the cause of the popes, the latter that of the 
emperors. Frederic II., carried on an opposition to four suc- 
cessive popes ; but though he was excommunicated and de- 
posed, he kept possession of his throne, and exercised his 
authority with a commendable firmness. On his death, 1250, 
the empire began to wane, and confusion and anarchy pre- 
vailed till the election of Rodolph of Hapsburgh, in 1273. 

§ During the latter part of the period above referred to, there was 
a nominal sovereign, viz., Alphonso X., king of Castile, who was 
elected emperor, but who, detained at home, neglected the affairs of 
Germany. 

No laws were then observed ; no order was maintained ; but 
murder, theft, and rapine, were committed with impunity, and the 
constitutions of the empire were totally neglected. Sanguinary 
Wars resulted from the feuds of private noblemen; bishops and 
clergymen, forgetful of their sacred character, embrued their hands 
in blood, for the augmentation of their benefices ; commerce was 
almost annihilated ; and travelling could not be performed with any 
safety. 

In the history of Germany, during the present period, few other 
occurrences are worthy of notice. The following anecdote may be 
worth recording. One of the favourites of Henry VI., observed to 
aim that he fatigued himself too much with giving audience, which 
A-equently interfered with his regular meals. Henry replied, " that 
although a private man was at liberty to eat when he pleased, a 
prince ought not to sit down to table, till he had discussed the affairs 
of his people." 

The reign of Lotharius was rendered remarkable, by some ex- 
cessive heats in Germany, which withered the corn and fruits of 
the earth, dried up the most considerable rivers, and occasioned a 
dreadful mortality among the cattle. 

EASTERN EMPIRE. 

31. The affairs of the Eastern Empire were, in part, nar- 
rated in the history of the crusades. Little, therefore, needs 
be added to this record, in respect to the present period. The 
outward splendour of the empire w as yet considerable, but the 
progress of decay was obvious. The Greeks manifested 
their cunning, and sometimes their treachery, in their treat- 
ment of the crusaders. The emperors, though on many ac- 

* The family now on the throne of Great Britain bear the surname of 
Gueiuh, and are descended from the Gueluhs here spoken of. 

14' 



158 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

counts they wished success to the crusaders, yet dreaded their 
power, and between these two passions; the soldiers of the 
cross became the dupes and the victims of their policy. The 
weakness of the empire was seen, when Constantinople, its 
capital, was taken by a handful of French and Venetian 
crusaders, and held in subjection nearly sixty years. 

Within the limits of the present period, about nine empe- 
rors sat on the throne of the East, besides the five French or 
Latin emperors who reigned at Constantinople. During the 
reign of the latter, four Greek emperors reigned at Nice, over 
the remainder of the empire. 

It was under Michael Palseologus, 1261, that Constantino* 
pie was recovered by the Greeks from its Latin conquerors. 
When the former and ancient sovereigns of the city deter- 
mined to retake the seat of the empire, Pakeologus was found 
possessed of the requisite ambition. Favoured by circumstan- 
ces, and skilful in the application of means, he accomplished 
the object ; and the second seat of the venerable Roman do- 
minion was destined yet longer, to be held by the successors 
of the great Constantine. 

§ The designs of Palaeologus were promoted by the Genoese, the 
rivals of the Venetians. The Latins had been gradually driven 
from their last possessions in Thrace ; and at a time when the bra- 
vest of the French and Venetians were absent from the city, a 
general of Palceologus advanced in the night to its gates. He suc- 
ceeded in entering it, partly by a subterranean passage into the 
centre of the city. Baldwin, the Latin emperor, in dismay, escap- 
ing to the sea-shore, was conveyed to Italy, and spent the remainder 
of his life in vainly attempting to rouse the Catholic powers to 
join in his restoration. 

No names besides Paloeologus are much distinguished, except 
those of Alexis Comnenus, and his son John Alexis. The one was 
an able and politic sovereign, as his management of the crusaders 
abundantly evinced. The other, with talent, united moral worth, 
and seemed by his virtues to revive the age of Marcus Antoninus. 

The lamentable end of a cruel usurper named Andronicus, is worth 
recording, as it shews how much the wicked, in death, sometimes 
feel that they need the divine mercy. The butcheries of Androni- 
cus had wearied the patience of the citizens of Constantinople. 
They rose en-masse against him, headed by Isaac Angelus. In their 
rage the populace tore from him successively his teeth, his hair, an 
eye, and a hand ; and being suspended for three days, every person 
who could reach the public enemy, inflicted on him some mark of 
ingenious or brutal cruelty, till at length two Italians, out of mercy 
or rage, pumping their swords into his body, released him from al 



SARACENS. 



159 



human punishment. During this long and excruciating torture, 
• Lord have mercy on me," and " Why wilt thou break a bruised 
reed !" were the only words that escaped his mouth. Our pity for 
the man, seems almost to absorb our hatred of the tyrant 

SARACENS. 

32. The empire of the Saracens, before the conclusion of 
this period, was destined to be no more. Their history is 
partly involved in the details of the crusades. The ener- 
gies of fanatic Europe, were exerted against the followers of 
the prophet, with some intervals, nearly two centuries, and 
terrible was the destruction of life on both sides. The king • 
dom of Jerusalem, under christian sovereigns, which origi- 
nated from the crusades, lasted not quite a century and a 
half. The Saracens, on recovering this domain, held it, how- 
ever, but a short time. In a few years after, the Tartars from 
the east swept over the regions which the Saracens had con- 
quered, and blotted out their name from the list of empires. 

This event occurred 1258 years A. C. From the close of 
our last period to the termination of their dominion, ten ca- 
liphs of the house of Abbas, reigned at Bagdad. The last 
of the caliphs was Mostasem, who was put to death at the 
time the city was captured. The Tartars were led by Ha- 
iaku, their general, who after a few assaults, took Bagdad, 
which contained immense riches, and gave it up seven days 
to be pillaged by his troops. 

A few particulars may be noticed concerning some of the 
caliphs. 

§ Of one, named Mohammed, it is said, that he quitted life with such 
extreme regret, that when about dying, he ordered his troops, his 
court, and all his treasures, to pass before him, as it were in a view ; 
and after he had considered all these objects, observed, "how is it 
possible that a power so formidable as mine, is not able to diminish 
the weight of my disorder one single grain, nor to prolong my life 
only for a moment." He then concluded his reflection with the fol- 
lowing remarkable words. " Unhappy is the person who spends 
his time in amassing those things which he must leave, and does 
not make the principal object of regard, that Being in whom all 
things are to be found." 

The reign of Al Moktafi must have been remarkable for justice. 
This the following anecdote may prove. A man convicted of ca- 
lumny, was sent by him to prison. One of his nobles offered to give 
him two thousand pieces of gold coin for his release, to which the 



160 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI. 

caliph replied, " put another man, guilty of the same crime, m my 
power, and 1 will give you ten thousand ; for I am extremely anxious 
to clear my dominions of these pests of society." 

The later caliphs, in the decline of the Saracen empire, were not 
the warlike sovereigns that their predecessors had been. They 
thought only of securing their ease and pleasure. Mostasem, above 
spoken of, exceeded ail the caliphs in ostentation and pride. When 
he appeared in public, he usually wore a veil, the more effectually 
to attract the respect of the people, whom he considered as un- 
worthy to look at him. On those occasions, nothing could exceed 
the eagerness of the multitude to see him, by crowding the streets, 
and hiring the windows and balconies, at the most exorbitant prices. 
The manner of his death was degrading and distressing in the ex- 
treme, and Hulaki designed it as a punishment of his pride 
Through the same streets, and exposed to the view of the same po 
pulace, the cruel Tartar caused the wretched caliph to be dragged 
confined in a leather bag, till he expired. 

CHINA. 

33. In the history of China, the present period includes a 
part both of the nineteenth and twentieth of the dynasties ol 
her emperors. The whole of the nineteenth comprised se- 
venteen emperors. It was during this period that the cele- 
brated Genghis Khan, and his successors, established their 
dominion in China. Heading the Mogul Tartars, who inha- 
bited a desert and inhospitable region, Genghis Khan, in 
1209, entered China, poured over the northern provinces, and 
compelled them to submit to his authority. Kublay, his son, 
called by the Chinese, Houpiiay, entered on his father's con- 
quests in this country, and reigned for a time over the 
northern provinces. 

Li-tsong, and his three sons and a nephew, in succession, 
were the last sovereigns of the nineteenth dynasty, and reigned 
over the southern part of the empire. It is said that Kublay 
(more probably a descendant of his) brought the whole of the 
country into subjection in 1280, and that with the nineteenth 
dynasty, ended, in fact, the Chinese dominion until the year 
1357 

Kublay had the wisdom and prudence to govern the 
Chinese according to their ancient laws and customs. This 
procedure, together with the general excellence of his charac- 
ter, entirely reconciled the people to the Tartar sway, so fai 
as they were brought under it. 

§ The Mogul Tartars, who conquered China, were a wandering 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 161 

Yace, and given to arms. The extent and rapidity of their con- 
quests have rarely been equalled in history. In the beginning of the 
thirteenth century, Genghis Khan overran, besides China, already 
mentioned, India, Persia, and Asiatic Russia. Batoucan, one of his 
sons, ravaged the western nations to the frontiers of Germany. But 
Genghis and his sons were not the only conquerors who arose from 
among this people. From the vast tract of country inhabited by the 
Tartars, have sprung the conquerors who produced all the great re- 
volutions in Asia. Besides the personages just named, the Turks, 
who are a race of Tartars, overwhelmed the empire of the caliphs. 
Mahmoud, a Tartar, conquered Persia, and a great part of India, in 
the tenth century. After Genghis, as we shall hereafter see, Tamer- 
lane, the scourge of the Turks, subdued a great part of Asia, and 
Baber, a remote descendant of Tamerlane, conquered all the region 
between Samarcand and Agra, in the empire of the Mogul. The 
descendants of those conquerors now reign in India, Persia, and 
China. 

Distinguished characters in Period VI. 

1. Abelard, a scholastic divine. 

2. Walter de Mapes, a poet, the Anacreon of the twelfth 
century. 

3. Averroes, an Arabian philosopher and physician. 

4. Genghis Khan, a Mogul, conqueror of Asia. 

5. Matthew Paris, an early English historian. 

6. Th. Aquinas, a celebrated teacher of School Divinity. 

7. Roger Bacon, an eminent English philosopher. 

§ 1. Abelard, was born in Brittany, 1079, and became celebrated for 
his learning and misfortunes. He was one of the most eminent di- 
vines of the twelfth century, though his conduct ill agreed with his 
sacred profession. He was criminally vain of his personal and 
mental accomplishments, but his most notorious failings relate to 
his conduct towards Heloise. With the most consummate art, he 
gained the favours of that beautiful and accomplished female, to 
their mutual dishonour. They were soon afterwards married in 
private, to pacify her uncle and family, though she never would 
acknowledge the union, inasmuch as she preferred the name of a 
mistress, to that of a wife. Their subsequent conduct eventually ex- 
cited the indignation of her friends to such a degree, that they 
hired certain ruffians to maim his person in the most shameful 
manner. 

In the oratory of the Paraclete which Abelard built, the unfor- 
tunate Heloise finally found a refuge, where she spent her days 
with her sister nuns. She retained her affection for Abelard, though 
he returned it with a coldness and indifference, which cannot but 
excite our indignation. Whilst he languished during the decline oi 
Life, under the unmanly vengeance of the uncle of Heloise, he forgot 
that she, once virtuous, had sacrificed her name, honour, and hap- 

14* 



162 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI. 

piness, to his passion. The poem of Pope, in which he celebrates 
the loves of Abelard and Heloise, is a brilliant, but corrupting pro- 
duction, and not even the bard can soften the features of deformity, 
which mark the character of Abelard in this particular. 

The writings of Abelard, are mostly on subjects of theology or 
logic. 

2. Walter de Mapes, was chaplain to Henry IT. Under king John 
he was made canon of Salisbury, precentor of Lincoln, and arch- 
deacon of Oxford. He wrote in Latin, and in a satirical style. 
Some of his verses are still read and admired for their sprightliness. 
He imitated the gay humour of Anacreon. He was a facetious 
companion. 

3. Averroes was born at Corduba, where his father was judge un- 
der the emperor of Morocco. His knowledge of law, divinity, math- 
ematics, and astrology, was very extensive, and to this was added 
the theory, rather than the practice, of medicine. After being pro- 
fessor in the university of Morocco, he was called away to succeed 
his father in the office of Judge in Corduba, and soon after, he was 
invested with the same powers in Morocco and Mauritania. 

His authority and talents procured him enemies, who envied and 
calumniated him, and through their efforts he was, for a time, sus- 
pended and degraded, on a charge of heresy. He was, however, 
restored at length to all his honours. He died at Morocco, 1206. 

In his private life, Averroes was regular, and devoted much of his 
time to philosophical pursuits. He was particularly fond of Aristo- 
tle, on whose works he wrote commentaries. His medical Avorks 
are scarce, and above mediocrity ; and of his numerous verses on 
amorous and light subjects, very few remain. 

4. Genghis Khan, was son of a khan of the Moguls, and born 
1163. He began to reign at the age of 13, but on account of a re- 
volt of his subjects, he fled for safety to Aventi-Khan, a Tartar 
prince, whom he supported on his throne, and whose daughter he 
married. But the jealousy of Aventi obliged him to escape a se- 
cond time, and being pursued by Aventi and his son, he defeated 
them both, and their army revolting to him, he soon increased it. 

From this occurrence, he became a renowned conqueror. In the 
space of 28 years he subdued the greater part of Asia, and render- 
ed himself as famous for his skill in government, as for the valour 
of his arms. He died in 1227, leaving his vast dominions, which 
extended 1800 leagues in length, and 1000 in breadth, properly divi- 
ded among his four sons. 

5. Matthew Paris, a Benedictine monk, was a universal scholar, 
and in that dark age, confessedly possessed great and astonishing 
erudition. He is chiefly celebrated as a historian, though not un- 
known as an orator and poet. His abilities and well known integri- 
ty, fitted him for the work in which he so zealously engaged, of re- 
forming the monasteries, and re-establishing the ancient purity of 
church discipline, even in opposition to the papal power. His great 
production was "Historia Major," in two parts, from the creation to 
William the Conqueror, and from the Conqueror to the year 1250. 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 163 

With Henry III. he was familiarly acquainted ; yet his account of 
the reign of that prince, seems not to be at all tinged with flattery, 
or sullied with any violation of historic truth. 

6. Th. Aquinas, called the angelical doctor, was of a noble family, 
descended from the kings of Arragon and Sicily. His inclination to 
embrace an ecclesiastical life, was strongly opposed by his mother. 
She even confined him two years in her castle. But escaping from 
her custody, he found the means of improving himself by study, and 
it was not long before he appeared at Paris, reading public lectures 
to an applauding audience. On his return to Italy, he became di- 
vinity professor to several universities, and at last settled at Naples, 
where he led a chaste and devout life. 

Gregory X. invited him to the Council of Lyons, to read the book 
which he had written against the Greeks, but he died on the way to 
join the pontiff, near Terracina, 7th March, 1274, in his 50th year. 
Aquinas left a vast number of works, mostly upon theological sub- 
jects, which prove him to have been a man of extensive erudition. 
There is, however, in his writings, very little of sound, useful, or ex- 
perimental views of religious truth. 

7. Roger Bacon was born in 1214, near Ilchester, of a respectable 
family, and became a monk of the Franciscan order. A strong, in- 
quisitive mind, soon raised him to consequence ; and as he was libe- 
rally supported in his pursuits by his friends, he made a most rapid 
advancement in science and philosophy. His attainments becoming 
far above the comprehensions of his age, he was suspected and accu- 
sed of magic. The monks of his order, actuated by jealousy and 
envy, contrived to have his works rejected from their library, and to 
prevent him from reading lectures to the students. He was finally 
imprisoned, and during 10 years was left to pursue his studies in so- 
litary confinement. Within this period, he composed his "Opus 
Majus," or his Great Work. After being released from prison by 
the interference of his friends, he spent the remainder of his life in 
academical repose, at Oxford. He died at the age of 80 years. 

To the comprehensive mind of Roger Bacon, many of the disco- 
veries, which have been made by the genius and toil of later ages, 
were known. His knowledge of mathematics and natural philoso- 
phy, was profound. He discovered the error in the calendar, and 
his plan for correcting it was adopted by Gregory XIII. He was 
acquainted with the structure of an air pump, with the laws of op 
tics, and with the power of glasses. His acquaintance with chemis- 
try was extensive. He gave such a description of gunpowder, that 
it is evident he was its inventor. In his writings, which amounted 
to above eighty treatises, some of which are published, and some 
preserved in manuscript, in the libraries of Europe, he uses an ele- 
gant and nervous style, and was always accurate in his observations 
on nature 



164 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD Vll. 



PERIOD VII. 

The period of the Papal Schism ; extending from the 
founding of the Turkish Empire, 1299 years A. C, to 
the taking of Constantinople, 1453 years A. C. 

TURKISH EMPIRE. 

Sect. 1. The Empire of the Turks, claims the notice of 
history, from the important consequences connected with its 
eventual establishment, on the ruin of the Grecian sovereign- 
ty. The power of this people is felt on the soil of classical 
antiquity, and until lately, it extended itself over nearly the 
whole of it, in the south east of Europe. Their establishment 
as a separate empire, is an event which took place in 1299 
A. C. under Ottoman or Othman, the first Sultan. 

§ The Turks derive their origin from the Avares, a tribe of the 
Huns who dwelt in Great Tartary, till forced by the Huns of the 
south, to abandon their country, when they divided into several bo- 
dies, each of which taking a different direction, settled, some around 
the Caspian Sea, some in Pannonia, and others in Asia Minor. 

The last colony, known under the name of the Seljukide Turks, 
founded an empire in Asia Minor, about the year 1070, and their 
chief took the title of Sultan of Iconium, a town of Lycaonia, where 
he fixed his residence. In 1294, this empire was destroyed by the 
Moguls, and the emirs or governors of most of the provinces became 
independent. The Turks embraced Mahometanism long before the 
time of Othman, as we gather from the history of the Crusades. 

Othman was an emir under the last sultan of Iconium. 
Forming the scheme of raising a new empire from that which 
was just overthrown, he engaged the assistance of several other 
emirs, and seized Iconium. He soon fixed the seat of his 
government at Byrsa, the chief town of Bythinia, and as- 
sumed the title of Sultan. From this time the Turks were 
known as the Ottoman race and sovereignty. 

By degrees, they encroached on the borders of the Greek 
empire, and were prevented from subverting it at an early 
stage, only by the necessity of defending themselves against 
the viciorious Tamerlane. Their principal sovereigns, during 
this period, after Othman, were Orchan, Amurat I.,Bajazet I., 
Mahomet I., and Amurat II. 

§ In the reign of Orchan, the Turks crossed the Hellespont on 
rafts, took Gallipoli, the key of Europe, penetrated into Thrace, and 



ITALIAN STATES. 165 

laid the foundation of the Turkish power in Europe. Orchan cre- 
ated the order of Janizaries, though as they were more completely or- 
ganized by his successor, Amurat, this institution is generally attri- 
buted to the latter. 

Bajazet I., the successor of Amurat, purposed to besiege the capi- 
tal of the Greek empire in form, but he was suddenly forced to de- 
fend himself against Tamerlane. Tamerlane, or Timer-bek, was a 
prince of the Usbec Tartars, and a descendant from Gengiskan. 
Having conquered Persia and most of the East, he was invited by tlje 
enemies of Bajazet, to protect them against the Ottoman power. He 
gladly accepted the invitation, and having met the Turk, he totally 
defeated him, and made him prisoner. The battle of Angoria, where 
the chieftains fought, is a famous one in history. Nearly 1,000,000 
of men were engaged in this battle, and 300,000 were slain. The 
victorious career of the Turks was suspended by this event. Baja- 
zet was shut up in an iron cage, in which he destroyed himself. 

Under Amurat II., the Turks resumed the project of taking Con- 
stantinople, but did not succeed. This prince had devoted himself 
to retirement and study, but some violation of a treaty, led him into 
a war with the Poles, in which he was signally victorious. He left 
his dominions to his son Mahomet II., surnamed the G> eat, known 
in history as the final subverter of the Eastern empire. 

ITALIAN STATES. 

2. Italy, in the separate States of which it consisted 
during this period, and subsequently, appears again on the 
page of history. The principal states were Yenice, Florence, 
Naples, Sicily, the possessions of the Church, Genoa, Par- 
ma, and a few others. Most of these sovereignties had been 
previously founded, but they existed in their most flourishing 
condition, during the present period. 

3. Venice had become considerable in the ninth century. 
Afterward, in the year 1084, the eastern emperor, Alexius, 
confirmed to the Venetians, Istria, Dalmatia, and Croatia, 
which had been conquered by their arms. They subdued 
also Verano, Padua, and other Italian States, in 1405. On 
the death of the king of Epirus, they acquired that Island 
in addition. The Venetians, for a long time, were the prin- 
cipal merchants of the world, but their trade was greatly 
diminished by the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, in 
1497. During the latter part of this period, in consequence 
of their wars with the Turks, they lost many of their pos- 
sessions. 

§ The following incident in the Venetian history, deserves a par- 
ticular notice. Ziaui, the thirty-ninth doge, or chief magistrate of 



166 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VII. 

the republic, was involved in a war with Frederic Barbarossa, from 
whose persecution the Pope had retired to Venice. The Venetians 
dispatched embassadors to the emperor, who answered them in a 
rage, that if their doge did not instantly deliver up the Pope, bound 
hand and foot, he would be terribly revenged, — would bring his army 
before their city, and fix his victorious standard in their market 
place, which should float in the blood of its citizens. 

The embassadors returned with this awful message, and it was 
agreed to equip a fleet with all expedition, and prepare for repelling 
the emperor's meditated vengeance. While the Venetians were thus 
employed, Otho, the Emperor's son, entered the gulf with seventy- 
five gallies, and was making sail to the city. The doge, with haste, 
met this fleet, with the few ships which were fit to put to sea, and in 
a dreadful battle took and destroyed forty-eight of the enemy's ves- 
sels, and returned in triumph to Venice. From this time was con- 
tinued the ceremony of marrying the sea. The Pope going out to 
meet the victorious doge, presented him with a ring, saying, " Take, 
Ziani, this ring, and give it to the sea, as a testimony of your do- 
minion. Let your successors annually perform the same ceremony, 
that posterity may know your valour has purchased the prerogative, 
and subjected this element, even as a husband subjecteth his wife." 

4. Florence, which was the capital of Tuscany, early rose 
into notice. It became a republic in the thirteenth century, 
and maintained its independence during two or three centu- 
ries. It was distinguished, by the revival of Grecian litera- 
ture, and the cultivation of the arts, in the fifteenth century. 
Before the close of this period, the family of the Medici* 
arose, and shed a splendour on the republic of letters. 

5. Naples, just before the beginning of the present era, was* 
entered by Charles, duke of Anjou, who became its king, as 
well as of Sicily. These countries were frequently united in 
one government, and as often separated from each other. 
They were the seat of long wars between the French and 
Germans on the one part, and the Spaniards on the other. 
But the latter at length obtained possession of the kingdoms. 

6. The Estates of the Church, which include the middle 
portions of Italy, were, during the present period, greatly in- 
volved in controversies. The rival claims for superiority be- 
tween the popes and emperors, still continued. Henry VII., 
the successor of Albert, triumphantly fought his way to Rome, 
where, in a solemn manner, he received the crown, and im- 
posed a tribute on the states of the Church. He was sud- 
denly destroyed, it was supposed, by papal vengeance. 

It was in his time, that the remarkable event took place, by 
which the seat of the popedom was changed from Rome to 



FKANCE. 167 

Avignon. This was done by pope Clement Y., 1309, on ac- 
count of being so much molested by the imperial faction. In 
the absence of this pope from Rome, Nicholas Rienzi, a man 
of mean parentage, but of great abilities, aspired to the su- 
preme authority, in 1347. He retained the dominion of this 
portion of Italy, for a year ; but was afterwards sacrificed to 
the fury of the people. In the year 1377, the holy see was 
removed back to Rome, by pope Gregory IX. After his 
death, the citizens of Avignon and Rome contended for the 
freedom of election. Three separate factions of the French 
and Italian cardinals, having elected three separate popes, the 
emperor Sigismund judged this division of the Church to be 
a fit occasion for his interference, to reconcile all differences, 
and establish his own supremacy. 

In 1414, he summoned a general council at Constance, 
and ended the dispute by deposing all the three pontiffs, and 
naming a fourth, Martin Colonna. Historians call this di- 
vision of the papacy, the great schism of the west. 

7. Genoa, the ancient Liguria 5 became a republic in 953. 
The Genoese were afterwards involved in civil commotions, 
which so weakened them, that they were obliged to shelter 
themselves under the protection of the duke of Milan. They 
continually revolted to the French, and returned again to 
subjection to the Milanese, till, in the next succeeding period, 
Andrew Doria restored liberty to his native country. 

§ The Genoese, next to the Venetians, were, for 200 years, the most 
commercial people in Europe. The city of Genoa, was afterwards 
celebrated as the birth place of the great Columbus. 

FRANCE. 

Capetian Race. Branch of Valois. 

8. The successor of Philip the Fair, on the throne of 
France, was Louis X. surnamed Hutin, (the wrangler,) 
1314. He was a prince of a weak and irresolute character, 
and reigned but a few months. A son, born after his death, 
was acknowledged, but lived only four days. Upon this 
event, Philip Y. the Long, brother of Louis, succeeded to the 
throne. His was a short reign of five years. 

§ Philip V. was notorious for his persecution of the Jews, and, in 
general, of all foreigners who resided within his dominion, and re- 



168 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VTI. 

fused to embrace Christianity. The Jews were accused of having 
poisoned the wells and springs of water. 

9. Philip leaving no other than female issue, was succeed- 
ed, 1322, by his brother, Charles IV., the Fair. His reign 
was unfortunately short, for he was a wise and upright 
prince. He left no son behind him. 

§ According to the Salic law, no female succeeds to the French 
throne. 

10. The throne now devolved on Philip VI. of Valois, 
cousin to the late king, 1328. Edward III. of England, 
however, claimed it in right of his mother, Isabella, who 
was a daughter of Philip the Fair. He enforced his claim 
by arms ; but Philip being acknowledged and supported by 
the French nation, retained the sceptre, notwithstanding the 
loss of the famous battle of Cressy, and the capture of Ca- 
lais. In the celebrated wars which these rival pretensions 
created, the English were at first victorious. / 

Philip was vain, obstinate, and of a limited capacity, and 
died after a reign of twenty-two years. 

§ In the midst of his losses, Philip was gratified with the cession of 
the province of Dauphine ; the condition of which was, that the 
eldest son, the presumptive heir of the crown, should be styled Dau- 
phin, and bear the arms of the province. 

It was in the reign of this prince, that a general plague, surpass- 
ing in its horrors whatever besides the remotest history can furnish, 
ravaged, in the space of eighteen months, not only France, but 
every part of the known world. It broke out in the northern pro- 
vinces of China, and swept over Asia, Africa, and Europe. In the 
places through which it passed, it cut down two thirds of the inhab- 
itants. This calamity had been preceded by terrific earthquakes, 
which swallowed up whole cities. 

11 John 1L, surnamed the Good, succeeded his father, 1350. 
He was a most unfortunate prince. Taking the field with 
60,000 men, against the Black Prince, he was defeated by 
the latter with a far inferior number, in the signal battle of 
Poictiers, and made prisoner. 

§ He was carried in triumph to London, and, after having been de 
tained in captivity four years, was permitted to return to France 
upon ceding several important places to the English. He, however 
visited London again, on account, as is supposed, of a passion which 
he had conceived for the countess of Salisbury. He died very sooi 
afterwards. 

12. The Dauphin assumed the administration, during the 
captivity of the king; and, on the death cf the latter, succeed 
ed to the throne, under the name of Charles V. the Wise 




Doge of Venice espousing the sea. P. 166, 




Tell, shooting the apple from his son's head. P, 180, 



FRANCE. 16& 

Had it not been for this prince, France would most probably 
have fallen under the domination of England. During his 
reign, the French re-conquered almost all the places taken by 
the English. This prince possessed a vigourous mind, but a 
delicate constitution of body, and was suddenly carried off in 
his forty-seventh year. He was one of the best of the French 
sovereigns, a patron of literature, and a sagacious statesman. 
He possessed a library of several hundred volumes ; which 
Was extremely large for the age. 

§ It was through Du Guesclin, a celebrated general, whom the 
king raised to be Constable of France, that the French, after having 
been beaten by the English during thirty years, began to beat the 
latter in turn. 

13. Charles VI., styled the Well Beloved, succeeded to the 
kingdom, 1380. He first made war on the Flemings, whom 
he defeated in the battle of Rosebeck. A formidable inva- 
sion, of which the object was the British shore, failed, in con- 
sequence of a tempest that dispersed and wrecked his ships. 
During this reign, a civil war occurred between the houses of 
Orleans and Burgundy, the cause of which pertained to the 
regency. Charles had fallen into a state of insanity, which, 
of course, rendered a regency necessary. In the midst of the 
contention, and of the miseries which it inflicted on France, 
Henry V. of England, invaded the country, and gained the 
memorable battle of Agincourt. The consequence of this 
victory, and other advantages gained by Henry, w r as the ac- 
knowledgment of his right to the French throne, on the death 
of Charles. These sovereigns died soon after, and w r ithin 
two months of each other. 

§ Charles was a weak prince, and his insanity reduced him almost 
to idiotism. 

_ The fleet which was fitted out for the invasion of England, con- 
sisted of 1287 sail, of which, sixty were ships -)f the line. In the 
centre was a wooden city, having a diameter of 3000 paces, pro- 
vided with towers and bastions, and constructed over boats fastened 
together. It was so contrived as to be put together, or taken to 
pieces, in a day ; and was intended to furnish lodgings for the troops, 
when they should be landed. The wreck only, of this singular city, 
reached the British shore. 

Cards were invented in the reign of Charles VI., to amuse that 
monarch, and to relieve him from the melancholy which followed 
his alienation of mind. 

14. Charles VII., surnamed the Victorious, w T as crowned at 
Poictiers, 1422, while, at the same time, the infant Henry 

1"> 



170 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VII. 

YL, was crowned at Paris, through the agency of the duke 
of Bedford, the English regent of France. This competi- 
tion issued in war. The first great military operation Uii 
dertaken hy the English, was the siege of Orleans, a place of 
the utmost importance. And here a transaction occurred, 
which is one of the most wonderful on record. This was the 
raising of the siege, and the consequent deliverance of France 
from the grasp of English power, by means of Joan of Arc, 
otherwise called the Maid of Orleans. The enthusiasm which 
she inspired at this juncture, by pretending to a divine com- 
mission, and by her singular and courageous appearance at 
the head of the French troops, rendered them invincible. 

§ Joan was a young country girl, of twenty-seven years, a domestic 
of a tavernkeeper. Presenting herself to the council of Charles, 
who had fled in despair to Dauphine, she declared that God had, in 
a revelation, apprised her that the royal troops would force the ene- 
my to retire from the siege. An assembly of divines pronounced 
her mission to be supernatural; and, at her own request, she was 
clothed like a man, and, in complete armour, headed the troops. 
A white palfrey bore her gaily to the scene of combat; while on 
her banner was displayed the image of our blessed Saviour. The 
English, raising the siege of Orleans, fled before her. The hopes of 
the nation were raised, as if by a miracle, and other conquests suc- 
ceeded. The impulse which her heroism excited, enabled Charles 
to extend his triumphs to the banks of the Seine. 

As a recompense for her important services, she was ennobled by 
Cnarles, together with the whole of her family, and their heirs and 
descendants. After she had effected the object of the mission, she 
requested leave to retire, but she was retained in the service, from 
the belief that it would be benefited by her presence. At the siege 
of Compeigne, not long after, she was made prisoner; and being 
tried by the English for sorcery, she was condemned to be burned. 
This sentence, which is an eternal disgrace to the judges who pre- 
sided at the trial was barbarously put into execution. When led to 
the stake, the heroic maid, overcome by her emotions, burst into 
tears. To prolong her tortures, a scaffolding of plaster had been 
contrived, with so great an elevation, that the flames required a con- 
siderable time to penetrate to her body, which was gradually con- 
sumed. 

The tide of fortune turning against the English, they lost 
many of the French provinces ; and, after the battle of For- 
migny, which was gained by Charles, they lost Paris itself. 
In the southern dominions, however, the French arms were 
paralized, for a time, by the brave Talbot, an illustrious Eng- 
lish warrior. His death, and the fatal disputes between the 



ENGLAND. 17 J 

houses of York and Lancaster, placed the whole of the 
French monarchy, with the exception of Calais and Greignes, 
under the dominion of Charles, 1450. 

§ The death of this prince was hastened by the undutiful and un- 
natural conduct of his son, the Dauphin. The latter formed a plot to 
cut off his father by poison. This was discovered ; but the king was 
so haunted by the idea of treachery and poison, that he could not be 
prevailed on to receive that degree of nourishment, which was ne- 
cessary to support life. 

The Pragmatic Sanction originated in his reign, in a general as- 
sembly of the clergy and nobility, representing the Gallican church. 
Its aim was, to check the despotism of the popes. The superiority 
of the assemblies of the clergy over the See of Rome, formed the 
basis of its regulations. 

ENGLAND. 

Family of Plantagenet. — Branch of Lancaster, 

14| Edward II., surnamed of Caernarvon, from the 
place of his birth, ascended the throne in 1307. He was the 
opposite of his father in character and disposition, being weak, 
indolent, and destitute of penetration in selecting his advi- 
sers. Yet his inoffensive disposition, joined with his misfor- 
tunes, entitles him to respect, as well as commiseration. He 
made war on the Scots, but was terribly defeated by Robert 
Bruce, in the battle of Bannockburn. In consequence of this 
battle, the latter was established on the throne of Scotland, 
1314. Edward was unfortunate in all his connexions. His 
queen, Isabella, sister of the French king, was an ambitious 
and worthless woman, and his favourites were equally de- 
tested by the people, and injurious to their sovereign. Edward, 
at last, fell a victim to his wife's cruelty and lust, and misera- 
bly perished. 

§ It was in obedience to his father's dying request, that Edward in- 
vaded Scotland. He marched at the head of one hundred thousand 
men. Bruce .met this immense force with only thirty thousand. 
The army of the latter was however advantageously situated. A hill 
covered his right flank, a morass his left, and to screen his front, he 
had. dug deep pits, planted them with stakes, and covered them with 
turf. The English, confident in their superior numbers, rushed for- 
ward without precaution. Their cavalry was entangled in the pits, 
their ranks were broken, and the Scottish horse, pouring through the 
openings, scattered on every side slaughter and dismay. The En- 
glish threw down their arms and fled, and were pursued to the gates 



172 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD Vli. 

of Berwick. The defeat of Edward sunk him in the estimation o. 
his subjects. 

The most famous of his favourites, were Gaveston, and the two 
JSpencers, father and son. The queen, who persuaded the king to 
recal them after they had been banished by parliament, at length 
fixed her affections on Mortimer, a powerful baron. A breach soon 
followed between her and the Spencers, and going over to France 
with her paramour, she found the means to form such a party in 
England, that on her return with some French troops, she made her 
husband prisoner, and forced him to abdicate his crown in favour ot 
his son, then fourteen years of age. While he was in prison, he 
was put to death by the keepers, who, with infinite barbarity, thrust 
a red hot iron into his bowels, until he was internally consumed. 
These wretches were instigated by Mortimer and the queen. 

15. Edward III., succeeded his father, 1327, under the 
regency of Isabella and Mortimer. But to such a regency, 
he would not submit. At the age of eighteen, he assumed 
the reins of government, hanged Mortimer at Tyburn, and 
confined the queen, his mother, for life. 

The conquest of Scotland soon became an object of ambi- 
tion, and marching to the north with a large army, he van- 
quished the Scots at Halidown Hill, with little loss on the 
side of England. 

On the death of Charles the Fair, in 1328, Edward, having 
a claim to the throne of France, as being the son of Isabella, 
the sister of the deceased king, and first in female succession, 
prepared to assert his claim (since the French rejected it) by 
the fortune of arms. For this purpose, he invaded France 
in 1339, and from that time to 1360, war raged furiously be- 
tween the two countries, with only occasional suspensions. 

During this long contention, were fought the famous battles 
of Cressy, in 1346, and Poictierj, in 1 356. The battle of 
Cressy was fought between Philip, the French king, on the 
one side, and Edward and his son, the Black Prince, on the 
other. The army of Philip amounted to one hundred thousand 
men, that of the English, only to thirty thousand. The bat- 
tle of Poictiers was fought between the Black Prince, and 
King John of France. The former commanded only six- 
teen thousand men, while the army of the latter amounted to 
sixty thousand. Notwithstanding the disparity of 'numbers, 
the English obtained a decided victory in both engagements. 
The heroism of the Black Prince has rendered his name evci 
famous in the annals of war. 



ENGLAND. 173 

§ In the battle of Cressy, there fell, by a moderate computation, 
twelve hundred French knights, fourteen hundred gentlemen, four 
thousand men-at-arms, besides about thirty thousand of an inferior 
rank. The action seems no less remarkable for the small loss sus- 
tained by the English, than for the prodigious slaughter of the French. 

Imong the former, there only fell one esquire, and three knights, 

Jid an inconsiderable number of private men. 
In the battle of Poictiers, the French king was taken prisoner, 

iid afterwards was led by Ihe Prince of Wales, in triumph, to Lon- 

ion. He was treated with the greatest courtesy by his conqueror. 
Edward, during his absence in France, left his queen, Philippa, with 
♦he care of the realm. Attacked by the Scots, who invaded England 
soon after the battle of Cressy, she entirely defeated them near Dur- 
nam. David, their king, who had expelled Edward Baliol from the 
throne, was unable to effect his escape from the field, and thus he 
became a captive at the same time with king John in London. 

16. The decline of Edward's life did not correspond with 
the early part of it. The tide of success turned against him 
in France, and besides the loss of his dominions abroad, he 
felt the decay of his authority at home. His age he unwisely 
devoted to pleasure ; and to complete his disappointment, the 
Prince of Wales died, after a lingering illness, in his forty- 
sixth year. Never had king a more illustrious son, and 
never did a nation have greater cause to felicitate itself in the 
prospect of having such a model of heroism and virtue for its 
sovereign. The old king did not long survive this melancho- 
ly occurrence. He died in 1377, in the sixty- fifth year of 
his age, and the fifty-first of his reign. 

The English nation has ever taken pride in its Edward 
III., and recurred to his reign, as one of the most glorious in 
its annals. The splendour of his foreign victories, and the 
tranquillity and efficiency of his domestic government, stamp 
the impression of greatness on his mind. But the moral pu- 
rity of his character, and the justice of his wars with France 
and Scotland, are more than questionable. 

17. Richard II., son of the Black Prince, succeeded to the 
throne, 1377, at the age of eleven years. He was unworthy 
of his great father. Indolence, prodigality, perfidiousness, 
and sensuality, marked his character. His kingdom suffered 
from the distractions attending a regal minority. The con- 
tests for power between his three uncles, the dukes of Lancas- 
ter, York, and Gloucester, who secretly directed the affairs of 
the realm, embroiled all the public measures. An insurrec- 

15* 



17 A MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII. 

tion, headed by Wat Tyler, put the government, for a time, 
in great jeopardy. While the kingdom was convulsed with 
domestic contests, it was also engaged in hostilities with 
France and Scotland. At length, during the king's absence 
in quelling an insurrection in Ireland, Henry of Lancaster 
rose in open rebellion, and compelled Richard, at his return, 
to resign the sceptre into his hands. The parliament con- 
firmed the act, and the king was soon after privately assassi- 
nated or starved to death. Thus began the contention between 
the houses of York and Lancaster. 

§ The finances of the kingdom were exhausted by the wars which 
were carried on with its foreign enemy. As nothing was obtained 
by conquest to repair the waste, parliament found it necessary to 
impose a poll tax of three groats on every person, male and female, 
above fifteen years of age. But the minds of the people were un- 
favourably disposed for this measure, and the principles of demo- 
cracy gaining ground, this distich was frequently in the mouths of 
the multitude : • 

" When Adam delv'd and five span, 
Where was then the gentleman." 

Besides, the injustice of the tax, to which the poor were obliged to 
contribute as much as the rich, was apparent to every body. While 
the character of the measure was viewed in this light, the rigorous 
manner in which it was enforced, seemed insupportable. 

An incident which occurred, respecting the wanton conduct of a 
tax-gatherer, in the family of a blacksmith, aroused the public mind, 
and became the occasion of a wide spread insurrection. The popu- 
lace flew to arms. The spirit immediately pervaded Essex and the 
neighbouring counties. The leaders assuming the feigned names of 
Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and Hob Carter, committed the most out- 
rageous violence on such of the nobility and gentry as came in their 
way. At length, assembling their followers on Blackheath, to the 
amount of one hundred thousand, they broke into London, demand- 
ing certain immunities, which were granted, but in parties still con- 
tinuing to insult and plunder the capital. 

At this juncture, the king, slenderly guarded, met Tyler at the 
head of a large body of rioters, and entered into conference with 
him. Tyler ordered his companions to retire, till he should give 
the signal for attack, and then ventured alone into the midst of tho 
royal retinue. Here he demeaned himself in so insolent a manner 
that Walworth, the mayor of London, in a fit of indignation, drev 
his sword and brought him to the ground. He was instantly dis- 
patched by the rest of the king's attendants. Richard's presence ol 
mind saved himself and them from the meditated revenge of the 
mutineers. Accosting the enraged multitude with an affable and 
intrepid countenance, he asked them, "What is the meaning of 



ENULAND. 175 



that you have 



your disorder? Are you angry, my good people, 
'Ost your leader. I, your king, will be your leader." 

The presence of majesty overawed the multitude, and they im- 
plicitly followed the king. Leading them into the fields, he peacea- 
bly dismissed them, with the same charters which had been granted 
to their fellows. These charters, however, were soon after annulled 
in parliament. 

In regard to the death of Richard, after he was deposed and im- 
prisoned, it was long the prevailing opinion, that his guards fell upon 
him in the castle of Pontefract, and dispatched him with their hal- 
berts. But it is more probable, that he was starved to death in 
prison, for after his body was exposed in public, no marks of vio- 
lence were found upon it. 

The particular ground of the controversy between the houses of 
York and Lancaster, was, that Edmund Mortimer was the true heir 
to the crown, being descended from Lionel, the second son of Ed- 
ward III., whereas Henry, duke of Lancaster, who was placed on 
the throne, was the son of John of Gaunt, the third son of Ed- 
ward III. 

17i Henry TV., was the title which the duke of Lancaster 
assumed, when he came into power. He was sur named 
Bolingbroke. and the date of his reign is 1400. He was 
immediately oppressed by faction and discontent ; and as a 
righteous retribution, he felt the uneasiness of " the head that 
wears a crown." A rebellion, raised by the earl of Northum- 
berland, for placing Mortimer, of the house of York, the true 
heir, on the throne, first required his attention. The Scotch 
and the Welch took part with the malcontents, but their 
united forces were defeated at Shrewsbury, and their leader, 
young Percy, (Hotspur, so named on account of his fiery 
temper.) was killed on the field. 

§ The armies on this occasion were nearly equal in numbers, con- 
sisting of about twelve thousand men, each ; and rarely was there a 
battle in those times, where the shock was more terrible or more 
constant. Henry exposed his person to all the dangers of the field. 
His gallant son, the prince of Wales, who afterwards so signalized 
himself by his military exploits, urged on the fight with the utmost 
intrepidity, and even a wound which he received in the face with an 
arrow, could not oblige him lo retire. On the other side, Percy and 
Douglas, terrible nam<v, supported their ancient renown. But while 
the armies were contending in the most furious manner, the death 
of Percy, by an unknown hand, decided the victory, and the ad- 
herents of the king won the day. 

18. A second rebellion, headed by the archbishop of York, 
was quelled by the capital punishment of its author. In the 
reign of this prince, the secular arm was unrighteously ex- 



176 MODERN HISTORY PER T .OD VII. 

tended against the followers of WicklifTe ; and history records 
the shameful fact, that Henry IV. was the first English mo- 
narch, that made the religion of his subjects, an offence to be 
expiated by the faggot and the scaffold. 

The latter part of his life was embittered by the extreme 
profligacy of his son Henry, prince of Wales, who afterwards 
nobly discarded the vices and follies of his youth. 

§ The following particular merits a recital. One of his abandoned 
companions having been indicted before Sir Wm. Gascoigne, the 
chief justice, the young prince was not ashamed to appear at the 
bar with the criminal, in order to give him countenance and pro- 
tection. Finding that his presence did not over-awe the chief jus- 
tice, he proceeded to insult him on his tribunal. But Gascoigne, 
mindful of his own dignity, and of the majesty of the laws, ordered 
the prince to be committed to prison. Henry, sensible of his error, 
quietly submitted to the order. When the affair was mentioned to 
his father, he is said to have exclaimed, "Happy is the king who 
has a magistrate sufficiently courageous to execute the laws upon 
such an offender; but still more happy, in having a son willing to 
submit to such chastisement." 

Henry died, 1413, at the age of forty-six, in the fourteenth 
year of his reign. Notwithstanding distinguished military 
talents and political sagacity, he became a most unpopular 
sovereign. The illegality of his title, may have disaffected 
his subjects towards his person and his reign. He felt the 
miseries of guilt, and became suspicious and jealous. In re- 
ligion, he was bigotted and intolerant. 

19. His son, Henry V., ascended the throne in 1413. He 
laid aside his dissJute habits, as already intimated, and in- 
formed the companions of his pleasures, that they must enter 
on a similar reformation, if they would secure his favour. He 
also received the wise ministers of his father, who had checked 
his riots, with all the marks of esteem and confidence. 

Henry early asserted by arms, the English claim to France. 
Taking advantage of disorders in that kingdom, he invaded 
it with an army of about thirty thousand men, and with 
half that number, defeated the French army, amounting to 
sixty thousand men, on the plains of Agincourt. His own 
loss did not exceed five hundred men, while that of the French 
amounted to twenty-two thousand in killed and prisoners. 

§ Henry drew up his army on a narrow ground, between two 
woods, to cover each flank, and patiently expected an attack, having 
been surprised by the sudden appearance of the French, in great 



ENGLAND. 177 

force, when his own army had been greatly reduced by sickness and 
fatigue. Had the French general declined a combat, the English 
must have relinquished the advantages of their situation; but the 
impetuous valour of the nobility, and a vain confidence in superior 
numbers, brought on an action, which proved to the English so 
glorious and successful. 

After this battle, returning to England to recruit his forces, 
he landed again with an army of twenty-five thousand men, 
and fought his way to Paris. The war between Henry and 
the French king, was terminated by the treaty of Troyes, 
1420. Henry then turned his arms with success against the 
dauphin, who assumed the style and authority of regent. 
Triumphing signally over his enemy, and realizing most of 
his wishes, he had nearly reached the summit of human 
glory. But his end was approaching, and one of the most 
heroic of the English monarchs, died at the early age of thirty- 
four years, and after a reign of nine years. 

§ The treaty of Troyes was made with the Queen mother, and the 
duke of Burgundy — Charles, the French king, being insane. By 
this treaty it was agreed that he should marry the daughter of 
Charles, and receive the kingdom of France as her dowry, which, 
till the death of her father, he should govern as regent. 

Henry was a true hero, and like all heroes, his views of conquest 
were pernicious in their tendency. Accordingly, England derived 
from his achievements, rather fame than solid advantage. He was 
able in the cabinet as well as in the field — was magnanimous, 
generous, and affable, but had more than the bigotry of his father in 
religion. 

20. Henry VI., at the age of ten months, succeeded his 
father, in 1422, under the regency of the dukes of Gloucester 
and Bedford, the former for England, the latter for France. 
Henry was crowned king of France, at the age of eight 
years. At this era, in order to complete the conquest of that 
kingdom, it remained only to capture Orleans. The duke of 
Bedford, acting as regent of France, had laid siege to the 
place, but he was obliged to raise it by the valour and good 
conduct of Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans. Thus wa3 
France saved, and England was afterwards stripped of 
almost every conquest it had made in that country. 

When arrived at adult years, Henry proved himself to be 
mild and inoffensive, but deficient in the energy which be- 
comes a sovereign. He had but a slender capacity. These 
defects in the king were supplied by his queen, the famous 
Margaret of Anjou, a woman of great talents, ambition, and 



178 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII. 

heroism. She made a conspicuous figure in the wara 
which distracted his reign. 

The insurrection of Jack Cade, was an event of some lm 
portance, and was quelled only after considerable bloodshed. 

§ Jack Cade, a native of Ireland, whose crimes obliged him to retire 
into France, had assumed the name of Mortimer, and at the head ol 
20,000 Kentish men, encamped on Blackheath, in this way to Lon- 
don, in order to obtain a redress of grievances. The city opened its 
gates to Oade, who for some time maintained great order among hia 
followers; but at length when he could not prevent them from com- 
mitting depredations and outrages, the citizens, with the assistance 
of some soldiers, repulsed the rebels with great slaughter. Upon 
their submission, they received a general pardon, which was after- 
wards annulled, and both Cade, and many of his followers, were ca- 
pitally punished for their rebellion. 

The duke of Gloucester, who was heir to the crown in 
case the king should die without issue, was the favourite of 
the nation ; but he had opposed the marriage of Henry with 
Margaret, and was therefore marked out by the latter for de- 
struction. He was arrested and sent to prison, where he 
was found dead a few days afterwards. This event, in con- 
nection with the imbecility of the king, encouraged the 
Duke of York to assert his claim to the throne. 

§ The duke of York, who was Richard, son of Lionel, second son )f 
Edward III., was, however, averse to violent measures, and his for- 
bearance, when appointed lieutenant of the kingdom, though amia- 
ble and unusual, proved the source of all those furious wars and 
commotions which ensued ; for the queen at length persuaded 
Henry to annul the protectorship of Richard, and place the adminis- 
tration in the hands of the duke of Somerset. Richard then levied 
an army ; but an account of the wars between the houses of York 
and Lancaster, properly belongs to the next period. 

GERMANY. 

21. In the history of the German Empire, is to be no- 
ticed, the rise of the House of Austria, which constitutes an 
important portion of that empire. This event took place in 
the latter part of the former period, viz. 1274, when Rodol- 
phus of Hapsbourg, a Swiss baron, was elected emperor of 
Germany. He owed his elevation to the jealousies of the 
electoral princes, who could not agree in the choice of any 
one of themselves. The king of Bohemia, to whom Rodol- 
phus had been stewaH Oi the household, could not endure 
the supremacy of his former dependent ; and refusing him 



GERMANY. 179 

trie customary homage for his Germanic possessions, Rodol- 
phus stripped him of Austria, which has ever since remained 
in the family of its conqueror. 

When Rodolplms ascended the throne, he found the 
empire distracted and almost ruined by anarchy and faction, 
but lie restored order by his prudence and firmness. He 
was a prince generally esteemed for his virtues. 

§ He demolished the retreats of the banditti, that every where in- 
fested the country, and executed great numbers of the marauders. 
The following anecdote, among others, is related of him. 

A merchant complaining to him of an innkeeper at Nuremberg 
who refused to return a sum of money which he had deposited in 
the hands of the latter, Rodolphus, seeing the innkeeper soon af- 
terwards, took an opportunity of praising his hat, and proposed 
an exchange. His proposal was naturally accepted, and he sent 
the hat as a token to the innkeeper's wife, desiring, in her husband's 
name, she would deliver to the bearer, the money which a merchant 
had left in his hands. By this stratagem, the plaintiff recovered 
his property, and the innkeeper was sentenced to pay a heavy fine. 

Rodolphus had seven beautiful daughters, by means of whom, he 
contracted alliances, which proved highly advantageous to his pos- 
terity. He had also seven sons ; but none of these survived h!ra, ex- 
cept the duke of Austria. In Rodolphus began the good lortune of 
the h< use of Austria, of which he was the founder : a fortune which 
call % d forth the observation, "that Venus was even more favourable 
to them than Mars." 

22. Adolphus of Nassau, was elected the next emperor of 
Germany, 1291, instead of the duke of Austria, the late em- 
peror's son ; but proving unworthy, he was deposed, and the 
duke, named Albert I., was duly raised to the empire, 1298. 
The pope claimed the empire, but finally acknowledged 
Albert. 

This prince treated the Swiss with great rigour, contrary 
to the conducr of his father. Several of the Cantons were 
his by inheritance, but he formed the design of annexing the 
whole of the provinces to his dominion, and erecting them- 
into a principality, for one of his sons. The Swiss revolted. 
The cantons of Schewitz, Uri, and Underwald, which always 
had resisted the authority of Austria, combined to assert their 
freedom ; and a small army of four hundred or five hundred 
men, defeated an immense host of the Austrians, in the pass 
of Morgate, 1315. The rest of the Cantons, by degrees, 
joined the association, and with invincible perseverance, after 
sixty pitched battles with their enemies, they effected their 



180 modern his^or*. — i*£Ridi> vn< 

freedom. It was the famous William Tell, who was insifU 
mental in producing this revolution, and in laying the foun- 
dation of his country's liberty. 

§ In so brief an outline of history as is attempted in this Work, it 
will be impossible to include a separate account of every country. 
Several of the smaller ones must therefore be noticed in the account 
of others, or be grouped together. As this seems to be a fit place to 
touch on the affairs of Switzerland, a few particulars may be added. 
The story of William Tell, deserves a record. In this story is ex- 
emplified an instance of the lawless tyranny of the governor of 
Switzerland. 

Geislei'j governor of the Canton of Uri, had ordered his hat to bs 
fixed upon a pole in a certain place, and commanded every passen 
ger, on pain of death, to pay the same obeisance to it as to himseli 
Tell, an inhabitant of Uri, indignant at this insulting mark of wanton 
tyranny, disdained to pay the homage required. Tell's death was 
determined, and he was condemned to be hanged, unless he should 
be able to strike with his arrow, an apple placed upon the head of 
his son. Being an excellent marksman, he accepted the alternative. 
and providentially cleft the apple without injuring the child. Geisler 
perceiving another arrow in his belt, asked him for what purpose 
that was intended. Tell heroically replied, " It was designed foi 
you, if I had killed my son." 

Condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a dungeon for this an- 
swer, he was bound and thrown into a boat, that Geisler himseli 
might convey him across the lake of Altorf. to his castle. In the 
midst of the passage, a furious squall arose, and the cowardly go- 
vernor was so intimidated by the danger he was in, that he unbound 
Tell, who was a most skilful boatman, and entreated him to row him 
safely across the lake. Tell soon effected his escape by swimming 
to the shore, and had an opportunity by the time Geisler arrived, to 
pierce the tyrant's heart with an arrow. This event paved the way 
for the conspiracy which followed. 

23. Eight emperors succeeded Albert, during the remain- 
der of this period ; but a connected account of their reigns 
need not here be given. A few scattered paniculars may be 
found below. 

§ In the reign of Henry VIII., Germany groaned under all the 
miseries of plague and famine, by which whole towns were depopu 
lated, and provinces brought to desolation. The rich sought an 
asylum in other countries, while the poor perished without pity oi 
assistance ; wolves, and other beasts of prey, compelled by hunger, 
quitted their dens, and rushing into the villages, satiated themselves' 
with human blood ; cataracts of water, bursting from the mountains, 
swept trees and houses before thorn with dreadful impetuosity ; and 
the earth was convulsed by frequent shocks, which seemed to agitate 
it to its centre. 

While Louis V. held the imperial sceptre, a spirit of fanaticism 



CHINA. 181 

broke out in Alsace, and the lower class cf people assembled under 
me banners of an innkeeper, who erected himself into a prophet, and 
oersuaded his followers, that it was their indispensable duty to re- 
venge the death of Christ, by an extirpation of the Jews. In obe- 
dience to this doctrine, they massacred great multitudes of that un- 
happy nation. In one place the carnage was so great, that the Jews 
themselves augmented the horror of the scene ; for, being driven to 
despair, they butchered their own wives and children, and then 
murdered themselves, to elude the cruelty of their inhuman enemies. 
After some time, however, these frantic enthusiasts were driven out 
of the province ; their sanguinary leader perished by the hands of 
the executioner, and the surviving Jews were permitted to live in 
peace. 

In 1356, Charles IV., issued the celebrated Golden Bull, containing 
a declaration of the fundamental laws of the empire. The edict 
was so called from a golden seal termed Bulla. 

The emperor Sigismund, became also king of Bohemia, in con- 
sequence of the death of his brother Winceslas. It was this empe- 
ror who betrayed the celebrated reformer, John Huss, to the Elector 
Palatine, who caused him to be burnt alive. The next year, Jerome 
of Prague suffered the same fate. 

CHINA. 

24. A part of the twentieth and twenty-first dynasties of 
the empire of China, is included in the present period. In 
the reign of Shistu of the twentieth dynasty, the famous 
canal was dug, which is nine hundred miles in length. Un- 
der some of the princes of this dynasty, the religion of Fo 
was established in the empire. Shunti was the last of the 
Tartar race, who held the sceptre in China. 

The twenty -first dynasty was that of Ming, founded by 
Chu, who, ascending the throne, took the name of Fay-tsu. 
This dynasty, which commenced in 1368, lasted two hundred 
ind eighty-one years, under seventeen emperors. 

§ Chu had been a servant in the monastery of the bonzes. Head- 
ing a numerous company of revolters, he reduced many considera- 
Dle cities and provinces, and defeated the imperial army in a battle. 
His successes were so great, that he assumed the title of emperor 
and fixed his court at Nankin. In a few months, however, he made 
himself master of Pekin, and erected that country into a sovereign 
ty, which he gave to his fourth son. He proved to be a prince of 
great wisdom and penetration. 

It is related of Ching-tsu, one of the emperors of this dynasty, 
that when specimens of precious stones were brought to nim from 
a mine which had lately been discovered, he ordered it to be shut up, 
alleging, that it only harrassed his people with useless toil, as these 
stones could neither feed nor clothe them in times of scarcity. 

16 



182 MODERN HISTORY. —PERIOD VII. 

Distinguished Characters in Period VII. 

1. Dante and > cfesgk ltg ^ m g> 

2. Petrarch, ) r 

3. Boccace, an Italian, one of the restorers of learning 

4. WicklifTe, an English theologian and reformer. 

5. Froissart, an entertaining French chronicler. 

6. Gower, and ) e ,» * ^ v \ + 

~ p, / > fathers oi iiinglisn poetry. 

§ 1. Dante, (Alighieri,) who died at the age of fifty-seven years, 
early displayed poetical talents ; but the ambition of being elevated 
among the ruling men of his native city, engaged him in continual 
discord and faction. He and his party were at length defeated, and 
with them he sought safety in banishment. While he was in this 
situation, he vented the bitterest reproaches against his enemies. 
The occasion of his death was, an affront which he received from 
the Venetians. The prince of Ravenna, (in which place he was in 
exile,) sent him to negociate with the Venetians, in order to avert a 
threatened war ; but the magistrates of Venice treated the embassa- 
dor with contempt, and refused to receive him within their walls. 
The irritable heart of Dante was so affected by this affront, that he 
could not survive it, and he died on his return to Ravenna. 

His literary works owe their origin to his misfortunes and re- 
vengeful spirit. His great object seems to have been to pierce his 
enemies with the shafts of satire. The rancour of his feeling, min- 
gled itself with the sweetness and graces of poetry. His poems 
are characterized by spirit, fire, and sublimity. His triple poem, 
of Paradise, Purgatory, and Hell, displays wonderful powers ol 
genius. 

2. Petrarch (Francis) is deservedly celebrated as one of the re- 
storers of classical learning, and more, perhaps, than any other per- 
son, as the father of modern poetry. He displayed all the powers 
of genius and poetical inspiration, not only in his own native lan- 
guage, but in Latin. His sonnets are esteemed the sweetest, most 
elegant, and most highly finished verses, ever written in Italian ; and 
his songs possess uncommon beauty and grace. Petrarch had a 
most charming fancy. 

Some of the events of his life are rather singular ; particularly 
his inextinguishable passion for his mistress Laura. He first saw 
this beautiful female in 1627, after he had fixed his residence at 
Vaucluse, near Avignon, and he was smitten with all the pangs oi 
love. But though the soft passion was expressed in the softest lan- 
guage of poetry, the heart of the fair one was by no means moved. 
To divert the melancholy which ensued, he travelled through va- 
rious countries, and was at last persuaded to enter into the service oi 
Pope John XXII. But, " amor vincit omnia," and Petrarch, abandon- 
ing the pleasures of curiosity and of greatness, fled to the shades ol 
Vaucluse, to converse with his beloved Laura. He again demo- 
ted his hour3 to studious pursuits, and to the amatory effusions of 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 183 

his muse. But though the idolized fair one heeded not his poetry, 
the world did ; and Rome, Paris, and Naples, at the same moment, 
invited him to come and receive the poetical crown. Rome pre- 
vailed, and in that famed seat of empire and of genius, the poet's 
brow was entwined with the resplendent honour. He was occasion- 
ally drawn from his favourite residence, on public business; and it 
was during an absence in 1348, that he was informed of Laura's 
death, which affected him with the deepest gloom. 

The poet's purity in this affair, has been maintained by some, and 
denied by others ; and some parts of his character certainly afford 
too much ground for the opinion of the latter. Petrarch was an 
ecclesiastic, though he never took priest's orders. He died at the 
age of seventy, 1374. 

3. Boccace, (John,) born at Certaldo, in Tuscany, 1313, studied 
under Petrarch, who was his friend and patron. He lived abroad 
for a time, but afterwards returned to his native village, where he 
spent the remainder of his days, in literary pursuits. His constitu- 
tion was weakened by his great application, and he died of a sick- 
ness in the stomach, 1375. 

His works are both Latin and Italian. He possessed uncommon 
learning, and he shares with a few others the honour of contribut- 
ing to the revival of learning in Europe. " Decameron," a licen- 
tious, though witty, satirical, and elegantly written romance, is his 
most celebrated composition. His poetry is not equal to that of 
Petrarch, but his prose is unrivalled, for its simplicity, grace, and 
varied elegance. 

4. Wickliffe, (John de) was professor of divinity, in the Universi- 
ty of Oxford, and deservedly considered as the forerunner of Lu- 
ther, in the reformation. His elevation to the professorship of Ox- 
ford, exposed him to the jealousy of the monks, and he was soon dis- 
placed. He felt the indignity keenly, and it was not long before he 
boldly came out against the errors and encroachments of Rome 
The Romish clergy, with the pope at their head, took the alarm, and 
employed every effort to suppress the doctrines of Wickliffe. Most 
of his doctrines were pronounced as heretical, by the several coun- 
cils that were called. He was seized as a heretic, by the emissaries 
of the Pope, and tried ; but the judges, although they enjoined him 
silence, permitted him to depart in safety, as they feared the nobility 
and people. These, in general, favoured Wickliffe. Not at all in- 
timidated, the reformer continued to preach his peculiar sentiments, 
and they became still more widely known. But the penal statutes 
were severe, and some who embraced the new heresy, were deliver- 
ed over to punishment. 

Wickliffe, in the mysterious providence of God, died at a time 
when nothing was wanting to emancipate the English nation from 
the tyranny of Rome, but the boldness, perseverance, and eloquence 
of a popular leader. Wickliffe's noble struggle proved almost abor- 
tive, and little was thought of it, till Luther arose to establish the 
same doctrines on an imperishable basis. 



184 



MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VII. 



Trialogus, is almost the only work of Wickliffe's that was 
printed. 

5. Froissart, (John,) as an historian, excelled all the writers oi 
his time. His narrative of the events which took place in England, 
France, and Spain, from 1326 to 1400, is exceedingly lively and en- 
tertaining. He personally witnessed many transactions which he 
has described. He was a chronicler both of political events and of 
ehivalric manners. He was bred to the church, but he was. a great- 
er reader of romances, than of his brevian^. Of gayety, he was 
fond to an excessive degree. " Well loved" I," as he said of his 
youth, in one of his poems, (for he wrote poetry as well as history,) 
" to see dances and carolling, and to hear the songs of minstrels, 
and tales of glee. It pleased me to attach myself to those who took 
delight in hounds and hawks." " My ears quickened at the sound 
of opening the wine flask ; for I took great pleasure in drinking, 
and in fair array, and in fresh and delicate viands." He began his 
chronicle at the age of twenty, and continued it many years, travel- 
ling through England, Scotland, France, and other places. He was 
born at Valenciennes, in the year 1337, and died in 1397. 

6. Gower (Sir John) was born in Yorkshire, 1320. He was emi- 
nent, both in law and poetry. He is, by some, associated with Chau- 
cer, as a father of English poetry. He lived a little longer than 
Chaucer, though born eight years sooner, and was the successor oi 
the latter in the laurel. His principal production in poetry, was 
" Confessio Amantis ;" though he left behind, other poems of con- 
siderable spirit and energy. Though gentle in manner, he inveighed 
boldly against the debaucheries of the times, the immorality of the 
clergy, the wickedness of corrupt judges, and the vices of an aban- 
doned court. He died at the age of eighty-two. 

7. Chaucer (Geoffrey) was born in London, 1328. Compared with 
Chaucer, all who preceded him, not excepting Gower, were merely 
pioneers in English poetry : they were scarcely poets. He is, there- 
fore, more commonly considered the father of English song. Though 
in the idiom of the fourteenth century, his poetry is not devoid ol 
great smoothness and delicacy ; the sentiments are bold, the charac- 
ters are well supported, and the genius of the poet is every where 
brilliant, sprightly, and sublime. The Canterbury Tales, are his 
best production. 

Chaucer enjoyed a signal share in the favours of royalty, and his 
honours and emoluments exceeded far the ordinary lot of poets. 
This circumstance may, perhaps, be partly owing to the fact, that 
he had a princely brother-in-law, John Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. 
At one period of his life, he suffered persecution, in consequence ol 
embracing the tenets of Wickliffe. The latter part of his days was 
spent at a distance from the bustle and intrigues ef public life, and 
m his retirement at Woodstock, and afterwards at Donnington, he 
devoted himself to the cultivation of his muse. He died 25th Oc- 



TURKISH EMPIRE. L85 



PERIOD VIII. 

The period of the Reformation ; extending from the Ta- 
king- of Constantinople, 1453 years A. C., to the Edict 
of Nantes, 1598 years A. C 

TURKISH EMPIRE. 

Sect. 1. The history of the Turkish Empire, at this era, 
is signalized by the taking of Constantinople, and the con- 
sequent extinction of the Eastern Empire of the Romans, 
1453. The Turks effected the object under Mahomet the 
Great, the Turkish Sultan. 

Constantine was the name of the last emperor of the 
East, as it was also the name of the first. His dominions 
had become exceedingly circumscribed. The Turks had 
gradually encroached upon its borders, and Constantinople 
would soon have become the seat of the Ottoman power, 
had they not been obliged to defend themselves against the 
Tartars. 

Mahomet II., after some delay, commenced the project 
which had long engaged the attention of the Turks. The 
indolent inhabitants of Constantinople, made but a feeble 
preparation for defence, and all Europe was supine and in- 
different. The city was assailed both by sea and land — the 
walls were battered down with cannon, and all who opposed 
were massacred. The emperor was slain, and the city soon 
surrendered. The Turks forbore to destroy the imperial 
edifices, and the churches were converted into mosques. The 
exercise of their religion, however, was allowed to all the 
christians, and they have, till lately, chosen their own patri- 
arch. The Eastern empire, from the building of fts capital, 
had subsisted 1123 years. 

After the fall of Constantinople, Greece and Epirus were 
subdued ; and Italy might probably have shared a similar 
fate, but for the fleet of the Venetians, who opposed the arms 
of Mahomet with considerable success : but peace was soon 
concluded between the hostile powers. The death of Ma- 
homet the Great, occurred 1481. 

16* 



186 MODERN HISTORY —PERIOD VIII. 

§ Mahomet was a youth of only about twenty-one years, when he 
undertook the project of extinguishing the empire of the East. 
The force with which he invested Constantinople, was fully adequate 
to the object, being nearly three hundred thousand men ; while the 
whole population of that city, did not amount to more than one 
hundred thousand. 

The Greeks, notwithstanding their degeneracy, displayed con- 
siderable bravery. Their all was at stake, and a small but faithful 
oand adhered to Constantine, till they were nearly annihilated. 
Seeing his dearest friends fall by his side, and himself at last re- 
maining, surrounded only by enemies, he exclaimed in the bitterness 
of grief, " Has death then made such havoc, that not one Christian 
is left to take my life?" As he spoke, a Turk to whom his person 
was unknown, for he had prudently laid aside the purple, strucV 
him in the face ; a second blow succeeded from another hand ; and 
he fell, in the forty-ninth year of his age, a glorious example of 
honourable resolution, in expiring with his defenders, rather than 
surviving them. 

Mahomet liberally patronized the arts and sciences ; and 
to compensate for the migration of those learned Greeks, 
who, on the fall of the empire, spread themselves over the 
countries of Europe, invited both artists and men of letters 
to his capital from other kingdoms. 

The successors of this sovereign during the remainder of 
the present period, were Bajazet II., Selim I., Solyman I., 
Selim II., Amurath III., and Mahomet III. 

§ Bajazet II., prosecuted various wars against the Hungarians, 
Venetians, Persians, and Saracens, but having resigned the govern- 
ment to his son, who had revolted and was supported by. the 
Janizaries, he was soon after poisoned by the order of the latter. 

His son and successor, Selim I., was a prosperous, but tyrannical 
prince; who, in 1517, conquered Egypt, Aleppo, Antioch, Tripoli, 
Damascus, and Gaza. 

Solyman I., surnamed the Magnificent, succeeded Selim in 1520 ; 
and was one of the most accomplished, enterprising, successful, and 
warlike of the Turkish princes. He took Buda, and besieged Vien- 
na. From the latter place, however, he was obliged to retire with 
the loss of eighty thousand men. 

Selim II., his son, besieged and took Cyprus and Tunis ; but his 
fleet was defeated at Lepanto, with the capture or destruction ol 
almost all his ships. 

Amurath III strangled his five brothers immediately upon his ac- 
cession. This prince extended his dominions by the addition ot 
Raab in Hungary, and of Tibris in Persia. In this reign, the Jani- 
zaries having lost their submission, and in great part, their discipline, 
began to kill their commanders, whenever they were dissatisfied 
with them. 

His son, Mahomet III. was a monster of barbarity, having begun 



ITALIAN STATES. 187 

his reign by strangling his nineteen brothers, and drowning ten of 
his father's wives. He finally put to death his eldest son, a prince 
of estimable qualities, on an unfounded suspicion of ambitious views. 

ITALIAN STATES. 

2. We shall pursue the history of Italy, by giving an ac- 
count of only two or three of the States of which it was 
composed. The events in the Italian history are not politi- 
cally important at this era. It is chiefly in reference to the 
influence of Florence on the literature of the times, and the 
ecclesiastical influence of the Papal dominions, that these 
portions of Italy will be brought more particularly into view. 

Florence, under the Medici, enjoyed a high degree of 
splendour, during this period. It was an era, in the cultiva- 
tion of the sciences and elegant arts. The family of the 
Medici held sway in this country from the year 1428 to 
1569, when Cosmo de Medici the Great was entitled Grand 
Duke of Tuscany. Under the title of the Republic of 
Florence, which they governed, were included not only Tus- 
cany, of which Florence is the capital, but Modena, Mantua, 
and one or two other states. 

§ Cosmo de Medici died in 1464, who, though the private subject 
of a republic, had more riches than any king in Europe, and laid out 
more money in works of taste, learning, and charity, than all the 
kings, princes, and states, of that or the subsequent age, the indi- 
viduals of his own family excepted. His religious foundations were 
unrivalled. His private buildings were equally sumptuous. No 
palace in Europe at that time exceeded his in Florence. He had be- 
sides many others. With all this public magnificence and expendi- 
ture, he was in his private conversation, humble and unassuming ; 
and in his person plain and modest. He was not celebrated for 
learning, though he was the greatest patron of learned men of his 
age. 

Cosmo was succeeded in the government by his son Peter, and he 
by his sons Lorenzo a?.d Giuliano. The latter was soon murdered, 
and Lorenzo died aged no more than fifty-four years, illustrious lik 
his predecessors, in every public and private virtue. 

The tranquillity of the republic was much disturbed by wars with 
the Venetians and Genoese, for many years. In the course of these 
commotions. Florence assumed the popular government, but it was 
quickly reversed by the emperor Charles V., who, laying siege to the 
city, forced it to capitulate, and restored the family of the Medici. 

Cosmo, the second of that name, now (1537) succeeded to the ducal 
crown, which he wore with honour, during thirty-eight years. The 
encouragement he gave to the practice and study of all the fine arts, 



188 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

proves him to have been one of the greatest patrons of human geni- 
us, since the days of Augustus. The names of his sons were John 
and Garcia. The latter was of a furious, vindictive disposition, and 
quarrelling one day with his brother, stabbed him to the heart with 
a dagger. The father charged him with the murder, but the youth 
denying it, was introduced into the room where the body lay, which 
is said to have bled, (doubtless by chance,) at his approach. He 
then threw himself at his father's feet, and confessed his guilt. The 
father, who had resolved on the part he was to act, solemnly desired 
his son to prepare for death, adding, that he ought to think himself 
happy in losing a life he was unworthy to enjoy, by the hands of 
him who gave it. He then unsheathed the dagger with wdiich the 
cardinal had been murdered, and plunged it into the bosom of his 
son. 

3. That part of Italy which constitutes the dominions oi 
his holiness, became the scene of much crime and conten- 
tion during this period. Both the temporal and spiritual pow- 
er of the popes, was now at its height. In 1498, the papacy 
was enjoyed by Alexander VI., a monster of wickedness. 
Charles VIII., of France, had resolved on an expedition into 
Italy. The pope and the duke of Milan, who encouraged 
him in it, immediately betrayed him, and joined the interest 
of the king of Naples, who was the object of attack on the 
part of Charles. The latter, however, now first besieged the 
pope in Rome, and forced him to submission, but at length 
devoutly kissed his feet. He then marched against Naples, 
while its timid prince, Alphonso, fled to Sicily, after absolving 
his subjects from their allegiance. Charles entered Naples 
in triumph, but lost his new kingdom almost as soon as he 
had gained it. A league was formed against Charles, be- 
tween the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Arra- 
gon, Isabella of Castile, and the Venetians ; and on his re- 
turn to France, the troops he had left to guard his conquests, 
were all driven from Italy. 

§ It has been remarked, that from the decisive effect, of this con- 
federacy, the sovereigns of Europe derived a useful lesson of policy, 
and first adopted the idea of preserving a balance of power, by that 
tacit league, which is understood to be always subsisting, for the 
prevention of the co-ordinate aggrandizement of any particular state. 

History relates with horror, the crimes of Alexander VI., and his 
son Caesar Borgia ; their murders, robberies, profanations, and in- 
cests. They compassed their ends in attaining every object of their 
ambition, but with the universal abhorrence of mankind. Their death 
eeems to have been a sort of retribution for their crimes, so far as 
retribution is known on earth. 



FRANCE. 189 

II an author, Guicciardim, who was a mortal enemy to Alexan- 
der, may be believed, Borgia had sent a present of some flasks of 
poisoned wine to the'cardinal of Corneto, in whose garden they pro- 
posed to snp, but ordered the servant to give none of it to any per- 
son. Alexander soon after coming into the garden, and calling for 
wine before supper, the servant gave him some from the poisoned 
flasks, thinking the prohibition could not extend to the Pope, how- 
ever rare and valuable the wine might be ; and Borgia, in the mean 
time appearing, unconsciously drank of the same wine with his 
father. They both immediately felt the symptoms of the poison, 
and Alexander died the next day ; but Borgia, having drank his wine 
much diluted, survived with the loss of his skin and hair. He was 
afterwards stripped of all his possessions by Pope Julius II., and at 
last perished in miserable obscurity in Spain. 

FRANCE. 

Branch of Valois. — Branch of Orleans. 

4. Louis XT., began to reign in 1461. He immediately 
removed all his late father's ministers, proceeded to humble the 
nobles, and in almost every respect acted the tyrant towards 
his subjects. Indeed, his character is that of a most deceitful, 
profligate and cruel prince ; he followed too nearly the odious 
Tiberius in his measures. He left, however, some good regu- 
lations for the encouragement of commerce, and for the ef- 
fectual ad ministration of justice. Notwithstanding the odious- 
ness of his character, he was. the first of the French kings, on 
whom the title of His most Christian Majesty was conferred. 

§ His severity occasioned a revolt of several of the first lords of 
the kingdom. The war which thence arose, they entitled "the war 
of the public good." His sanguinary disposition is evidenced by 
the following fact. When he pronounced sentence of death on a 
certain nobleman, he ordered that his infant children should be placed 
beneath the scaffold, to be sprinkled by the blood which gushed 
from the body of their parent. This was an almost incredible 
instance of refined cruelty, and cold barbarity. Louis died a victim 
of superstitious terror and remorse of conscience. 

5. Charles VIII., surnamed the Affable, at the age of 
thirteen years, succeeded his father, under the regency of 
Anne of France, his sister, 1483. His marriage with Anne 
of Brittany, who was promised to Maximilian of Austria, 
occasioned a short war with the Germans. His expedition 
into Italy, and his conquest and subsequent loss of Naples 
have already been noticed in the Italian history. He reign- 
ed about fifteen years. 



190 MODERN HISTORY* — PERIOD VIII 

§ His surname is indicative of his disposition and manners but he 
led a life of intemperance, and was early cut off by this vice, in his 
twenty-eighth year. The direct line of Philip of Valois terminated 
with this monarch, as he left no issue. 

6. Louis XII., who was duke of Orleans, and great grand- 
son of Charles V., ascended the throne as the nearest heir, 
1498. He w T as idolized by the French, and obtained and 
deserved the title of " The Father of his People," by his 
frugal policy, which eased them from taxes. Yet he was am- 
bitious and imprudent in his military enterprises. 

He conquered the Milanese and Genoa, out in prosecuting 
his claim to Naples, though he obtained some advantage at 
first, he was unsuccessful in the end. He was duped by his 
associates, Ferdinand of Spain, and pope Alexander VI. 
The whole of Naples finally fell into the treacherous hands 
of Ferdinand ; nor did the French king long retain his 
other conquests in Italy, since they revolted from him on the 
first opportunity. Louis died suddenly, while preparing to 
recover, by arms, his lost Italian possessions. 

§ In justifying himself for the pardon of his enemies, Louis 
made an observation worthy of royalty. " The king of France does 
not revenge the injuries done to the duke of Orleans." What this 
prince also said in vindication of his economy, will always be praised 
" I had rather see my courtiers laugh at my avarice, than my people 
weep on account of my expenses." It was an unhappiness, how- 
ever, that he procured, in part, his supplies of money by the sale oi 
offices, which was a very dangerous example. 

7. Francis I., count of Angouleme, was called to the throne, 
1515, Louis having died without male issue. He was a ne- 
phew of the late king, and began his reign at the age of 
twenty-one. 

His real power, and the high opinion which he entertained 
of his own greatness, led him, in 1519, into competition with 
the celebrated Charles V., who had just ascended the throne 
of Spain. Charles, as grandson of the emperor Maximilian, 
upon the death of the latter, preferred his claim to the empire, 
but was opposed by Francis. Charles obtained the election, 
and these princes now became sworn enemies. Their mu- 
tual claims on each other's dominions, caused seas of blood to 
flow, in wars that lasted more than thirty-eight years. 

§ Francis began hostilities by attacking Navarre. lie first won and 
then lost that kingdom. The emperor attacked Pieardy, and his 
troops at the same time wrested Milan out of the hands ol the French 



FRANCE. 191 

Henry VIII., of England, whose friendship had bv \ assiduously 
courted by both parties, was brought over for a tin *o the side of 
Charles. 

Just at this juncture, Francis, unfortunately, quarrelled with his 
nest general, the constable of Bourbon, who revenged himself by 
deserting to the emperor. The constable was invested with com- 
mand in the army of Charles, and thus greatly added to the supe- 
riority which was already apparent in the generals of the latter. The 
consequences were such as might have been expected. The French 
were defeated in the battle of Biagrassa. In this engagement, Bay- 
ard, the model of knights, perished. At his death, he replied to the 
marks of pity shown by the duke of Bourbon, with these words : " It 
is you who ought to be pitied, for fighting against your king, your 
country, and your oaths." 

A temporary success attended the French arms in the capture of 
the capital of the Milanese ; but a sad reverse soon followed in the 
battle of Pavia. That battle was fought on the 24th of February, 
1525, and resembled in its catastrophe, those won by the English at 
Poictiers and Agincourt. Twenty-five thousand French were slain, 
and Francis himself made prisoner. He had the mortification to 
find himself the captive of that very man, the constable, Whom he 
had treated with the greatest hauteur. 

Europe being alarmed by the aggrandizement of Charles, a league 
of several states was formed against him, in favour of the captive mo- 
narch. In this league, England was included. The emperor was 
thus in a manner forced to liberate his prisoner, and he derived little 
benefit from his good fortune. The severity of the terms respecting 
his ransom was such, that the states general refused to fulfil them. 

On the renewal of the war, Henry VIII. took part with France, 
but the powerful Charles was not intimidated. Resolving on an in- 
vasion of his enemy's country, he inundated Provence with fifty 
thousand men. But the defensive operations of the French were 
very successful, and Charles returned sorrowfully into Italy, having 
lost the one half of his army, cut off by diseases and famine. 

In the interval of a truce, which was concluded at Nice, for ten 
years, Charles passed through France to the Netherlands, and on the 
part of Francis, was treated with the utmost courtesy and hospitality. 
He had previously stipulated to grant the French king the investi- 
ture of Milan. But though he was every where received with the 
utmost pomp, and staid seven days in Paris, where he was loaded 
with every mark of friendship and confidence, he left no authentic 
testimony of his promise. 

The seeds of a renewed contest were thus sown, but though the 
French were victorious in the battle of Cerizoles, they derived from 
it little or no advantage. The Imperialists, on the whole, had a de- 
cided superiority, and France must have been ruined had not the 
disorders of Germany forced the emperor to conclude the treaty 
of Crepi, with Francis, 1544. The latter purchased a peace with 
Henry VIIL, who had once more changed sides, and favoured 
Charles. 



192 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

8. Francis died in 1547. He has the reputation of a great 
prince, and would have appeared greater, but for the manifest 
superiority of his illustrious rival. Notwithstanding the wais 
in which France was engaged during the reign of this mo- 
narch, he left his kingdom in a nourishing and prosperous 
state. Literature and the arts made great progress in France 
under his auspices, and the French court acquired that polish 
and refinement in taste and manners, for which it has since 
been so conspicuous throughout the world. 

§ " The fine qualities of this prince," says Millot, " his open temper, 
beneficence, honour, generosity, and courage, have not been able to 
cover his faults, rashness in his enterprises, negligence in his affairs, 
fickleness in his conduct, prodigality in his expenses, and excess in 
his pleasures. Whatever merit he was possessed of, he would have 
met with fewer encomiums, had he not caressed and favoured men 
of letters, by whose suffrages the reputation of sovereigns is fixed. 
He founded the royal college and printing house. At the same time 
that he encouraged the culture of the learned languages, he had the 
prudence to command that the public acts should be written in 
French. In the same manner, he gave life to the fine arts, buili 
Fontainbleau, and began the Louvre. In order to polish the man 
ners of the court, he drew to it the most respectable women and 
distinguished prelates." 

9. Henry II. succeeded his father in 1547. This prince, 
though brave and polite, was the slave of pleasure, and the 
dupe of favourites. He continued the war in which his father 
had been engaged with Charles V., and that emperor's son 
Philip II., of Spain. He obtained considerable advantage over 
Charles at the siege of Metz, but was terribly defeated by Phi- 
lip, at St. Quentin. The event most glorious to his reign, 
was the recovery of Calais from the English, in 1557. The 
duke of Guise captured the place in eight days, to the sur- 
prise of all Europe. 

The origin of those civil wars which distracted France 
during the three succeeding reigns, may be dated from this 
reign, or rather from that of Francis I., when the Huguenots, 
who were Calvinists, or Protestants, began to be persecuted. 
The spirit of persecution greatly increased during the reign 
of Henry. 

§ The death of this monarch was owing to an accident which befel 
him at a tournament. Wishing to amuse the ladies with a tilt be 
tween himself and the count of Montgomery, who was esteemed 
the most dexterous justler of his time, he gaily entered the lists. In 
their rencounter both their lances were broken, and the count 



FRANCE. 193 

thrown from his horse. In his fall, the broken trunk of the spear, 
still, remaning inhis hand, struck the king's righteye, and produced 
so violent a contusion as to terminate his life. 

10. His son, Francis II., was raised to the throne in 1559. 
lie was the husband of Mary, queen of Scots, and died the 
next year, having reigned about seventeen months. The 
only important event in this reign, was the conspiracy of the 
Protestants against the king, and the Guises, who were five 
brothers, at the head of the Catholics. Two of these, the 
duke of Guise and the cardinal of Lorraine, were conspicu- 
ous in the government. This conspiracy was detected, and 
1200 of those engaged in it, were put to death. 

§ The Protestants were wearied with the persecutions they had so 
long endured, and came to a resolution to devote their lives to the 
defence of their liberties. They were secretly abetted by the prince 
of Conde, brother to the king of Navarre. The prince, however, 
escaped punishment, having pleaded his cause before the king, in 
person. 

11. Charles IX., a boy only ten years old, succeeded his 
brother, 1560, under the regency of Catharine de Medicis, 
who had been the wife of Henry, and was notorious for her 
profligacy and ambition. The difficulties between the Catho- 
lics and Protestants had arisen to a great height. Some of 
the first men of the French court, were included among the 
latter, particularly the prince of Conde and Admiral Coligny. 
Their influence was too great to be resisted ; and after the 
conference held at Poissy, liberty was granted to the Protes- 
tants to exercise their worship without the walls of the towns. 
The violation, soon after, of the edict granting this liberty, oc- 
casioned the sanguinary civil war, which for a long time 
filled France with misery and blood. 

§ The Protestant religion had spread greatly at court, as well as 
in the capital and the provinces, even under Francis I. The perse- 
cution of the Protestants under Henry II., only increased their num- 
ber, and produced that exasperation of feeling, which ended in the 
conspiracy, already mentioned, under Francis II. 

The celebrated conference at Poissy, was attended by the young 
king, the queen mother, and the whole court. Theodore Beza, an illus- 
trious reformer, defended the Protestants, while the cardinal of Lor- 
raine, undertook the cause of the Catholics. Both parties, as is usual 
on such occasions, claimed the victory. It was, however, difficult 
any longer to refuse certain concessions to the Protestants. Indeed, 
the queen mother found it politic to grant them liberty of worship, 
and to favour the prince of Conde, in order to counterbalance the 
power of the Guises. 

17 



194 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

The Protestants, in the war which ensued, were headed by Admi- 
ral Coligny, who was assisted by 10,000 Germans from the Palati- 
nate. The command of the Catholics was assumed by Guise and 
Montmorency, who were aided by Philip of Spain. The latter were 
always victorious, though the Protestants were too powerful to be 
despised ; and in the conditions of peace which they obtained, was 
included the toleration of their religion. Murders and assassina- 
tions aggravated the horrors of civil war. The duke of Guise fell 
by the hand of a religious enthusiast. And even the peace which 
was secured, was only a prelude to more awful scenes of atrocity 
and blood. 

It became now the policy of the government to caress the Protes- 
tants, in order to destroy them. They received extraordinary marks 
of favour ; even the prudence of Coligny was lulled asleep ; and on 
the occasion of the marriage of the king of Navarre with the sister 
of Charles, these persecuted people were allured to court. By the 
order of the government, a dreadful massacre of the Protestants 
then took place, the horrid plan having been all previously arranged. 
On the night of the twenty-third of August, it being St. Bartholo- 
mew's, there perished in Paris and France, 60,000, some reckon 
100,000 Protestants. The duke of Guise (Henry, son of Francis) 
went in person to Coligny's gate, and caused that great man to be 
murdered. The streets and houses in Paris floated in blood. The 
king barbarously fired upon his unhappy subjects, and afterwards 
beheld with pleasure Coligny's body insulted by the populace. 

To crown this horrid act, the king declared that every thing was 
done by his command ; the parliament ordered an annual procession 
to celebrate the deliverance of the kingdom ; a medal was struck 
with this legend, piety put the sword into the hands of justice , 
and at Rome and in Spain, the massacre was made a subject of 
public rejoicings. 

Calvinism was not at all crushed by this infernal plot, infernally 
executed. It only became more formidable through despair, and 
now both of the Bourbons, — the king of Navarre as well as the prince 
of Conde, were enlisted in the Protestant cause. It was found ne- 
cessary again to grant them liberty of conscience. Charles died 
soon after the massacre of St. Bartholomew, at the age of twenty- 
four years. 

12. The successor of Charles IX., was Henry III., duke 
f Anjou, who had just been elected king of Poland, 1574. 
He was a weak and worthless prince, joining to the utmost 
depravity of manners, the external observances of the lowest 
superstition. He became the scorn of his subjects, and the 
dupe of the contending factions. It was in his reign, that 
the Catholics, incensed on account of the privileges conferred 
on the Huguenots, formed the famous league for the purpose 
of extirpating them, having the duke of Guise at its head. 

§ This league was nominally for the defence of tlie state and %# 



ENGLAND. 195 

religion, but in reality, besides the extirpation of the Protestant faith, 
it had in view the usurpation of all the powers of government. The 
king, with the weakest policy, united himself to this league, and 
thus became the avowed enemy of a large portion of his subjects. 
But in carrying on his military operations against the Protestants, 
he found himself thwarted at every step, by the duke of Guise and 
the Cardinal of Lorraine. To dispel the fears which he entertained 
from these men, he put them to death, by the hands of assassins. Af- 
ter a reign of fifteen years, the king himself was assassinated, 1589, 
by a fanatic monk. 

1 3. On the death of Henry III., who died without children, 
the sceptre of France passed to the house of Bourbon, repre- 
sented at this time by Henry TIL, of Navarre. As king of 
France, he i3 known by the name of Henry IV., afterwards 
surnamed the Great. 

As his reign extends into the next period, the following 
particulars only, will be mentioned at present. He had been 
educated in the reformed religion by his mother, who avowed 
herself its protector. At the age of sixteen, he had been de- 
clared head of the party of the Huguenots. When invited 
to Paris at the peace of 1572, to marry the sister of Charles 
IX., he narrowly escaped from the massacre of St. Bartho- 
lomew, but remained three years a prisoner. Although his 
first military enterprises were unsuccessful, yet, when on the 
death of Charles, he again took the field against the army of 
the league, he defeated it in the battle of Coutras, 1587, and 
still more signally in that of Argues, 1589. After the death 
of Henry III., he won the celebrated battle of Ivry, against 
the army of the League, then commanded by the duke of 
Mayenne, who Lad proclaimed the cardinal of Bourbon, king, 
under the title of Charles X. As a protestant, however, he was 
environed with difficulties; a large portion of the people refused 
to submit to him ; and influenced by the earnest entreaties 
of the duke of Sully, as well as by views of policy, he re- 
nounced protestantism, and became a catholic, 1594. In 
1596, the duke of Mayenne submitted to Henry, and the 
whole kingdom acknowledged him as its sovereign. 

ENGLAND. 

Branch of York. House of Tudor. 

14. Henry VI., had been on the throne of England since 
the year 1422; but the wars which now commenced between 



196 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

his house and that, of York, rendered his situation most in- 
secure, and, at length, hurled him from his throne. Justice 
was on the side of Richard, duke of York, as he was a de- 
scendant from the second son of Ed ward III., while Henry was 
a descendant from Edward's third son. The whole nation 
took the side of one or the other, and each party was distin- 
guished by a particular symbol. That of the Lancastrians 
was the red rose, and that of the Yorkites the white rose 
Hence, this contention was known by the name of the 
" quarrel of the two roses." Hostilities commenced in 1 455. 

§ The principal battles which were fought, previous to the acces- 
sion of Edward IV., were, that of St. Albans, in which Henry was 
defeated and taken prisoner, and Richard assumed the title of Pro- 
tector — that which was fought on Bloreheath, in Staffordshire, and 
which terminated in favour of Richard — that of Northampton, in 
which Henry was defeated a-id again taken prisoner, by the Earl oi 
Warwick— and that of Wakefield, in which Henry's queen, Marga- 
ret of Anjou, gained a complete victory over Richard, who, together 
with his second son, was slain. 

Upon the death of the duke of York, the earl of Warwick, 
known by the name of King Maker, from the conspicuous part he 
bore in the contentions of the times, took command of the forces 
belonging to that party. 

15. Upon the death of Richard, the young duke of York, 
his son and successor, entered London at the head of a nu- 
merous army, amidst the greetings of the citizens, and as- 
sumed the powers of government. He did not, however, 
fully consider himself as king, until he had obtained, (1461.) 
at Towton, a signal victory over the adherents of Henry, of 
whom 36,000 were killed. His title was that of Edward IV. 
After various turns of fortune, in which he was once deposed, 
and Heniy re-instated on the throne, he finally triumphed 
over the Lancastrians, in the desperate battle of Tewkes 
bury, in which Margaret, and her son, the Prince of Wales, 
were taken prisoners. The latter was assassinated, and 
king Henry, who had been confined in the tower, was found 
dead a few days afterwards. Margaret, whose ambition had 
kindled the desolating war, was punished only with imprison- 
ment. She was afterwards ransomed by the king of France 
and died in that country. 

§ It is snid that the young prince, when brought before the king, 
and asked in an insulting tone, by the latter, how he dared to invade 
iris dominion, replied, with a spirit congenial to his high birth, that 
he came thither to claim his just inheritance. The ungenerous Ed 




The Princes smothered in the lower. P. ] 97, 




Burning of Moscow. 
Banaparte and his suite in front of the Kremlin. P. 290, 



ENGLAND. 19? 

ward, indignant at his answer, and insensible to pity, struck him on 
the face with his gauntlet; and the dukes of Clarence and Glouces- 
ter, with others, taking the blow as a signal for further violence, 
hurried the prince into the next apartment, and there dispatched 
him with their daggers. 

It is said also, and generally believed, that Richard, duke of 
Gloucester, killed king Henry with his own hands. 

When Edward was secured on the throne, his spirit sunk 
in indolence and pleasure. The energies of his reign seem 
to have terminated with the civil wars, unless we except his 
acts of detestable tyranny. He put to death, on the most 
frivolous pretence, his brother Clarence ; and preparing to 
gratify his subjects, by a war with France, he died sud- 
denly, in the forty-second year of his age, poisoned, as was 
suspected, by his brother Richard, duke of Gloucester. 

§ The only favour which the king granted his brother, Clarence, 
after his condemnation, was, to leave him the choice of his death. 
The duke chose to be drowned in a butt of Malmsey — a whimsical 
choice, which implies that he had an extraordinary predilection for 
that liquor. 

16. Edward V., a minor, succeeded his father, 1483, under 
the protection of his uncle, the duke of Gloucester. A few 
days afterwards, the duke of Gloucester caused himself to be 
proclaimed, under the title of Richard III. The young king 
and his brother having been removed to the tower by Rich- 
ard's order, under pretence of guarding them, disappeared 
about that time. The diabolical Richard, had inhumanly 
deprived them of life. 

§ Richard possessed a fierce and savage nature, and in making his 
way to the throne, had recourse to the most perfidious and cruel 
acts. Endeavouring to gain the assistance of lord Hastings, and 
finding that nobleman inflexibly favourable to the children of Ed- 
ward, he accused him of treason, and ordered him to he decapita- 
ted, without even the appearance of legal forms. 

The murder of the two young princes, was as deep a tragedy as 
any recorded in English history. Richard gave orders to Sir Ro- 
bert Brakenbury, constable of the tower, to put his nephews to 
death ; but this gentleman, who had sentiments of honour, refused 
to stain his hands with the infamous deed. The tyrant then en- 
gaged Sir James Tyrrel, who, choosing three associates, like him- 
self, came in the night time to the door of the chamber, where the 
princes were lodged, and sending in the assassins, he bade them ex- 
ecute their commission, while he himself staid without. They 
found the unoffending young princes in bed, and fallen into a sweet 
and profound sleep. After suffocating them with the bolster and 
pillows, they showed their naked bodies to Tyrrel, who ordered 

17* 



198 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD Vllt. 

them to be buried at the foot of the stairs, deep in the ground, under 
a heap of stones. These circumstances were all confessed by the 
bloody actors, in the following reign. In the reign of Charles li., 
the bones of two persons were found in the place indicated, w*iich 
exactly corresponded, by their sizes, to Edward V., and his brother ; 
and being judged the undoubted remains of these unhappy princes, 
were deposited in Westminster Abbey. 

17. The earl of Richmond, the only surviving heir of the 
bouse of Lancaster, became the instrument, under divine 
Providence, of avenging the awful crimes of Richard. As- 
sisted by the French king, he landed in England, and revived 
the spirits of a party almost extinguished in the kingdom. 
He gave battle to Richard, 1485, in the field of Bosworth, 
and entirely defeated the army of the usurper, who was slain 
while fighting with the most desperate courage. This battle 
terminated the terrible contest between the houses of York 
and Lancaster — a contest which lasted thirty years, and 
in which twelve sanguinary pitched battles were fought, and 
100,000 brave men, including eighty princes of the blood, 
perished on the field, or by the hand of the executioner. 

§ The person of Richard was as deformed as his character was de- 
testable. He was small of stature, hump-backed, ugly m his fea- 
tures, and had his left arm withered. This infirmity, which hud 
attended him from his birth, he pretended, on a certain occasion 
when he wished to confound lord Hastings, was the effect of Jane 
Shore's incantations, knowing that this nobleman had engaged in 
an intrigue with that lady. 

18. The crown which Richard wore in the engagement 
that proved fatal to his life, was immediately placed on the 
head of the conqueror. The earl of Richmond assumed the 
title of Henry VII., Aug. 22, 1485. By marrying a daugh- 
ter of Edward IV., he united the rights of the two houses of 
York and Lancaster. He was a descendant from Edmund 
Tudor, and first king of the house of Tudor. 

Henry was a prudent and politic prince, but unhappily 
prejudiced against the adherents of the house of York. A 
degree of discontent was thus engendered, which tended to 
jeopardise his government. The general tranquillity of his 
reign was, on this account, occasionally disturbed by plots 
and conspiracies — two of which were rather singular, con- 
sisting in attempts to counterfeit the persons of the heirs of 
York, and to enforce their claims to the crown. 

§ The name of one of these impostors was Lambert Simnel, the 



ENGLAND. 199 

son of a baker, who counterfeited the person of the earl of War- 
wick, son of the late duke of Clarence. The name of the other 
was Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Flemish Jew, who personated 
the duke of York, who had been smothered in the tower. They 
were supported by men of distinction in the nation, and gave Henry 
great trouble, but were finally subdued and taken. Simnel was 
spared and made a scullion in the king's kitchen. Warbeck expia- 
ted his crime on the scaffold. 

The aversion of Henry to the house of York, shewed itself even 
in his treatment of his wife. Though in the highest degree virtu- 
ous, amiable, and obsequious, she never met with a proper return of 
affection, or even of complaisance, from her husband ; and the 
malignant ideas of faction, in his sullen mind, prevailed over all the 
sentiments of conjugal endearment. 

Henry was by nature a despot ; and indeed the principles 
of despotism were congenial to all the sovereigns of the 
Tudor race. Yet his sagacity led him generally to pacific 
counsels. Though he was by no means a popular prince, 
he was useful to the nation, having enacted many wise laws, 
promoted industry, encouraged commerce, patronized the arts 
of civilized life, and curbed and softened the spirit of a proud 
and rude aristocracy. His policy gave a death blow to the 
Feudal system. The greatest stain in this prince's character 
was his avarice, which, in the latter part of his reign, prompt 
ed to the most oppressive exactions. 

§ He is said to have left at his death, in ready money, a sum equal 
to £10,000,000 at present. 

19. Henry VIII. succeeded his father in the eighteenth 
year of his age, 1509. He came to the throne witn flatter- 
ing prospects, considered whether in respect to the improved 
and tranquil state of the kingdom, the affection and high 
expectation of his people, or his own supposed good qualities. 

§ The succession was well established, the contending titles of 
York and Lancaster were fully united in him, the treasury was well 
filled, and peace and prosperity were universally enjoyed. The 
young prince's person was beautiful, his manners elegant, his dis- 
position frank, his mind highly cultivated for the times, and his 
native talents commanding. 

The nation, however, was greatly disappointed in its young 
prince. He soon shewed himself an unprincipled tyrant ; 
and both friends and foes felt, at times, the effects of his 
caprice and cruelty. His ministers were talented men, but 
he took pleasure in abusing them. Only archbishop Cran- 
mer continued to be an object of favour to the last. Cardinal 



200 MODERN HISTORV. — PERIOD Vltl. 

Wolsey, in whom he placed unbounded confidence for a time, 
was finally discarded. Wolsey, more than any one else, by 
ministering to the pleasures and ambition of the king, shaped 
his destiny and the fortunes of the people. 

§ This celebrated man was the son of a butcher at Ipswich ; but 
having received a learned education, and being endowed with an ex- 
cellent capacity, he was taken into the service of the king, and by 
degrees rose into distinction, till he became the prime minister of 
his sovereign. Clergyman as he was, he countenanced the king in 
all his light sports, gaiety, and sensual indulgences, a quality in the 
companion, which contributed to the influence and elevation of the 
courtier. 

20. In the early part of his reign, the counsels of Wolsey 
agreeing with the natural temper of Henry, prompted him to 
make war against Louis XII. of France. He invaded the 
country, and met with success so far as he went, having 
gained the Battle of the Spurs ; (because the French on the 
occasion made more use of their spurs than (heir swords ;) 
but he failed to improve his good fortune, and after taking 
Tournay, returned to England. 

About the same time the Scots, who had made an incur 
sion into England, were defeated by Henry's general, the 
earl of Surrey, at Flodden Field, where James IV., and a 
great part of his nobility, were slain. Henry, however, did 
not follow up his advantage, but generously granted a peace 
to Scotland. 

Henry also took a petit in the long and obstinate wars 
which were waged between Francis I. and Charles V., a? 
before detailed. His foreign alliances cost him the expendi- 
ture of immense treasures to no purpose, as he was, by turns, 
the dupe of both parties. 

The most important events in Henry's reign, are connected 
with his matrimonial alliances. Out of these, as a conse- 
quence, arose the ever-memorable Reformation in England. 
Henry was opposed by the pope in an affair so interesting to 
his passions, and therefore the pope was opposed by him, 
and at length lost his influence in the kingdom. In this 
great religious change, it is evident Henry had no good in- 
tentions, but sought the gratification of his own unhallowed 
appetites. He had previously declared himself the champion 
of the Romish church, and even written a book against 



ENGLAND. 201 

Luther. Hence was conferred on him, by the pope, the title 
of " Defender of the Faith." 

§ Henry was married to Catharine of Arragon, his brother's 
widow, but having fallen in love with the beautiful Anne Boieyn, he 
applied to the pope for a divorce. This, however, was denied him. 
But Henry was not to be frustrated in his intentions. The opinion 
of the universities was favourable to him, and Anne was soon crown- 
ed queen. 

The pope now was forced to pay the price of his conscientious- 
ness or obstinacy. His authority, from that time, was abolished in 
England ; the annual tribute was no longer paid to him ; the dissolu- 
tion of the monasteries was ordered ; and the clergy, as well as all 
others, were obliged to acknowledge the king as head of the church ; 
and the want of obedience, was punishable with banishment or 
death. On this account, Sir Thomas More, and the bishop of Ro- 
chester, among others, perished by the hand of the executioner. 
Cardinal Wolsey also, was conceived to be in the way of the king's 
wishes on the subject of his marriage, and after being deprived of 
his immense power and possessions, was arrested for high treason. 
He, however, died of a broken heart soon afterwards, uttering in the 
anguish of his soul, the never to be forgotten words, " Had I but 
served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not 
have forsaken me in my gray hairs." 

Anne Boieyn, in less than three years, was condemned and be- 
headed. After her, he married four wives in succession ; the first 
dying in child-birth ; the next having been divorced, because he 
found her not so beautiful as had been represented ; and the third 
having been executed for adultery. The fourth survived him. 

The tyrant, died in the fifty-sixth year of his age, bequeathing his 
crown, first to Edward, then to Mary, and lastly to Elizabeth. 

20£ Edward YL, Henry's son, by Jane Seymour, ascended 
the throne in 1547, in his tenth year. At first, the earl of 
Hertford was regent ; afterwards, the duke of Somerset, who 
was decidedly friendly to the reformation. Edward was a 
prince of great promise and many virtues; but, to the deep 
regret of the English nation, he died in the sixteenth year 
of his age. 

During his reign, the reformation made great progress, 
through the zeal of Cranmer ; yet a large body of the people 
adhered to popery. The triumphs of the new religion were 
not, however, effected without public disturbances, and some 
sanguinary executions took place on account of religion. 

A project was undertaken of uniting England and Scot- 
land, by a marriage between Edward and Mary Stuart, the 
young queen of the Scots. Tt, however, failed, and a battle 



202 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

ensued, near Musselburgh, in which 10,000 of the Scots wer*. 
slain. 

§ So different in disposition was Edward from his father, that it \a 
said he always wept, when he signed an order for an execution 
against any of his subjects. Edward's benevolent turn of mind is 
evidenced by his charitable endowments, as Bridewell, St. Thomas's 
Hospital, and several schools, which still exist and flourish. 

21. Mary, Edward's sister, next ascended the throne, in 
1553. History has assigned to her the unenviable title of 
" bloody," from the persecutions and martyrdoms suffered by 
the protestants, in her reign. Her disposition was morose, 
tyrannical, and cruel, in the highest degree. Bent upon the 
restoration of the catholic religion, she hesitated at no mea- 
sures, however unjust, which were calculated to effect the 
object. 

§ To force and violence, she naturally resorted. Some of the most 
eminent reformers, as Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, Ferrer, 
and Rogers, she consigned to the flames. In consequence, however, 
of these cruellies, a powerful prejudice was excited against the 
catholics. Their cause sunk, and that of t'.te protestants rose; and 
the reformation was, in reality, extended, oy the means employed 
for its extinction. 

The beginning of Mary's reign, was stained with the 
blood of the celebrated Lady Jane Grey, grand daughter to a 
sister of Henry VIII. She more happily suppressed, soon 
after, an insurrection under Wyat. 

Her husband was Philip II., of Spain ; but, by the articles 
of marriage, she, or rather her parliament, has the merit of 
making provision for the independence and glory of the Eng- 
lish crown. It was agreed that the administration should be 
solely in the queen, and, on certain conditions, her issue 
should inherit the dominions of Philip. 

The loss of Calais, which the English possessed 210 
years, together with the knowledge that she was hated, both 
by her husband and her subjects, caused her to die of grief 
and vexation of heart, in the forty-third year of her age. 

§ Jane Grey, whose fate was so tragical, was designed by Ed- 
ward to be his successor. Her title, however, was quite defective ; 
and the lav/, assigning the crown to her, which Edward caused to 
be passed, was unconstitutional. Lord Guilford Dudley, son of the 
duke of Northumberland, had lively marrhd her; and both the fa- 
ther and son strongly solicited ) ;r to accept of the perilous bequest 
of Edward. She reluctantly c lsented, and, by their intrigues, was 
proclaimed queen. Her youth and innocence might have excused 



ENGLAND. 203 

her ; but she was soon arrested, and, together with hei husband, was 
condemned and executed. 

On the day of her execution, her husband desired permission to 
see her; but she refused her consent, informing him by message, 
lhat the tenderness of their parting would overcome the fortitude of 
both, and too much unbend their minds from a greater concern. 
She adverted also to other topics of a consolatory kind. Her hus- 
band was first brought to the block, before her eyes ; but, undaun- 
ted at such a sight, she addressed the spectators, in a most affecting 
speech, and, with a serene countenance, immediately submitted her 
own neck to the fatal axe. 

Lady Jane Grey was an accomplished scholar, a devout christian, 
and the fairest ornament of her sex. Aschem tells us, that she wrote 
in Latin, with great strength of sentiment ; and we are informed 
by her contemporary, Sir Thomas Chaloner, that she was well versed 
in Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, French, and Italian. Fuller adds, that 
she had "the innocency of childhood, the beaaty of youth, the so- 
lidity of middle, the gravity of old age, and all at eighteen ; the birth 
of a princess, the learning of a clerk, the life of a saint, yet the 
death of a malefactor, for her parent's offences." 

22. Elizabeth succeeded to the throne, on the death of 
her sister Mary, 1558. This was a joyful event to the Eng- 
lish people. The prudence which, as a subject, she had dis- 
played during the sanguinary reign of her sister, gave pro- 
mise of excellence in the sovereign. 

§ It required all the sagacity and caution of Elizabeth, to elude the 
effects of the violent jealousy which the queen, her sister, enter- 
tained against her. When questioned respecting the real presence, 
the net for catching protestants, she replied : 

" Christ was the word that spake it, 
He took the bread and brake it, 
And what the word did make it, 
That I believe and take it." 

That which was thus promised, was, in a great measure, 
fulfilled. By her wise counsels, the protestant religion was 
fostered; the church of England received its present form; 
and agriculture, commerce, arts, and literature, attained to an 
elevatbn unknown in England before. Her intrepid mind, 
and the measures of the government, so sagaciously and 
firmly pursued, rendered her the most respected and power- 
ful sovereign in Europe. She colonized a large portion of 
North America, supported the infant republic of Holland 
against its tyrannical enemy, humbled the pride of Spain, in 
the defeat of its boasted armada, and assisted Henry IV. in 
the recovery of his kingdom. She sought the true interests 



204 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

and glory of her subjects, so far as concerned their temporal 
prosperity, or their external religious observances. 

Yet it must be acknowledged, that she compassed her objects, 
often, by very questionable means. She was stern, unyield- 
ing, unrelenting, despotic, in her maxims of government, 
and was guilty, at times, of the basest acts of cruelty and 
hypocrisy. Her treatment of her cousin, Mary, queen oi 
Scots, whom she caused to be beheaded, on the bare suspi- 
cion of a conspiracy, has loaded her memory with a degree 
of reproach, which the splendour of her reign, in other re- 
spects, can never obliterate. And her conduct towards her 
favourites, particularly the earl of Essex, is marked with sin- 
gular caprice, if not injustice. 

§ The invincible Armada, so called, was a fleet which Spain fitted 
out for the invasion of England, on account of the interference of the 
latter power in the affairs of the Netherlands. It consisted of 150 
ships of war, carrying 27,000 men, and 3000 cannon— the largest 
naval armament which Europe had ever seen. The English fleet of 
108 ships, commanded by Howard, Drake, and others, met the ar- 
mada as it entered the English channel, attacked it in the night, and 
burnt and destroyed a great part of the squadron. A storm which 
drove the remainder of the Spanish ships on the coast of Zealand, 
completed their discomfiture, and only fifty shattered vessels, with 
6000 men, returned to Spain. 

The story of the beautiful and unfortunate Mary, will be briefly 
told in what follows. She was a daughter of James V., king of Scot- 
land, and great-grand-daughter of Henry VII. of England, and next 
heir to the English crown. She succeeded her father, eight days af- 
ter her birth. She was educated in France, as a catholic, and, in 
early life, married the Dauphin, afterwards Francis II. Influenced 
by her maternal uncles, the Guises, she consented to take the title ol 
queen of England — an injudicious measure, equally calculated to 
wound her own peace, and excite Elizabeth's resentment. 

After her return to Scotland, on the death of Francis, she gave 
her hand to her cousin Henry Stuart, (lord Darnley.) But the king, 
her husband, being excluded from any share in the government, by 
the advice (as he suspected) of Rizzio, an Italian musician, her 
secretary and favourite, he, by the assistance of some of the princi- 
pal nobility, suddenly surprised them when at supper together, and 
effected the death of Rizzio, in the queen's presence. 

The next year, the king was blown up with gunpowder, in a pri- 
vate house, to which he had retired with a few friends. The earl of 
Bothwell, the new favourite of Mary, is, not without reason, sup- 
posed to have been the contriver of this murder. He was, however, 
acquitted by the nobles of his and Mary's party ; and, in about two 
months after, the imprudent princess condesi ended to marry him. 

This shameful conduct, occasioned the revolt of the chief nobility 



ENGLAND. 205 

and her best subjects, by whom she was taken prisoner, compelled 
ner to resign the crown, and her son, James VI., was called to the 
sovereignty. The queen, soon after, escaped from prison, and raised 
an army to oppose the regent, Murray, who was determined on her 
destruction, and whom she had frequently condemned, and as fre- 
quently pardoned. She was, however, defeated, and fled to Eng- 
land, in 1568, where she expected, from the repeated declarations of 
Elizabeth, protection and security. 

Elizabeth, secretly delighted to find a hated rival in her power 
proved unfaithful to her professions, and detained the unhappy 
fugitive a prisoner, for eighteen years. She first, however, under 
pietence of doing justice to Mary, had the cause of the latter en- 
quired into, at a conference at York. But though nothing was 
proved against her, Elizabeth saw fit to detain her in close con- 
finement. 

The Scottish queen, during her tedious and merciless confinement, 
naturally desired, and her friends for her, a release. For a plot to 
effect this object, devised by her friends, and detected, she was held 
responsible ; and though an independent sovereign, was tried by a 
foreign power. Presumed, only, to be guilty, she was condemned, 
and soon after barbarously beheaded, in Fotheringay castle, in the 
forty-fifth year of her age, and in the nineteenth of her captivity. 

Historians tell us, that when Mary was informed of the order for 
her execution, she was surprised, but betrayed no symptoms of fear. 
The night before her execution, she called in all her servants, and 
bade them a solemn farewell. Next morning she dressed herself in 
a rich habit of silk and velvet, and declared her resolution to die in 
the faith in which she had been educated. It was on the 8th ol 
Feb. 1587, when she was brought to the block, and in that awful 
conjuncture, displayed a fortitude and decency, which would have 
honoured a matron of Rome ; and to the moment of her death, 
mited the majesty of a queen with the meekness of a martyr. 

The bishop of Lincoln, in a prayer on the occasion of her burial, 
tsed the following words — "It is a charitable saying of father 
Luther, ' Many one liveth a Papist and dieth a Protestant :' only this 
I have been informed, that she took her death patiently, and recom- 
mended herself wholly to Jesus Christ." 

Mary, besides her eminent beauty, which was celebrated through- 
out Europe, possessed the highest mental accomplishments. She 
read and understood several languages, wrote poetry, and cultivated 
a knowledge of music. Her misfortunes were great ; and though 
many of them Avere brought upon her by her indiscretions, if not 
crimes, the severity of her lot has called forth general commisera- 
tion. 

In the early part of Elizabeth's reign, the earl of Leicester was 
her principal favourite; but after his death, she became attached to 
the ear] of Essex, as her minister; and indeed there was, on the part 
of the queen, though quite advanced in life, much of the appearance 
of a more tender passion. She seems, however, unalterably to have 
kept her resolution " to live and die a maiden queen." She was 

18 



206 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

pleased with courtship, but kept aloof from matrimony. Essex was 
a young nobleman of singular accomplishments, talents, and spirit. 

The queen and Essex had many quarrels and reconciliations. In 
one instance, in consequence of some affront which he offered her, 
she angrily gave him a box on the ear ; upon which Essex clapped 
his hand on his sword, swearing he would not bear such usage, were 
it from Henry VIII. ; and immediately withdrew from court. His 
indiscretion, however, was soon pardoned. He was at length teased 
by her capricious humour into a crime, which she could not pardon. 
He had severely reflected on her person, (for though nearly in her 
seventieth year, she wished to be thought a beauty,) and connected 
this with some suspicious movements of a treasonable nature. He 
was soon arraigned, convicted, and brought to the block. 

From this period her mind began to be depressed. The cause 
doubtless was, the revival of her tenderness for Essex. While under 
sentence of death, he sent by the countess of Nottingham, to Eliza- 
beth, a ring which she had given him as a pledge of her affection, 
and of the confidence he might feel, in whatever disgrace he might 
be, that the sight of it would secure her favourable interposition. 
The countess, at the instigation of her husband, the mortal enemy 
of Essex, neglected to deliver it ; and when on her beath-bed, sent 
for the queen, to inform her of the fact. Elizabeth, bursting into a 
frantic passion, shook the dying countess in her bed, and exclaimed, 
" God may pardon you, but I never can." 

From that moment the queen fell into the profoundest melancholy , 
refused both food and medicine, and throwing herself on the floor, 
remained in that state several days and nights, till life became 
extinct. 

Essex, it appears, was much thought of in his day. We find in 
an ancient account of him, the following quaint and hyperbolic 
epitaph : 

" Here sleeps great Essex, dearling of mankinde, 
Faire honour's lampe, foule envie's prey, Arte's fame 

Nature's pride, Virtue's bulwarke, lure of minde, 
Wisdome's flower, Valour's tower, Fortune's shame, 

England's sunne, Belgia's light, France's star, Spaine's thunder, 

Lysbone's lightning, Ireland's clowde, the whole world's wonder." 

23. Little needs be added respecting the character of 
Elizabeth. In her private life, she was less commendable 
than in her public conduct. She possessed few qualities of 
the heart which we love to see in all, especially in woman. 
The rivalship of beauty, the desire of admiration, the jea- 
lousy of love, the meanness of insincerity, and the sallies of 
anger, sullied her character, and showed that she was still a 
woman, but without the amiability of her sex. The attri- 
butes of her intellect, however, merit the highest encomium, 
and her public conduct was that of a queen. We give her 



GERMANY. 207 

full credit for vigour, firmness, penetration, and address — for 
heroism without rashness, for frugality without avarice, foi 
activity without the turbulence of ambition. Her proficiency 
m learning was great, and she possessed extraordinary talents 
for government. The security and defence of the English 
people, were never placed in abler hands. 

GERMANY. 

24. At the commencement of the present period, Germany 
was under the sway of Frederick IV. He erected Austria 
into an Archduchy, and rendered his family the most power- 
ful in Germany, by marrying his son Maximilian, to Mary, 
heiress of Burgundy and the Netherlands. He reigned 
fifty-three years. 

25. Maximilian L, his son, succeeded him, 1493. He 
possessed most of the qualities that signalize a great prince. 
He freed Germany from the disorders of the feudal system, 
and established peace among its separate sovereignties. 

§ He was wanting in decision of mind, which seemed to be his 
only failing as a prince ; in consequence of which, some of his im* 
portant projects miscarried. His memory was so tenacious, that lie 
never forgot the names of persons he had once seen, or heard men- 
tioned. 

26. His grandson, Charles V., succeeded him in the empire, 
1519, having carried the election in preference to Francis L, 
of France. Some particulars respecting this distinguished 
prince, were given in the history of that country. A few 
others will be added. 

§ Charles was the eldest son of Philip, son of Maximilian, and of 
Jane, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. He succeeded to the 
throne of Spain, in 1516. 

The first act of his administration, was to appoint an im- 
perial diet, with a view to check the progress of Luther's 
opinions, which were represented as inimical to the peace of 
Germany. About this time, also, Germany was divided into 
ten circles. In 1521, commenced the celebrated war between 
Charles and Francis, in which Charles obtained manifest ad- 
vantage. In 1527, he took Rome, which was plundered by 
the Germans during nine months. A few years afterwards, 
Charles captured Tunis, and liberated twenty-two thousand 
Christian slaves. 



208 MODEkN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. 

But the most extraordinary event pertaining to this sove- 
reign, was the voluntary relinquishment of his kingly and 
imperial authority. He resigned, first the Netherlands and 
the kingdom of Spain, to his son Philip, in 1556, and after- 
wards the empire, in favour of his brother Ferdinand. The 
remainder of his life he spent in a monastery. An occur- 
ence of this kind, is rare in the history of princes, who are 
generally more fond of authority, the longer they have en- 
joyed it. 

§ Charles was the most powerful sovereign of Europe, his sway 
extending over Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, and a part of Italy. 
He was generally successful in war, though (if such was his aim) 
universal empire was beyond his reach. He never could bring his 
dominions into a well connected body. His enemies were nume- 
rous and powerful, and gave him perpetual annoyance. His cares 
and difficulties increased as he advanced in life, and finding his health 
also decline, he determined to relinquish the burdens of government. 

Accordingly, he recalled his son Philip, on whom, at his recent 
marriage with Mary, queen of England, he had bestowed the king- 
doms of Naples and Sicily, and also the duchy of Milan. Having 
assembled the states of the Low-Countries, at Brussels, he explained 
the reasons of his resignation, recapitulated the most important ac- 
tions of his life, and transferred the sovereign authority to Philip, 
with such unaffected magnanimity and paternal affection, that the 
whole audience melted into tears. A few weeks after this solemni- 
ty, Charles conferred all his royalties and signiories, both in Europe 
and America, upon his son ; reserving nothing to himself, but a pen- 
sion of 100,000 crowns, to be deducted from the revenue of Spain. 

After making some ineffectual attempts to secure the German 
princes in the interests of Philip, Charles made a formal resignation 
of the empire to his brother Ferdinand, and immediately set out for 
Spain, with a chosen retinue. Previously to his arrival in that coun- 
try, a small building had been annexed to the monastery of St. Just, 
consisting of six rooms, four of them in the form of friar's cells, with 
naked walls, and the other two hung with brown cloth, and furnish- 
ed in the most simple manner. Thither Charles retired, with only 
twelve domestics ; and there, after a peaceful solitude of about two 
years, he resigned his breath, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. 

27. The successors of Charles in the empire, during the 
remainder of this period, were, after Ferdinand I., his son 
Maximilian IL, and Rhodolph II. These princes geneially 
made use of pacific expedients, in the disputes carried on be- 
tween the Protestants and the Catholics. 

§ Ferdinand and Maximilian, are said to have been most excellent 
princes. From the latter, no one ever heard a harsh expression. 
So economical were his arrangements, that to every act of his life 
its appropriate hour was allotted. The empire flourished in a peeu 



GERMANY. 209 

iar manner under his administration. Rhodolph, though at war 
with the Turks, almost the whole of his reign, was more occupied 
with tournaments, and the study of mechanics, chemistry, and as- 
tronomy, than with the affairs of state. He frequently spent whole 
days at' the shops of clockmakers, turners, &c, so eager was his de- 
sire for that species of knoAvledge. 

28. The reformation in religion, b}^ which the present pe- 
riod is so peculiarly distinguished, is the most important event 
in the history of Germany. It commenced in that country, 
whence it spread rapidly through several other European na- 
tions. It was connected with a new era in the religious his- 
tory of the world. By it, Papacy received a wound, from 
which it can never recover. The date of this event, is 1517. 

Martin Luther, an Augustine friar, was the first instrument 
employed by an overruling Providence, in accomplishing this 
great moral revolution. His attention was excited to the 
corruption and abuses of the Catholic religion, by the sale ot 
indigencies, at that time instituted throughout all the Chris- 
tian kingdoms of Europe. Leo X., in order to raise money 
for the completion of his magnificent buildings at Rome, had 
published general indulgences ; that is, remittances from the 
pains of purgatory : and the elector of Mentz, authorised the 
Dominicans to receive the money, and preach up the merits 
of such a contribution. 

But the scandalous manner in which these pardons for all 
•sins, past, present, and to come, were disposed of, gave grea*. 
offence to many religious persons, and induced Luther, w T ho 
was then a professor of divinity at Wittemberg, to expose the 
absurdity of such odious traffic. His indignation was aroused ; 
and indeed, the enormity of these doings, opened his eyes to 
the iniquity of the whole system. 

His anathemas found many willing hearers, particularly in 
the electorate of Saxony, though Tetzel, the papal agent, 
vigorously combatted him. Luther, however, by degrees ac- 
quired great popularity, and his influence brought other di- 
vines into the controversy. Persecution was now resorted to 
by the pope and his emissaries, but this only increased his 
zeal and indignation as a preacher. Luther was soon cited 
by the pope, to appear at Rome, within sixty days. Prince 
Frederick, elector of Saxony, however, requested that the re- 
former might plead his cause in Germany ; and Luther re- 
paired, under the protection of a safe conduct, to the imperial 

18* 



210 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. 

diet, convoked by Charles at Augsburg, before cardinal Caje 
tan ; but instead of making any recantation, he boldly avow- 
ed his resolution of defending his doctrines, though all the 
terrors of the church should be denounced against him. As 
the pope's legate, however, proceeded to menaces, Luther re- 
tired privately from Augsburg, having first complained, by 
etter, to the pope, of the harsh treatment he had received from 
Cajetan. 

Having arrived safely into Saxony, he found the mass there 
universally abolished, the images destroyed, and the convents 
shut up. The spirit which had been thus kindled, spread 
next into Switzerland, where it produced the most important 
changes. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, soon embraced 
the Lutheran tenets ; and the protestants, as they were all 
called who embraced the reformed religion, multiplied in the 
Netherlands, France, and England, as well as in Germany 
The quarrel which Henry YIIL, who was no protestant him 
self, had with the pope, was the means of advancing the re- 
formation in England, and of subverting the ancient faith 
The cruel persecutions of which the papists were guilty, 
greatly aided the good cause, in the end. 

SPAIN. 

29. Spain had, for several ages, been held by the Moors, 
or Mahometans. This people, however, had lost one province 
after another, till towards the close of the fifteenth century, only 
G ranada remained subject to their authority. Upon the acces- 
sion of Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1479, the crowns of Cas- 
tile and Arragon were happily united, and thus all the Chris- 
tian principalities in Spain, found themselves under one 
sceptre ; and, with the conquest of Granada, which the king 
and queen effected in 1492, Spain became one entire monar- 
chy. Ferdinand and Isabella were, in effect, two sovereign 
princes, though professedly united in marriage. 

The Moors suffered terribly in the siege of Granada, and 
with the loss of their dominions, were, for the most part, 
obliged to retire into Africa. 

§ To Ferdinand and Isabella, the establishment of the terrible In- 
quisition, in Spain, is owing. Two thousand persons are said to have 
suffered death under Torquemada, the first inquisitor general. This 
instance of intemperate and ferocious zeal, in the king and queen, 



SPAIN. 211 

may well be set off against the several good qualities, which it is al- 
lowed, they possessed. Their reign was signalized by the discove- 
ries made by the great Columbus. 

30. Jane, who became deranged, succeeded her mothe* 
Isabella, in Castile, with her husband, Philip of Austria, 
On the death of her father, Jane being unfit to reign, her 
son Charles I., afterwards Charles V., was acknowledged 
sovereign of all Spain, 1516. His history has already been 
related. 

§ During Charles's reign, Mexico was conquered by Fernando 
Cortez, in 1519, and Peru by Pizarro in 1525. The Spanish do- 
minions were thus greatly extended. 

31. Philip II., succeeded his father upon the abdication of 
the latter, in 1556. In his time, the balance of pow T er in 
Europe, was sustained by Spain, France, England and Ger- 
many, all, at this time, highly flourishing and respectable, either 
from the talents of their sovereigns, or their internal strength. 
Philip was an acute and able politician, though his policy 
partook somewhat of selfish cunning. He was sovereign of 
Spain, the two Sicilies, Milan, and the Netherlands. He 
had likewise, for a few years, the resources of England at 
command, by his marriage with Mary, the English queen. 
His power was great, hut his ambition was greater ; and 
though he met with occasional success, at the close of a long 
and busy reign, he had accomplished but few of his nume- 
rous projects. 

§ Pope Paul IV., jealous of the power of Philip, formed an alli- 
ance with the king of France, to deprive the Spaniards of Milan and 
the Sicilies. Philip, with the aid of the English, defeated the French 
at St. Quintin, and hoped, from this signal victory, to force the 
allies into a peace. Another signal victory, however, was necessary, 
which Philip gained near Gravelines, the result of which was, that 
the French surrendered to Spain, no less than eighty-nine fortified 
towns, in the low countries, and in Italy. 

Philip was an intolerant bigot in religion, and it was owing to his 
cruel attempts to enforce a uniformity of religious opinion in the 
Netherlands, that the latter broke away from his authority, as will 
be detailed below. 

HOLLAND. 

32. Holland became a republic by the union of Utrecht, 
in 1579. The states combined to defend their common 
liberties, on account of the tyranny of their sovereign, Philip 
II. Seven of the seventeen provinces, constituting the Neth- 



212 MODERN HISTORV. — PERIOD VIII. 

erlands, came into the measure. The remaining ten pro- 
vinces had their charter renewed by Philip, and did not be 
come independent until in the beginning of the eighteenth 
century. 

§ Holland, is another appellation for the Seven United Provinces, 
so called, from its chief province being of that name. The remain- 
ing ten are known by the name of Flanders. The duchy of Bur- 
gundy, composed of some of these provinces, was originally equal 
to any power in Europe. The whole of the Netherlands, except 
three states, were annexed to the German empire, by marriage, 1477 
They were afterwards resigned to the king of Spain. 

In the early periods of their history, the Hollanders became sub- 
ject to the Franks, under whom, they were divided into small gov- 
ernments, the heads of which were despotic, in their own dominions. 
Holland and the Netherlands, were united to Germany, under one 
of the grandsons of Charlemagne, but became independent in the 
tenth century. At length, in 1443, they were subject to the dukes 
of Burgundy. The next transfer of these states, was to Germany, 
Charles V. being heir to the house of Burgundy. 

They endured the rule of Charles, but the tyranny of his son 
Philip II., was not to be borne. The Reformation had made a con- 
siderable progress in the Netherlands. Philip, with a view to repress 
it, established the Inquisition, projected certain innovations, which 
created alarm and tumult, and sent an army under the duke of Alva, 
to enforce implicit submission. The consequence of these measures 
was, that many thousands of persons, and some of the highest dis- 
tinction, perished by the hands of the executioner. It is computed 
that 18,000 were the victims of the five years' administration ot 
Alva. 

William, the prince of Orange, on whom the government of seve- 
ral of the provinces had been conferred, and who was now, himself, 
under the sentence of the Inquisition, raised an army on this occa- 
sion, and undertook the deliverance of the states. Having reduced 
some of the most important garrisons, he was proclaimed Stadtholder 
of Holland and Zealand, in 1570. 

The whole seventeen provinces had equally suffered from the 
tyranny of Philip ; but only seven of them could agree to form a 
confederated republic. The influence of jealousy and competition, 
prevented the union of the whole. By the treaty which was formed, 
it was agreed that they should defend their liberties, as one united 
republic ; that they should jointly decide in the concerns of peace 
and war, establish a general legislative authority, and maintain re- 
ligious freedom. William was elected Stadtholder of the whole 
seven, a title which included the duties of a general, admiral, and 
magistrate. 

The effusion of blood, which had been great prior to this union, 
was not hereby much diminished. The crown of Spain, strained 
every nerve to recover those provinces. Philip, venting his indig- 
nation, by a proscription of the prince of Orange, and offering '25,000 



AMERICA. 213 

crowns for his head, compassed his revenge ; for this illustrious man 
was cut off by an assassin, 1584. By persevering courage, however, 
and assisted by queen Elizabeth of England, and Henry IV. of 
France, the Hollanders, at length, completely established their hide 
pendence, and brought the Spanish monarch to acknowledge them 
as a free people. 

Maurice, the son of William, was elected Stadtholder, in the room 
of his father, and displayed the most consummate talents, as a states- 
man and warrior, having conducted the struggle to the issue already 
related. 

AMERICA. 

33. The immense portion of the earth called America, 
was unknown to Europe, Asia, and Africa, till the year 1492, 
when it was discovered by Christopher Columbus, a native 
of Genoa, in a voyage which he made from Spain, sailing 
west, for the purpose of finding a new continent, or at least 
of arriving at India, in this direction. He first met, not with 
the continent, but the islands in its vicinity. 

§ The discovery of the new world, was one of the greatest and hap- 
piest results of genius, that mankind have ever witnessed. The im- 
portance of the discovery cannot be easily overrated. An event so 
unlooked for, so unthought of, expanded the views, and waked up 
the energy of the human mind. It excited a spirit of enterprise, un- 
felt before. Its influence on commerce, and consequently wealth, 
was, from the beginning, great and decisive, by immensely increas- 
ing the articles of traffic. The mines of America furnished, also, a 
great abundance of the precious metals ; thus multiplying the amount 
of the circulating medium throughout the world. Colonization, and 
the arts of civilized life, have been advanced and extended, by means 
of this discovery ; the sphere of human enjoyment enlarged, and 
especially the blessings of the true religion, communicated to greater 
numbers of mankind. America has also given to the world a new 
and bright example, both of civil and religious freedom ; the effects of 
which, are destined to be felt through all time, and, perhaps, among 
all nations. Some evils have, indeed, been incident to the discovery, 
but they are exceedingly outweighed by its propitious results, and 
will continue to be so, judging from the known principles of human 
nature, and from the dealings of divine providence. 

It has been believed by some, that America was not unknown to 
the ancients. The theory has gained advocates, from a few pas- 
sages in the works of some of the writers of antiquity, and also from 
coincidences in the languages and customs of some of the nations of 
the old and new continent. But the theory has little ground for its 
support. Certainly, at the revival of letters in Europe, no traces of the 
knowledge of another continent existed ; and it was generally suppo- 
sed, that the Canaries formed the western boundaries of the world. 

To Columbus, an account of whom will appear in a biographical 



214 MODERN HISTORIT. — PERIOD VIII. 

sketch, about to follow, mankind are indebted for the correction of 
this error, and the discovery of a new continent. From a long and 
close application to the study of geography, this great man had ob- 
tained a knowledge of the true figure of the earth, far beyond what 
was common to the age in which he lived. Another continent, he 
conceived necessarily existed, to complete the balance of this terra- 
queous globe j but he erroneously supposed it to be connected with 
that of India. The truth of his speculations, he now ardently de- 
sired to prove, by experiment. In this, however, he met with great 
difficulty, and it was not until the expiration of several years, that his 
project was patronized by any prince or court in Europe. Queen 
Isabella, of Spain, has immortalized her name, by rendering the 
first effectual assistance to Columbus. 

One great motive which influenced Columbus and his patroness, 
aside from the hope of ascertaining the existence of anew continent, 
was to find a passage to China and the East Indies, by sea : or rather 
the latter, may have been the sole motive, connecting the supposed 
new regions with the east of Asia. It had been long an object of 
study, to find such a passage, and thus avoid the inconvenience and 
expense of transporting the merchandise of India, across the land, 
from the Red Sea, to Alexandria, in Egypt. The passage round the 
Cape of Good Hope, was not then known, and the shortest route 
was supposed, by Columbus, to be by the west. It is to be remem- 
bered, that the maps of that period, represented the oriental countries 
of Asia, as stretching vastly farther to the east, than has since been 
proved to be the fact. Columbus was fitted, in every point of view, 
for his mighty and perilous undertaking. 

Never was success more complete, or a great idea more happily 
realized. With inconsiderable means, and an ill-appointed flotilla 
of three small vessels, victualled for twelve months, and having on 
board ninety men, he commenced his unpromising adventure. Leav- 
ing Palos, in Spain, on the 3d of August, he sailed directly for the 
Canaries, whence, having refitted his crazy ships, he kept a due 
western course, over an unknown ocean, not without a compass, but 
without a chart. His compass, however, occasioned perplexity. 
The variation of the magnetic needle from due north, was first ob- 
served, when he had sailed about 200 leagues from the Canaries, 
and so terrified his men, that they were scarcely restrained from 
mutiny. All his address and talents were now put in requisition. 
The phenomenon of the needle seemed portentous to himself, but 
his ingenuity devised a solution of it, which silenced the complaints 
of his crew. 

After this, he pursued his voyage, yet not without the frequent 
manifestation of anxiety and impatience, on the part of his crew. 
Thirty days had transpired since they had left the Canaries, and no 
land appearing, both officers and men joined in a revolt. Columbus 
was forced partially to give way to their remonstrances, and pro- 
posed to return, after the expiration of three days, if they should 
find no land. Some indications of it had already begun to appear, 



AMERICA. 21b 

and, on the 11th of October, the joyful sight was descried, first by 
Columbus himself. God was immediately praised, and the sailors 
were now as ardent in their expressions of repentance and admira- 
tion, as they had been, before, insolent and ungovernable. 

34. St. Salvador, one of the Bahamas, was the island first 
discovered. Columbus afterwards touched at Cuba, and 
Hispaniola, (St. Domingo,) now Hayti. On the latter he left 
some of his men, to form a colony. His theory led him to 
call the regions he had discovered, by the name of West In- 
dies ; since he had reached India, or a portion of the globe 
which he supposed to be near it, by a western passage. 

Columbus returned to Spain in the following May, and soon 
set out, with a much larger expedition, on a second voyage* 
In this he was so happy as to add many other islands to 
those already found. In a third voyage, he discovered Trim* 
dad, and the continent at the mouth of the Oronoke, 1498* 

The fame of his discoveries, drew adventurers from all 
parts of Europe ; and, among others, Americus Vesputius, a 
Florentine, a man of science and genius, who, a few years 
afterwards, following the footsteps of Columbus, acquired the 
undeserved honour of giving his name to the new world* 

In 1497, one year before the main land of South 
America had been discovered by Columbus, John Cabot, a 
Venetian by birth, but at that time an inhabitant of England, 
proceeded on a voyage of discovery, under a commission from 
the British king, and found the continent of North America. 
Touching at various parts of the coast, he took possession of 
the country, in behalf of the crown of England. 

The Spaniards, after an interval of a few years, made 
settlements in the new world, and, impelled by a thirst of 
gold, committed horrible butcheries in several of the islands, 
and especially in Mexico and Peru, under Cortez, Pizarro, 
and Almagro. These brave adventurers, though base men, 
established the authority of Spain over countries which they 
depopulated by their avarice and cruelty* In the year 1 500, 
the coast of Brazil was accidentally discovered by Alvarez de 
Cabral, the Portuguese admiral, in consequence of having 
been driven too far to the west, on a voyage round the Cape 
of Good Hope. Hence, the settlement and possession of that 
part of America, by the people of Portugal. 

§ Columbus, as we have seen, entertained, the idea that the re» 
gion he had discovered, was India, or a part of the continent o* 



216 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

Asia. This notion was generally received, until 1513, when the Pa- 
cific Ocean being descried from the mountains of the isthmus of 
Darien, the illusion began to be dispelled. 

Fernando Cortez, was a successful, but execrable adventurer. It 
was on the occasion of being sent, in 1519, by the governor of 
Cuba, upon an expedition to the main, that he first heard of the ex- 
istence of the rich and flourishing empire of Mexico. Stimulated 
by the love of power and gain, he resolved to make the conquest of 
that country. He had at his command only 617 men, and a very 
few fire-arms, (thirteen muskets and ten small field pieces,) these 
having not yet come into general use. His other instruments of 
death, were cross-bows, swords, and spears. But it was the former 
description of weapons, few as they were, that gained for this 
handful of Spaniards, a conquest over a numerous people. They 
looked upon fire-arms as the weapons of the gods. 

Landing at Vera Cruz, Cortez advanced, though with a brave op- 
position from the natives, into the heart of the country. On the ap 
proach of the Spaniards to the capital, the terror of their name had 
paved the way for an easy conquest. The Mexican sovereign, Mon- 
tezuma, received the invaders with great hospitality and kindness. 
Indeed, he regarded them with the reverence due to superior beings. 
An occasion, however, was not long wanting, on the part of Cortez, 
for putting his bold and hazardous project into execution. 

Some difficulty between his soldiers and the natives, became the 
pretext for his seizure of Montezuma. Marching to the palace, with 
fifty men, he put the emperor in irons, and carried him off prisoner 
to his camp. This flagrant abuse of their hospitality, aroused the 
Mexicans, who fleeing to arms, expelled the Spaniards from the 
capital. Montezuma having, during the affray, offered to mediate 
between the Mexicans and their enemies, was indignantly put tf. 
death by one of his own subjects. Gautimozin, son of Montezuma 
immediately succeeded him, and armed *he whole empire against 
the perfidious Spaniards. 

Cortez, by a fortunate concurrence of events, having induced a 
nation of the Indians to revolt, and having obtained a reinforcement 
of Spaniards, commenced the siege of the city, and soon took it, to- 
gether with Gautimozin, and became master of the empire, in 1521. 
The emperor was treated by the Spaniards in a manner shocking to 
humanity. Refusing to discover the place where his treasures were 
hid, the miserable man was stretched naked, for some time, on 
burning coals. Soon after, on the discovery of a conspiracy against 
the Spaniards, he was executed on a gibbet, with all the princes of his 
blood. This was the last blow to the power of the Mexicans. The 
nefarious Cortez, and his few associates, enjoy the honour or the in- 
famy, in the way now narrated, of having brought this simple and 
unsuspecting people, under the yoke of Spain. 

While Cortez was employed in the reduction of Mexico, the Span 
iards were informed of a still more rich and extensive empire, in the 
south. This was Peru' at that time governed by the inca, or king, Ala 
balipa. Francis Pizarro, in 1525, had sailed to and visited the coun 



AMERICA. 217 

fy. He afterwards undertook the conquest of it. in connection 
with Diego Almagro, and Ferdinand Lucques, two unprincipled ad- 
venturers like himself; and for this purpose, sailed in 1531, from 
Panama, with three small vessels and 300 men. 

With this inconsiderable force, he invaded the country, and 
marching to the residence of the inca, he seized his person by stra- 
tagem, having employed friendship and religion as the cover of his 
villany. In this defenceless condition, the king was obliged to sub- 
mit to the slaughter of his attendants, and to the exaction of an 
enormous quantity of gold and silver, as the price of his ransom. 
When, however, the treasure was committed into the hands of the 
Spaniard, with perfidious cruelty, he still retained the wretched 
monarch a prisoner and finally, by a mock trial, condemned and 
executed him, as a usurper and idolater* 

The vast booty which fell into the possession of the victors, be- 
came soon an occasion of dispute among themselves. War only 
could settle it ; in the course of which, both Pizarro and Almagro 
perished. This contention lasted, seventeen years, and Peru became 
the theatre of the most licentious rapine and cruelty. 

In the year 1548, the celebrated Las Casas, was sent from Spaim 
as viceroy. Under his administration, the country obtained repose, 
as a province of Spain ; and, notwithstanding the temporary success 
of their new inca, Huanca Capac, who rose against the Spaniards, the 
whole Peruvian people were effectually broken down and subdued. 

The inhabitants of the American continent and its islands, were 
a race of men quite new to the Europeans. They were of a cop- 
per colour, and had no beard. In some parts of the continent, as 
Mexico and Peru, they had made considerable progress towards 
civilization. They were not wanting, in a degreej as to polish, and 
even luxury. Architecture, sculpture, mining, and working the 
precious metals, were understood. Their persons were clothed, 
their lands cultivated, and their state governed by fixed laws and 
regulations. In Peru there were some magnificent palaces and tem- 
ples. In other parts of the new world, man was a naked savage, 
the member of a wandering tribe, whose sole occupation was hunt- 
ing or war. The savages of the continent were characterized alike 
by their cruelty to their enemies, their contempt of death, and their 
genercaity towards their friends. The islanders were a milder race, 
of gentle manners, and less robust constitutions. 

The inhumanity with which the Spaniards treated these simple 
and unoffending people, is shocking to every reader of sensibility. 
To convert them to the holy and benevolent religion of the Saviour, 
the most violent means were employed, by men who were strangers 
to the spirit of that religion. The rack, the scourge, and the faggot, 
were the principal engines used for their conversion. They were 
hunted down like wild beasts, or burnt alive in their thickets and 
fastnesses. Some of the islands were nearly depopulated. 

The conversion of the Indians, however, was less an object, than the 
desire of obtaining the precious metals which they possessed. So 

10 



218 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. 

powerful was the passion for gold, that the first adventurers endu- 
red every fatigue, and encountered every danger, in search of it; 
and, by compelling the natives to dig in the mines, prematurely de- 
stroyed the lives of vast multitudes of this hapless race, it being 
the practice of the Europeans to take possession of the regions in 
America which they visited, by the pretended right of discovery, 
they seem to have made no account of the aboriginals, depriving 
them of liberty, or life, whenever occasion ov passion demanded. 

The Spanish acquisitions in America, before the late revolution 
among them, belonged to the crown, and not to the state: they were 
the absolute property of the sovereign, and regulated solely by his 
will. The pope, agreeably to principles which governed men in a 
dark and superstitious age, granted to the monarchs of Spain, the 
countries discovered by their subjects, in America. They were go- 
verned by viceroys, who exercised supreme civil and military au- 
thority over their provinces. 

Distinguished Characters in Period VIII. 

1. Columbus, an eminent navigator, and discoverer of 
America. 

o' tit "* \ / masters of painting among the moderns. 

4. Erasmus, a Dutchman, eminent in philology and gene- 
ral literature. 

5. Copernicus, a Prussian astronomer, and discoverer of 
the true system of the universe. 

J /-, , • ' > eminent theologians and reformers. 

7. Calvin, ) ° 

8. Camoens, a distinguished Portuguese poet. 

9. Buchanan, a Scotch historian and poet. 

10. Montaigne, a celebrated French essayist. 

11. Tasso, prince of Italian poets, 

12. Spenser, one of the greatest of the English poets. 

§ Columbus (Christopher) was born 1442, at Genoa, son of a 
woolcomber. He was early inured to the labours of the sea, and 
acquired great experience in navigation. With the sciences imme- 
diately connected with Ms profession, lie was acquainted, beyond 
most men of his age. Indeed, this great man was far in advance of 
the rest of the world, and anticipated the illumination of a distant 
futurity. For the splendid discovery which he was destined to 
make, his temperament and his previous course of life, eminently 
fitted him. There was an enthusiasm in his character, a lofty ex- 
pectation, and a religious fervour of soul, which spurned ordinary 
difficulties, and raised him immensely above ordinary men. By his 
Knowledge of maritime affairs, as well as by reasoning, he became 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 219 

persuaded that a continent must exist in the western ocean. To 
asc.prtmu the truth of his theory, was an object which soon engross- 
ed all his time and faculties. And, after much effort and many trials 
and disappointments, in regard to assistance, he was permitted to 
realize the grand idea he had so happily conceived. 

He made application to several courts, before he could obtain the 
requisite means and patronage, and it was only after much delay, 
that he was finally enabled to prosecute his discoveries under the 
auspices of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. He sailed on the third 
of August, 1492, in three small ships, and returned to Spain in May 
the following year. In the mean time he had discovered a new 
world, and had taken possession of a portion o^ it, in the name of 
his sovereign. This event filled Spain, and all Europe^ with amaze- 
ment, and the greatest honours were accorded to him in the coun- 
try, whose annals he has so signally adorned. He made three sub- 
sequent voyages to the new world, in the second of which he reach- 
ed the continent; but powerful enemies had now risen up, jealous of 
his ascendency, who impugned his motives or decried his services, 
and so much influence had they with the Spanish court, that 
Columbus, in his third voyage was sent back to Spain in irons. 
Though he suffered much in the latter part of life, he finally trium- 
phed over his enemies, and peacefully left the world, on the twentieth 
of May, 1506. 

The memory of Columbus will be cherished while the world 
stands ; though in consequence cf one of those untoward events 
that sometimes occur, he has been deprived of the honour of giving 
his name to the hemisphere which his genias brought to light. 
Signal must have been the satisfaction of his mind, notwithstand- 
ing the disasters through which he passed, in view of the transcen- 
dent benefits which Providence had made him the instrument of 
conferring on mankind. 

2. Raphael (Sanzio) was born at Urbino, 1483. By studying the 
best masters in painting, he soon rose to eminence, and merited the 
appellation of the divine Raphael. He also excelled as an architect, 
and was employed in the building of St. Peter's, at Rome. He came 
to an untimely grave, in consequence of his addiction to licentious 
pleasures, dying at the age of thirty-seven years. By the general 
consent of mankind, he is acknowledged to have been the prince of 
painters. He excelled in beauty and grace. 

3. Angelo Buonaroti (Michael) was not only a great painter, but 
sculptor, and architect. He was even an elegant poet. In architec- 
ture he surpassed all the moderns, and he was the greatest designer 
that ever lived. He is said to have sucked sculpture with his very 
milk, inasmuch as he was nursed by a woman whose husband was 
eminent in that art. The early displays of his genius, raised so 
great a jealousy among his youthful rivals, that one of them struck 
him with such violence oh the nose, that he carried the mark to his 
grave. The most celebrated of his paintings, is the Last Judgment. 
His architectural abilities are best displayed on the church of St. 



220 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII, 

Peter's, at Rome, the building of which he completed. His style is 
that of grandeur and sublimity, united with the utmost simplicity and 
beauty. Sir Joshua Reynolds declared, that the last word which 
he wished to utter from the academic chair, was the name of Michael 
Angelo. Description can convey but a very imperfect image of 

" Buonaroti's car 
Midst epic glories flaming from afar." 

Only the sight can give one an idea of his peculiar excellence. He 
lived ninety years. 

4. Erasmus (Desiderius) was the most learned man of the age in 
which he lived, and contributed by his example and writings, to the 
restoration of learning in Europe. He was somewhat of a wander- 
er, having occasionally resided in Italy, Switzerland, Holland, France, 
and England. With the last of these countries he was best pleased, 
and there he met with the greatest encouragement from Henry VII., 
Sir Thomas More, and all the learned Englishmen of those days. 
He was the most correct and elegant Latin writer among the mo- 
derns. Rotterdam, is to this day proud of having given birth to 
Erasmus. The house in which he was born is still marked out to 
the admiration of the traveller by a suitable inscription, and a beau- 
tiful copper statue was long since erected to his memory in an open 
part of the city. 

In the great question of Protestantism and Popery, he was claim- 
ed on both sides, though neither party was pleased with him. Here 
is a dark spot on his character. He was evidently temporising, 
timid, and undecided. He lashed the vices and follies of the Pa- 
pists, while he seemed to be indifferent to the success, or jealous of 
the labours of the reformers. He died at Basil, July 12, 1536, aged 
sixty-nine. 

5. Copernicus (Nicholas) was a native of Thorne in Prussia. In 
nis twenty-third year he went to Italy in search of knowledge. 
After some years' absence, and having in the mean time aeted as 
professor of mathematics at Rome, he returned home. Here he 
began to apply his vast knowledge, to an examination of the different 
theories respecting the universe. The simplicity of the Pythagorean 
system pleased him best ; and after twenty years of profound inves- 
tigation, he removed from the machine of the universe, the cycles 
and epicycles of former astronomers, and placed the sun in the cen- 
tre to illuminate and control the whole. This great discovery lie 
kept concealed for more than thirty years, for fear of exciting against 
himself the persecuting spirit of bigotry. When at last he consent- 
ed, through the importunities of his friends, to have his work pub- 
lished, and a copy of it was brought to him, he was a few hours 
afterwards seized with a violent effusion of blood, which terminated 
his life, 24th May, 1543, in his seventieth year. 

6. Luther (Martin) was born at Isleben, in Saxony, 1483. His 
parents designed him for a civilian, but by the following awful inci- 
dent, his views were directed to the church. As he was walking in 
the fields with a fellow-student, they were struck by lightning, 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 221 

Luther to the ground, and his companion dead by his side. His 
mind was so much affected by the event, that without consulting 
nis friends, he formed and executed the resolution of retiring from 
the world. He entered into the order of Augustine hermits, at 
Erfurth. From this place he removed to Wittemberg, being ap- 
pointed by the elector of Saxony, professor of theology and philo- 
sophy in the university just founded there by that prince. It was 
m his retirement at Erfurth, that he providentially found a Latin 
Bible, the first he ever saw, and in perusing it he was astonished a 
the little knowledge of Scripture and Christianity, which the clergy 
then imparted to the people. 

After he had been at Wittemberg three years, he was sent to Rome 
to plead the cause of some converts of his order, who had quarrel- 
led with their vicar-general. While he was at the seat of the papal 
power, he became more than ever convinced of the ignorance and 
debauched lives of the dignitaries of the church. This probably 
gave him the first decided disgust to the Romish ecclesiastical go- 
vernment, especially as he had engaged in the monastic life, from 
motives of genuine piety. Upon his return to Wittemberg, he was 
created D. D. at the request of the elector of Saxony, and continued 
to act as professer of divinity in the university. Here he explained, 
with clearness and ease, the Psalms and the Epistle to -the Romans, 
and supported his reputation by the most rigid morality, and the 
most exemplary conduct. 

The minds of his auditors being thus prepared, a favouraoie occa^ 
eion soon offered for carrying into execution his glorious plan of re-t 
formation. The completion of St. Peter's church, at Rome, at this 
time, required extraordinary sums, and pope Leo X. published, in 
1517, general indulgences for the forgiveness of. sin, to such as 
would contribute to the pious work. The Dominicans were intrust- 
ed with the selling of these indulgences in Germany; and in paying 
their money, the friar Tetzel informed the superstitious people, that 
they might release themselves, not only from past, but also future 
sins. Luther's holy indignation was roused by these vile practices, 
and he preached against them, with wonderful success. Persecution 
soon followed, and the reformer became the object of the papal ven- 
geance. Luther, however, was undismayed, and, in an astonishing 
«enes of efforts, in which he was opposed by all the power and 
policy of the papal world, lie achieved the object of his long che- 
rished wishes. 

In 1524, Luther threw aside the monastic habit, and th^ next year 
married a nun, who had escaped from a convent, and, though he 
was ridiculed and censured by his enemies, he confounded them all 
by his appeal to the Scriptures. By her, he had three sons, whose 
descendants are still respected in Germany. Luther died in the 
place of his nativity, 18th February, 1546. 

Luther was singularly qualified for the service he performed. He 
was a man of high endowments of mind, and great uprightness — a 
friend of true religion, liberty, and human happiness. His under* 

19* 



82£ MODERN HISTORY —PERIOD VIII. 

standing was vast, and his knowledge unequalled, almost, in the age 
in which he lived. Especially had he an admirable acquaintance 
with the Scriptures, which he expounded with equal eloquence and 
clearness. In courage, resolution, and decision, he was an example 
to all reformers. 

7. Calvin, (John,) a coadjutor of Luther in the reformation, was 
born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10th July, 1509. His early piety mark- 
ed him out for the church ; but though he assumed the functions of 
the ministry, he was too much disgusted with the superstitions of 
the Romish church, to remain in her communion. His knowledge- 
of the Bible had opened his eyes to the abominations of the " man 
of sin." He now applied himself to the study of the laws, in which 
he made great progress ; at the same time, he extended his ac- 
quaintance with divinity. He soon entered most cordially into the 
reformation ; and his zeal and labour as a writer and disputant, 
very essentially aided the work. With difficulty, however, he 
escaped from the vengeance of the catholics ; but his confidence in 
God was not to be shaken, and having taken his position, he felt 
that it was to be maintained. He spent most of his active life at 
Geneva, where he undertook the ministry, and filled the chair of the 
professor of divinity. He was, however, once expelled the place 
on account of refusing to administer the sacrament indiscriminately, 
and again experienced trouble in the affair of Servetus. 

Calvin, by his vast abilities, and by his clear views of religion, at- 
tracted the attention, of the world, and it might almost be said, that 
"the care of all the churches" rested on him. Many of the reformed 
churches of Germany, France, England, and Poland, looked to him 
as their head, and he was in the habit of directing them by his let- 
ters. He died, 1564. 

Calvin was a man of pre-eminent piety and talents, and, though 
not faultless, he has rendered such a service to the cause of evangeli- 
cal truth, and of the reformation, as to deserve the gratitude oi 
posterity. Scaliger says, that no commentator has better hit the 
sense of the prophets than he. 

8. Camoens (Lewis) is known principally as the author of the 
Lusiad, an epic poem, which has been translated into the most im- 
portant languages of Europe. Camoens is deservedly called the 
Virgil of his country, and in his„work has displayed great powers 
of description, extensive learning, and a sublime imagination. 

Misfortune marked his course in life. In the service of his coun- 
try, he lost an eye. On his return from the Indies, whither he had 
gone to better his fortune, he was shipwrecked, and saved his life 
with difficulty, by swimming with his right arm, and holding up 
his poem, with his left. 

After he had published his poem, and dedicated it to the king, he 
was cruelly disappointed, as to patronage; and feeling all the mise- 
ries of indigence and neglect, he expired in the midst of his ungrate- 
ful countrymen. He lived fifty-two years. 

9. Buchanan (George) was born in the shire of Lenox, in Scot- 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 223 

land, in 1506. He early embraced, from conviction, the tenets of Lu- 
ther, and, as the consequence, suffered persecution from the catho- 
lics. He became tutor to James I. of England, and employed the 
last twelve or thirteen years of his life, in writing the history of his 
country. He occasionally resided in England and France, but died 
in his native country, at Edinburgh, 1582. His history is written 
in a nervous, elegant, and perspicuous style, but is occasionally de- 
ficient in fidelity and accuracy. He has the reputation of an able 
scholar, whose mind was stored with all the fire, the elegance, and 
the graces of ancient literature, and who, in a barbarous age, revi- 
ved in his poetry, the beauty and grandeur of the Roman muses. 

10. Montaigne was born of an ancient family at Perigord, in 
France, 1533. He was instructed to speak Latin first, as his mother 
tongue. Disdaining the drudgeries of law, for which he was intend- 
ed, he travelled, with a view to make observations on men and man- 
ners. In the latter part of his life, he enjoyed learned ease and phi- 
losophical society. His essays have been repeatedly published. 
They are able and amusing productions, though unsafe to be put in- 
to the hands of youth, on account of their scepticism. Some per- 
sons have extravagantly praised them. 

11. Tasso (Torquato) was born at Sorrento, in the kingdom of 
Naples, in 1544, and derives his celebrity from his " Jerusalem De- 
livered," an epic poem of great merit. Like the works of Homer 
and Virgil, it has gained the palm of immortality. Tasso passed a 
life of varied and great suffering. Among other calamities, he was 
confined by the duke of Ferrara, who had been his patron, in an 
hospital, for a long time, under the pretence that he was insane. Tas- 
so had been guilty only of an imprudence. Unfortunately, he had 
fallen in love with the princess Eleonora, the duke's sister, and, on 
a certain occasion, he made bold to embrace her, in the midst of a 
crowded assembly. For this offence, the unfortunate lover was 
obliged to mourn his disappointment in a tedious solitude, rendered 
more tedious by a lingering disease, and occasional lunacy. He was 
at last released, and his merits as a poet began to be more known j 
but just as he was on the point of receiving the laurel crown from 
the pope, he suddenly expired, and that which was to have been, on 
tho next day, his coronation, proved to be the melancholy proces- 
sion of his funeral. He was fifty-one years of age. 

12. Spenser (Edmu'iu) is deservedly regarded as little inferior, 
either in invention or in judgment, and true fire of the muse, to 
any author, ancient or modern. But with all his beauties, he was 
fanciful and chimerical, and without uniformity, so that his poem is 
truly fairy land. His sublimity, variety, and fertile imagination, are 
unfortunately to be set off against his obsolete language, and heavy 
stanza. His Fairy Queen, is his most celebrated poem. 

He was poet laureat to queen Elizabeth, and was employed some- 
what in public life. At one period, he was possessed of wealth ; but 
Desmond's revolt in Ireland, where his property lay, proved his ruin. 
He was plundered and robbed of his estate, one of his children was 



224 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

burned in the conflagration of his house, and broken in heart and 
fortune, he came to London, where he died, in 1598. 



PERIOD IX. 

The period of the English Commonwealth ; extending 
from the Edict of Nantes, 1598 years A. C, to the death 
of Charles XII of Sweden, 1718 years A. C. 

FRANCE. 

House of Bourbon. 

Sect. 1. Henry IV., had now occupied the throne of France 
several years. He had changed his religion from political 
considerations, but did an act of justice to the Calvinists, by 
whose aid he had secured the sceptre, in granting the famous 
Edict of Nantes, by which he tolerated them, as well as all 
his subjects, in the unfettered exercise of their religion. 

Henry's own great abilities and love of his subjects, aided 
by the talents and industry of his minister, the duke of Sully, 
enabled him to repair the desolations of a thirty years' civil 
war, and to place his kingdom in a state of financial pros- 
perity and general happiness. 

France never had a more popular sovereign. His talents, 
as a general and statesman, commanded respect, his person 
was prepossessing, his manners a model of good breeding, 
and his love of his subjects inspired a most enthusiastic at- 
tachment to him in return. His private and domestic life, 
was however very exceptionable, and infected, by the force 
of example, the manners of the court with no little disso- 
luteness. 

§ A mistress of Henry, an artful, intriguing, ambitious woman, 
had, by consummate management, obtained from him a promise of 
marriage. This promise, the king showed to Sully, ready signed, 
and the minister, transported with indignation, tore it in pieces. "I 
believe you are mad," cried Henry in a rage. " It is true I am mad," 
replied Sully, " and I wish I was the only mad man in France." 
When, after so keen an altercation, Sully thought himself irreco- 
verably disgraced, he received the brevet of grand master of the 
ordnance. 

Henry, who had lived through fifty conspiracies, fell by the 



FRANCE. 225 

hand of an assassin, named Ravillac, after a short reign of 
twenty years, too short for the glory of France, just as he 
was entering upon a splendid, but visionary project, of form- 
ing Europe into a Christian republic. 

§ Ravillac was a desperate Catholic bigot, who had long formed a 
design to murder his sovereign. Henry was ready to join his army 
in prosecuting his singular scheme, but was detained against his 
will, on account of the coronation of the queen. In the midst of 
his impatience to depart, his mind was harrassed with sinister fore- 
bodings, and they were too truly realized by the event. Passing 
along a street in Paris, his coach became entangled, and his footmen 
quitting it for a moment, Ravillac, who had followed him secretly for a 
long time, took advantage of the opportunity, and stabbed him in the 
midst of seven courtiers. The crime of Ravillac was expiated by the 
most horrid tortures. 

Henry's project was to divide Europe into fifteen settled powers, 
none of which should be suffered to make any new acquisitions, and 
should altogether form an association for the maintenance of a 
mutual balance, and the preservation of peace. There is little evi- 
dence, however, that he thought it practicable. He meant to effect 
it, if at all, by force, and it is certain that he strongly wished to set 
bounds to the house of Austria, both in Germany and Italy. The 
latter, therefore, may have been his only real design. 

2. Louis XIII., in his ninth year, succeeded his father, 1610, 
under the regency of Mary of Medicis, his mother. During 
the early part of this prince's reign, France, which had arisen 
to splendour and prosperity, under Henry, evidently retro- 
graded. Mary's partiality for her Italian courtiers, disgusted 
the nobility, and weakness, faction, and disorder, began to be 
experienced. But when cardinal Richelieu succeeded to the 
ministry, after the duke of Luynes, affairs wore a much 
more favourable aspect. He had vast abilities, and propor- 
tionable influence, which he successfully exerted in subduing 
the turbulence of the nobility, diminishing the power of the 
Protestants, and restraining the encroachments of Austria. 

The principal events of the reign of Louis, were, the ar- 
rest of the prince of Oonde, on account of his intrigues 
against the regent, and the subsequent temporary exile of the 
regent herself ; the revolt of the Protestants at Rochelle, 
and the siege of that place, which lasted a year, and was at- 
tended with the loss of 15,000 lives ; the junction of Louis 
with the Protestant princes of Germany, against the empe- 
ror Ferdinand II., and the revolt of the duke of Orleans, 
supported by the duke of Montmorency. 



226 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

§ The Protestants were accused of a design to form France into 
an independent republic, to be divided into eight circles, on the 
model of those in Germany. Certain it is, that alienated by per 
sedition, they attempted to throw o.F their allegiance, and Rochelle 
was the bulwark and head quarters of their party. Richelieu, 
having become master of the court, the armies, and the fleets, car- 
ried into execution, the plan he had long meditated, that of waging 
war against the Protestants, whom he was resolved to exterminate. 
He accordingly laid siege to Rochelle. On this occasion he acted 
as commander in chief; but chose to be accompanied by the king 
for fear his enemies should take advantage of his absence. 

The Protestants implored the aid of England, but were disappoint- 
ed by the tardy measures of the duke of Buckingham. The garri- 
son and inhabitants of Rochelle were resolved, however, to hold out 
until the last extremity. For twelve months they endured the 
miseries of a siege, but were at length obliged to yield to the active 
genius of the cardinal. He triumphed over the Calvinists, and de- 
prived them of their most significant privileges. They never re- 
covered from this blow. 

The union of Louis with the Protestant princes of Germany, 1626, 
owed its origin to the influence of Richelieu, in his anxiety to hum- 
ble the Austrian greatness. He forgot his hatred of Protestantism, 
for a time, and embarked most eagerly in the cause of the Protes- 
tant princes, who were alarmed at Ferdinand's avowed design 
of suppressing their religion, together with the liberties of the Ger- 
man empire. 

Richelieu's plans were attended with complete success. The 
Protestants and Catholics, laying aside their theological disputes, 
conspired for the diminution of Ferdinand's power ; the court of 
England embarked in the same cause ; the Danes also took up arms, 
and Gustavus, king of Sweden, rushed like a torrent upon Germa- 
ny. In the course of events, the emperor was effectually humbled, 
and a solid foundation was laid for the prosperity of the empire. 

The haughty minister of Louis, amidst all the political intrigues 
and wars in which he was engaged, found leisure to patronize lite- 
rature and science, and thus to extend the glory of the French na- 
tion, beyond the honour acquired by feats of arms. The French 
Academy owes its institution to the genius of Richelieu. 

Louis died at the age of forty-three years. After he had been 
married twenty- three years, he had two sons, Louis XIV., and Philip, 
duke of Orleans. During his reign, the king was a less prominent 
object of attention, than his minister, and is not known to have beeu 
characterised by any particular talents or virtues. 

3. Louis XIV., in the fifth year of his age, ascended the 
throne, in 1643, under the regency of Anne of Austria, his 
mother. The talents of this monarch, the vigour of his ad- 
ministration, the splendid events of his reign, his conquests and 
reverses, and the flourishing state of literature and the ar'a 



FRANCE. 227 

under his patronage, have been themes of deep interest with 
historians. He is often styled the Great. 

The most conspicuous events of his reign, were his war 
with the Spaniards, which commenced a few days after his 
accession, under the duke of Enghein ; the civil commotions 
called la-Fronde, "which grew out of Mazarine's ministry ; 
the contention with Holland, in 1672, in which he was op- 
posed by the German emperor and Spain ; and in which 
Franche Comte was conquered and united to France ; the 
revocation of the edict of Nantes ; the league of Augsburg 
against France, by which war was waged against that coun- 
try, by Germany, Spain, England, and Holland, and, in con- 
sequence of which, Louis acquired peculiar glory ; and the 
war of the succession, in which he met with woful reverses, 
from the allied powers, under the duke of Marlborough, and 
prince Eugene. 

§ In the early war with the Spaniards, the duke of Enghein gained 
the battle of Rocroi ; that of Fribourg in 1644; that of Nordlingen 
in 1645 ; and that of Dunkirk in 1646. The Spaniards were the 
aggressors, having taken an advantage of the king's minority, and 
the popular discontents. 

These discontents arose from the ministry of Cardinal Mazarine, 
the favourite of the regent, who was an Italian, and whose avarice 
was excessive. The burdens which he imposed on the people, and 
the consequent detestation in which he was held, terminated in the 
commotions of the fronde. Cardinal de Retz, had a principal agency 
in exciting this civil war. The parliament of Paris, and the chief 
Robiiity,took part with the rebels. The celebrated general, Turenne, 
also aided the rebels. A short pacification ensued, but the impru- 
dent violence of Mazarine, soon renewed the disorders. At length, 
the parliament of Paris assumed the right of banishing this unpopu- 
lar minister. When, however, the king became of age, Mazarine re- 
sumed his station as minister, while de Retz and Orleans, the chief 
promoters of the rebellion were banished in their turn. 

On the death of Mazarine, in 1661, when Louis was twenty-two 
years of age, he took upon himself the entire control of affairs, and 
by the spl^dour of his projects, and the success with which many 
of them were crowned, established throughout the world, his reputa- 
tion as an able monarch. His war with Holland soon commenced, 
m which Turenne, and Conde, another great, general gave signal 
proofs of the sagacity of Louis, in the leaders whom 'ie had chosen 
to conduct his military operations. Although Spain and the empe- 
ror joined the Hollanders, yet Turenne defeated the I nperialists in. 
the pitched battles of Ensheim, Mulhausen, and Turkh im. Some- 
time before, Conde had signalizeu his arms against Franche Comte 
*vhich he subjugated in the space of seventeen da vs. 



228 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX; 

Several powers now became jealous of the ascendency of France, 
and the prince of Orange, whose dominions had been so wanton 
ly attacked by the French king, had sufficient influence with England, 
to obtain its alliance in aid of the republic. The arms of Louis, 
however, still continued to be successful, and the peace concluded at 
Nimeguen, in 1678, was much to the honour of France. Franche 
Comte was assured, as a part of the dominions of Louis, and Spain 
allowed his right by conquest to a great proportion of the Netherlands. 

In the revocation of the Edict of Nan teg, 1685, the French king 
manifested a complete dereliction both of wisdom and justice. The 
toleration which was granted to the Protestants by Henry IV., was 
taken away, their worship suppressed, their churches demolished, 
their ministers exiled, and an absolute renunciation of their religion, 
was made the condition with all who chose to continue in their na- 
tive country. If they failed to comply with this requirement, death 
was the consequence, whenever they could be found. By this 
measure, the kingdom lost, according to some, 800,000 of her most in- 
dustrious and useful citizens, who either perished, or driven into exile, 
carried the arts and manufactures of France, into various countries. 

The League of Augsburg, in 1686, was brought about by William, 
prince of Orange, the sworn enemy of Louis. His attack on Hol- 
land had betrayed his ambition, and the splendour of his designs 
could not but excite the envy or jealousy of his neighbours. Victory 
however, attended his standard against all the forces of the leaguers. 
Though the valiant Turenne had perished in battle, the able Conde 
had retired, and Colbert, one of the greatest statesmen of any age, 
was no more, and their places could, not be well supplied, yet the. 
name of Louis was a host, and the successors of those renowned 
men, were by no means contemptible. Luxemburg defeated the 
prince of Orange, in the battles of Steenkirk and Norwinden , 
Noailles was victorious in Spain ; and an army of one hundred 
thousand French, ravaged the Palatinate, and took rrxmy of the most 
important towns on the Rhine. This was the brightest period of 
his reign. Disasters were soon to follow him. 

The extensive military enterprises of Louis, had been attended 
with enormous expenses. The pride of the monarch had been 
flattered by his victories, but no solid advantage had accrued to the 
nation. The finances had fallen into disorder, and the persevering 
efforts of his enemies, obliged him to conclude the peace of Ryswick, 
in 1697. The war, however, was soon renewed. That was the war 
of the succession. The nations engaged in it were England, Hol- 
land, and the empire, against France and Spain. The avowed object 
on the part ot the former, was to put the house of Austria in pos- 
session of th) throne of Spain, on the expected death of Charles II., 
without issue. 

Louis liar passed his prime, and lost his greatest generals and 
ministers ; while the armies of his enemies were commanded by the 
ablest generals of the age, and supported by the treasures of the 
united powers. The war was carried on with manifest advantage 



FRANCE. 



m 



on the part of the allies. The battle of Blenheim, in which the 
English Marlborough began his victorious career, cost the French 
twenty thousand men. He gained, besides, the battles. of Ramilies, 
Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. One or two victories on the part of the 
French and Spanish, prevented Philip, king of Spain, from aban- 
doning his possessions in Europe. Louis sued for peace, and even 
proposed very humiliating terms ; but as they were rejected, and the 
Hard condition of dethroning his grandson Philip, was insisted on, 
he made one more desperate effort in battle, in which he was so 
far successful as to preserve Philip on the throne. The change in 
queen Anne's cabinet, gave facility to propositions for peace, in 
which the English and Dutch secured many valuable acquisitions. 

4. Louis died, aged seventy-seven years, having reigned 
more than seventy -two, one of the longest reigns on the 
page of history, arid illustrated by many splendid achieve- 
ments. His patronage of literature and the arts, constitutes, 
more than any other which he possessed, his claim to the 
admiration of posterity. No species of merit was suffered to 
go unrewarded, and the finest models of composition in the 
French language, were produced in his reign. All kinds of 
public works were extended and improved — the capital was 
enlarged and beautified, the splendid palace of Versailles 
erected, commerce and manufactures encouraged, and the 
fine canal of Languedoc constructed. 

liOuis was remarkable for his able administration of in- 
ternal affairs. His sagacity was peculiarly displayed in the 
selection of his generals and ministers. Besides those that 
have been already mentioned, was the famous Yauban, whose 
great genius was successfully -employed in fortifying towns. 
Colbert has been named. His skill in finances, has acquired 
him an immortal reputation. The latter was also a zealous 
patron of learning, thus seconding the designs of his royal 
master. At his suggestion, the celebrated astronomer, Cassini, 
quitted Italy, and placed himself under the protection of the 
king of France, who bestowed on him, and also on Huy- 
gens, a Dutch mathematician of equal celebrity, a very large 
pension. 

Louis was reckoned the handsomest man in his dominions, 
and was celebrated for his politeness and urbanity. His in- 
tellect was vigorous, but indifferently cultivated. It was the 
great fault of Mazarine, to whom the childhood of Louis 
was entrusted, that he neglected his education. He sought 
for the young monarch, no other accomplishments than those 

20 



230 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

of dancing, fencing, and riding, so that when the latter was 
drawing on towards manhood, he scarcely knew how to pen 
an epistle. 

The love of glory, was perhaps his ruling passion, though 
he was influenced unduly by other passions, to the indelible 
infamy of his private life. How often is it, that an admired 
public pageant, lamentably fails in that which constitutes rea 1 
worth of character. 

GREAT BRITAIN. 

House of Stuart. Commonwealth. Restoration of 
Monarchy. 

5. The throne of England, (called towards the close oi 
the present period, Great Britain,) was ascended by 
James I., 1603, who was the sixth king of Scotland of that 
name, and son of Mary Stuart, queen of Scots. Thus the 
sceptre passed with entire tranquillity from the house oi 
Tudor, to that of the Stuarts — an event which was in exact 
accordance with the law of succession, and with the express- 
ed wishes of Elizabeth, and which united the two crowns, 
and eventually made the two kingdoms one. 

§ James I., was a great grandson of Henry VII. When Elizabeth 
was dying, upon being requested to make known her pleasure in 
regard to a successor, she replied " that she had held a royal scep- 
tre, and required no other than a royal successor" — which she ex- 
plained to be one who was then actually a king, viz. " her nearest 
kinsman, the king of Scots." 

The history of Scotland, from the time of Wallace and Robert 
Bruce, to Mary, the mother of James, and rival of Elizabeth, is 
very summarily as follows : 

The son of Robert, was David Bruce, who began to reign in 1329. 
During his minority, on account of the invasion of the kingdom by 
Edward Baliol, he was conveyed to France for security. He was a 
weak, but virtuous prince, and passed through m an y reverses of for- 
tune. He was taken prisoner in the battle of Durham, by Ed- 
ward III., and remained eleven years in captivity. He was ran- 
somed by his subjects, and ended a turbulent reign, in 1370. 

He was succeeded by Robert II., his nephew, and the grandson of 
the great Robert Bruce, whose reign of twenty years' continuance, 
was spent in a series of hostilities between the Scots and the English. 

Robert III., then ascended the Scottish throne ; but his infirmities 
and weakness, obliged him to resign the government into the hands 
(This brother, the duke of Albany 



GREAT BRITAIN. 231 

James I., a son of Robert, whom Albany had sought to murder, 
and whom the English had taken prisoner in his attempts to escape 
to France, next ascended the throne. 1424. He was a prince of great 
natural endowments, and profited by a captivity of eighteen years 
in England, adorning his mind with every valuable accomplish- 
ment. The kingdom had fallen into great disorders, during the 
regency of Albany ; but James, on his return, soon placed affairs on 
a favourable footing. He bent all his attention to the improvement 
and civilization of his people. In restraining the power of the 
nobles, however, as necessary to this end, he incurred their enmity, 
and was accordingly assassinated. 

James II., succeeded his father, 1437. He inherited a portion of 
his father's talents, but possessing an impetuous temper, he pursued 
the plan of humbling the nobles, with excessive rigour. Ruling with 
absolute authority, he was uncommonly successful in attaining the 
objects he had in view, and greatly improved his kingdom. 

His son, James III., without the talents of his predecessors, affected 
to tread in the same steps. But he was impolitic in attaching him- 
self to mean favourites ; and quarreling with the barons, he was killed 
in an insurrection, 1488. 

James IV., a great and most accomplished prince, succeeded to 
the throne. He was respected by his nobles, and beloved by his 
people. Invading England with a powerful army, he fell, with al- 
most the whole of his nobility, in the rash and unfortunate battle of 
Flodden-Field, 1513. 

James V., his son and successor, was a great, but uncultivated 
prince. His reign was long and turbulent, the aristocracy attempt- 
ing to resume their power, and he being employed in defeating their 
projects. He died of a broken heart, in consequence of the infideli- 
ty of his troops, in a war with the English, 10,000 of the Scots having 
deliberately surrendered themselves to the enemy. 

He was succeeded by Mary, whose eventful life and tragical death, 
have been already narrated. 

6. Though the succession of James T. was tranquil, a few 
events soon occurred, which tended to disturb his reign. One 
event was, a conspiracy planned to subvert the, government, 
by seating on the throne Arabella Stuart, the king's near re- 
lative, descended, like himself, from Henry VII. 

§ Sir Walter Raleigh, was taken as one of the principals in this plot,* 
and though he was convicted on incompetent evidence, he was only 
reprieved, not pardoned, and lay many years a prisoner in the 
tower. 

A project of a much fouler kind followed. This was the 
gunpowder plot, which was ascribed to the catholics, who, 
disappointed in their expectations from James, were enraged 
beyond measure, and meditated the destruction of the royal 
f ainily, lords and commons, at a meeting of parliament. 



232 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

§ The plot was discovered, just as it was on the eve of execution 
It was intended, on the part of the conspirators, to blow up the 
house in which the parliament should assemble, by means of gun- 
powder, which had been secreted in the cellar of the building. 
Twenty conspirators had sacredly kept this dreadful secret, nearly 
a year and a half; but the same bigotry which had given rise to the 
plot, was directed as an engine by Providence, to reveal it. A few 
days before the meeting of parliament, a catholic member of it, re- 
ceived, from an unknown hand, a letter, advising him not to attend 
the meeting, and intimating to him, obscurely, what was about to 
take place. 

This, on the part of the member, was considered merely as a 
foolish attempt to frighten him. He, however, showing it to the 
king, the superior sagacity of the latter, led him to conceive, that al- 
lusion was made to danger from gunpowder. The following sen- 
tence in the letter, seems to have suggested the idea to the king. 
Though there be no appearance of any stir, yet, I say, they will 
receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see 
who hurts them." 

Search was now determined to be made in the vaults under the 
house of parliament. With the view, however, that they might de- 
tect not only the conspiracy, but the conspirators, they were quiet 
till the night before the commencemer « of the session. The plan 01 
the king succeeded. A man by the nu.i.e of Guy Fawkes, was found 
at the door, who was immediately seized, the faggots, and powder, 
to the amount of thirty-six barrels, discovered, and the very matches 
to set fire to the train, were detected in his pocket. He gave up the 
names of his accomplices, eighty in number, who, with himself, 
were all put to death. 

7. The puritans, who had already become conspicuous, 
having first appeared in the reign of Mary, indulged the ex- 
pectation at the accession of James, of meeting with special 
favour from the new monarch, because he had been educated 
a presbyterian. Their disappointment, but especially the re- 
straints and persecutions which they endured, forced num- 
bers of them to the new world, where they laid the founda- 
tions of a great nation. 

Domestic events, such as have been recorded, chiefly dis- 
tinguished the reign of James. He exerted, and wished to 
exert, no influence abroad. His disposition was altogether 
pacific. When, in the early part of his reign, he was solicited 
to join in a league with Henry IV., the United Provinces, 
and the northern crowns, to repress the exorbitant power ol 
the house of Austria, he would have nothing to do with the 
scheme. 

The Stuarts, as well as Tudors, were strenuous advoc-iteb 



GREAT BRITAIN. 233 

tot the royal prerogative, in the widest exercise. This was 
especially the case with James. He was prejudiced against 
the Puritans, on account of their notions of liberty, and took 
part with the established church. It was a favourite maxim 
with him—" No bishop, no king." But the minds of English- 
men were undergoing a change. Light had increased, and 
juster notions of the people's rights began to obtain. The 
opposition of parliament to the royal prerogative, was carried 
to a great height, and laid the foundation of those fatal strug- 
gles which, in the next reign, subverted the monarchy. 

James died after a reign of twenty-two years over Eng- 
land, and of nearly his whole life over Scotland. The pri- 
vate character of this prince, is not free from reproach. His 
disposition, however, was mild ; and his reign, though not 
glorious, in the usual sense of that word, was yet, in many 
respects, happy and prosperous to his people. On them he 
bestowed the care of a parent. 

§ James was ingenious and learned, and yet pedantic withal. Of 
flattery, he was excessively fond, and there were parasites to deal it 
out to him without measure. On a certain occasion, he publicly 
proposed the question, whether he might not take his subjects' mo- 
ney, when he wanted it, without the formality of parliaments. 
" God forbid," replied the obsequious Neile, bishop of Durham, u but 
that you should, for you are the very breath of our nostrils." 

James is said to have been pusillanimous in life, but he shewed 
himself courageous in death, being so composed as to close his own 
eyes in his last struggle. Perhaps, a people who delighted in war, 
and valued blood and treasure less than the splendour of battles and 
conquests, were incapable of doing justice to the principles that 
guided the public conduct of this prince. Hence the contempt, 
which has sometimes been expressed against his benign and gentle 
policy. Saving his high notions of prerogative, and his attempt 
to sustain them, there was nothing, during this reign, to mar the 
happiness of a great people. 

Two of the greatest names in the records of genius, Shakspeare 
and Bacon, besides others, adorned the times of James, and the lat- 
ter part of the period of Elizabeth. 

8. Charles I., ascended the throne in 1625. The king- 
dom, at this time, was in a prosperous condition ; but the 
principles of liberty had expanded the minds of many of 
his subjects, and they demanded a more liberal system in the 
administration of the government, than was observed by his 
immediate predecessors. This demand, however, Charles 

20* 



234 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX 

repelled, and he shewed that he possessed the same arbitrary 
principles with his father, without the prudence of the latter 
The refusal of the parliament, to grant adequate supplies, 
for enabling the king to carry on a war, first in support of his 
brother-in-law, the Elector Palatine, and afterwards with 
France and Spain, led Charles to adopt the resolution ol 
uling without their aid, and of levying money in the most 
illegal forms. 

§ The manifestation of a tyrannical disposition, on the part of 
Charles, first soured the minds of his parliament against him. Be- 
ing engaged to his allies, the king could not brook the denial of sup- 
plies, and accordingly dissolved the parliament, and issued warrants 
for borrowing money of the subject. A new parliament was found 
equally uncomplying, and evinced its jealousy of the king, by the 
impeachment of his minister, Buckingham. Charles, however, 
avenged the insult, by imprisoning two members of the house of 
commons. A quarrel thus began, received continued additions from 
new causes of offence. 

The king, in his wars with France, sent troops to assist the French 
calvinists; but, after an unsuccessful expedition under Buckingham, 
they were obliged to return to England. Rochelle was, in conse- 
quence, reduced to extremity, by which the protestant interest re- 
ceived an irrevocable blow in France. The blame of every public 
miscarriage was thrown upon Buckingham, who sheltered himself 
under the royal protection, till he was assassinated by one Felton, 
just as he was ready to embark for the relief of Rochelle. 

The death of this worthless favourite, however, did not deter 
Charles from his arbitrary proceedings, which the English patriots, 
in that enlightened age, justly considered as so many acts of tyran- 
ny. His impositions upon trade, without the voice of parliament, 
many of the merchants, and some members of the house of com- 
mons, refused to pay. 

A new parliament, which was now convoked, exhibited a spirit 
of determined reformation. A petition of right was passed by both 
houses, which declared the illegality of raising money without their 
sanction, or enforcing loans from the subject; annulled all taxes im- 
posed without consent of parliament, and abolished the exercise of 
martial law; and Charles was obliged, with much reluctance, to 
give his assent to this great retrenchment of prerogatives. The 
taxes of tonnage and poundage had usually been continued from 
one reign to another. On this ground, the king conceived he was 
warranted to levy them without a new grant ; and a member of the 
house of commons refusing to pay them, was imprisoned. A com- 
motion being excited, parliament was dissolved. 

9. About this time, a great number of Puritans, weary of the 
restraint they experienced in England, under the domineering 
spirit of Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, embarked for Ameri- 



GREAT BRITAIN. 235 

ca, where they spread the liberty of which they were deprived 
at home. But at length the enemies of that sect prevailed 
on the king to forbid these emigrations. This providentially 
proved a very unhappy affair for Charles, inasmuch as John 
Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Cromwell, were prevented 
from going. 

§ Hampden rendered himself illustrious, by his talents and virtue, 
and particularly by the firm stand he made against the illegal impo- 
sition called ship money. He refused to pay a small sum, that had 
been levied against him, and ventured to assert the liberty of En- 
glishmen, by risking a legal prosecution. All England was deeply 
interested in the trial, and this was the favourable result which he 
realized, though the venal judge decided the cause against him. 
The people began to see their danger. 

At a time when the public feeling was running strongly in favour 
of Puritanism, and a simpler form of worship, Laud, with a most 
intemperate and insulting zeal, was engaged in loading the church 
with new ceremonies. Things might have gone on in this train for 
some time; but attempting likewise to introduce the liturgy of the 
church of England among the Scots, the most violent commotions 
were produced. A bond, termed the National Covenant, containing 
an oath of resistance to all religious innovations, was subscribed in 
Scotland, by all ranks and conditions. To maintain this proceeding, 
the Scotch reformers took up arms, and soon marched into the 
aeart of England. 

At the same time, a catholic rebellion arose in Ireland, which the 
people imputed to the arts of the royalists; and to complete the misfor- 
tune of the king, the parliament, which had been necessarily convoked, 
proceeded to such extremities) in its acts, that they were considered 
tantamount to a declaration of war against the king and his party. 

10. Things had arrived at such a pass, that the sword was 
now to decide the contest. The two houses of parliament 
took into their hands the force constituted by the militia of 
the country, and at the same time the king erected his stand- 
ard at Nottingham, 1642. Several battles were fought, du- 
ring three or four consecutive years, with various success; 
but at length the royalists were overcome, and the king 
was thrown into the hands of his enemies. The cause of 
Charles was supported by a large proportion of the landed in- 
terest, all the friends of the established church, and all the 
adherents of the papacy ; that of the parliament, by the city 
of London, and most of the great towns, and all the dissen- 
ters from the establishment. Cavaliers was the term applied 
to the supporters of the king — -Round Heads to those of the 
parliament. 



236 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX* 

§ The parliament, in order to carry on hostilities with the greater 
prospect of success, had entered into a strict confederacy with the 
Scots, who were already in a menacing attitude. The new bond 
which they formed, was more specific in its objects than the former^ 
and more determined in its spirit. It was called the " Solemn 
League and Covenant," and it brought an accession of 20,000 men 
to the forces of the parliament. 

Oliver Cromwell, an officer under Fairfax, general of the parlia- 
ment, in reality, directed all the measures of the army. This extra- 
ordinary man, as will presently appear, was destined to perform an 
extraordinary part in the transactions of this period. The two first 
battles, viz. those of Edgehill and Newbury, were favourable to the 
royalists; but. those of Marston Moor and Naseby, terminated in 
their overthrow. Never were the morals and religion of an army 
more carefully watched, than those of the soldiers of Cromwell. 
Previously to each battle, it was customary with them, individually, 
to spend some time in prayer. 

When the king was taken by a party of Cromwell's soldiers, af- 
ter having been delivered up by the Scots, among whom he had 
sought protection, he was conveyed first to Hurst castle, and then 
to Windsor, and at last to London. The parliament at this time, 
influenced by Cromwell, having declared it treason in a king to levy 
war against his parliament, a court, consisting of 133 men, were ap- 
pointed to try him as a tyrant, traitor, and murderer. Charles de- 
clined the jurisdiction of the court, and refused to plead. He was 
nevertheless condemned to suffer death, and was beheaded the third 
day afterwards, in the forty-ninth year of his age, and the twenty- 
fourth of his reign. 

On the morning of the fatal day, which was the 30th of Januaiy, 
1649, Charles rose earlier than usual, and calling one of his attend- 
ants, bade him employ more than usual care in adjusting his dress. 
As he was preparing for the block, he observed, in reply to some 
exhortations addressed to him by the bishop of London, " I go from 
a corruptible to an an incorruptible crown, where no disturbance 
can have place." He submitted to the stroke with entire resigna- 
tion. 

Charles had many virtues, and, in private life, was estimable and 
engaging, beyond most princes. As a sovereign, he had unfortu 
nately imbibed, in his education, the arbitrary principles which dis- 
tinguished his ancestors ; but with the disadvantage of living in an 
age and country, in which a king Could not be a tyrant with impu- 
nity. He deceived the parliament too often for them to trust him, 
and suffered himself to be guided by counsellors much inferior to 
him in knowledge and judgment, while he paid an unwise deference 
to the advice of his queen, who was a bigoted papist. Granger 
says, " He would have made a much better figure in private life, 
than he did upon a throne." 

We may lament the fate of Charles, as severe, and perhaps unne- 
cessary ; and must condemn several of the acts of the republicans 
as passionate and oppressive j yet Providence seems to have overruled 



GREAT BRITAIN. 237 

the events of the times, for the advancement of civil liberty, and for 
the general rood of mankind. Had Charles lived, England might 
have been still governed by despots, instead of limited monarchs. 

Charles was an author, both in prose and verse. The Icon Basi- 
like, a work which appeared soon after the king's death, and excited 
much commiseration for his fate, has often been attributed to him. 
The authorship of that work, however, remains a matter of dispute. 
If Charles wrote it. his talents, in composition, must have been much 
superior to those of most contemporary scholars. Hume considers 
it the best prose composition which, at the time of its publication, 
was to 1 e found in the English language : and D'Israeli remarks, that 
the political reflections it contains, will be found not unworthy of 
Tacitus. 

In a poem of his, entitled " Majesty in Misery," the following stan- 
zas will show his manner in poetry. 

" With my own power my majesty they wound, 
In the king's name, the king himself 's uncrown'd ; 
So doth the dust destroy the diamond. 

Felons attain more privilege than T, 
They are allow' d to answer ere they die-; 
'Tis death to me to ask the reason why." 

11. On the death of Charles I., monarchy in England was 
dissolved, and the house of lords was abolished as useless, by 
the commons. The forms of all public business were chang- 
ed from the king's name, to that of the keepers of the liber- 
ties of England. Religion shared in the revolutions of the 
times. 

§ Presbyterianism, which had succeeded episcopacy, now began to 
yield to the independent interest. Cromwell so managed, as to 
transfer to the army, the power which the parliament had not long 
before taken into their own hands. Presbyterians had been mostly 
excluded from parliament, and that part of the house which re- 
mained, termed, in derision, the Rump, was composed of Indepen- 
dents, under Cromwell's influence. As is often the case, the milita- 
ry power proved fatal to those Presbyterians who had employed 
it to effect their own purposes. 

12. The confusions which overspread England, upon the 
dissolution of monarchy, could be settled only by the great 
influence, both civil and military, acquired by Oliver Crom- 
well, who was peculiarly fitted for the age in which he lived, 
and for the part which he was destined to act. 

$ The situation of Ireland and Scotland, gave some inquietude to 
the new republic. The duke of Ormond, at the head of 16,000 
men, had recovered many places in the former country, from the 
parliament ; while in Scotland, Charles II., had been proclaimed 
king on the condition of his strict observance of the covenant. Crom- 
well, with his usual cunning, procured for himself the appointment 



238 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IX. 

of commander-in-chief in Ireland. He accordingly passed over to 
that country, and soon put an end to the successes and authority of 
Ormond. He next inarched into Scotland, at the head of IC.OOO 
men, and defeated the royalist covenanters, in the battle of Dunbar. 
Upon tli^ retreat of their army into England, Cromwell pursued it 
thither, and overtaking it at Worcester, the whole was annihilated by 
him in one desperate battle. The king was obliged to flee. 

It was with great difficulty, and after many adventures, that the 
latter effected his escape. He first retired to Boscobel, a lone house 
on the borders of Staffordshire, inhabited by one Penderell, a far- 
mer, who, in conjunction with his four brothers, served him with 
unshaken fidelity. They clothed him in a garb like their own, and 
employed him, like themselves, in cutting faggots, and he partook 
of their homely fare. On one occasion, when his enemies were in 
search of him, he ascended an oak, where he was effectually con- 
cealed a whole day, among the leaves. In this situation, he saw seve- 
ral of his pursuers pass by, whom he overheard expressing their 
wish to be able to find him. This tree was afterwards known, and 
venerated, under the name of the royal oak. He succeeded, eventu- 
ally, in reaching France. 

The republic, at this era, acted with uncommon vigour. Admiral 
Blake, and other naval officers, now carried the terror of the English'. 
name, by sea, to all quarters of the globe. Under his command, a 
war with Holland was ably maintained against the celebrated Dutch 
commanders, Van Tromp and De Ruyter ; but the advantage was 
greatly in favour of the English, who took 1600 of the Dutch ships 
The famous Navigation act, which the parliament passed at this time 
had a most favourable effect on the commerce and naval superiority 
of Great Britain. 

An attempt being made to reduce the land army, at this time, 
Cromwell remonstrated against it, and demanded a new parliament. 
But this meeting with no regard, he entered, in great rage, into the 
house, attended by 300 soldiers, and, loading the parliament with 
reproaches, bade them be gone, and give place to honest cr men. The 
republic of England, which had subsisted four years and three 
months, was thus, in a moment, annihilated, April 20th, 1(553. 

Cromwell, however, though he had seized the reins, could not 
well deny his subjects a parliament. He therefore summoned 144 
persons in England, Scotland, and Ireland, to assemble as the repre- 
sentatives of the nation. They were his creatures ; and though some 
of them possessed the quality and degree of gentlemen, they were 
generally, as Clarendon says, "a pack of weak, senseless fellows, 
fit only to bring the name and reputation of parliaments lower than 
it was yet." This body was called Praise God Barebones' parlia- 
ment, from the name of a certain member, a leather seller, who dis- 
tinguished himself by speaking. Incompetent to their dutfce, they 
re-delivered to Cromwell, at the expiration of five mom (is, the 
instrument they nad received from him, calling them together, and 
besought him to take care of the commonwealth. 



GREAT BRITAIN. 239 

13. The supreme power of the nation, now passing into 
che hands of Cromwell and his Council of officers, lie was 
declared, by the latter, Protector of the Commonwealth of 
England, with the title of Highness, 1654. In this capaci- 
ty, he exercised greater power, than had ever been annexed 
to the regal dignity. He gave the command of all the forces 
in Scotland, to General Monk, and sent his own son, Henry, 
to govern Ireland. Administering the government with en- 
ergy and ability, and granting religious toleration, the repub- 
lic greatly flourished. Its rights were respected abroad. 
Success attended the usurper, both in negociation and battle. 
In an engagement which was fought with the Spaniards in 
Flanders, the latter were defeated ; and Dunkirk being soon 
after surrendered, was by agreement, delivered to Cromwell. 

Notwithstanding the general correctness of his administra- 
tion, he was never popular, either with the royalists or repub- 
licans. He had subverted the freedom of his country, and 
his professions passed for nothing. He had reached a fearful 
elevation, and was consequently kept in perpetual inquietude. 
Neither society nor solitude could soothe his agitated mind. 
Fearing assassination, he was constantly attended by his 
guards, and changed the place of his sleeping, every few 
nights. Seized at length, with a slow fever, he died, A. C. 
1658, in the sixtieth year of his age. 

§ In regard to the character of Oliver Cromwell, what was said of 
China, has been applied to him. " He attempted those things 
which no good man durst have ventured on ; and achieved those in 
which none but a valiant and great man could have succeeded." 
This, however, is the judgment rather of an enemy than friend. 
Respectinghis capacity, there can be but one opinion; but mankind 
have viewed his moral qualities in very different lights. He has in 
this respect been oftener condemned than approved. Indeed, he 
is no favourite of history, as no man of equal merit or fewer faults, 
has been so often held up to suspicion, derision, or hatred. There 
are, however, those who, while they promptly condemn his dissimu- 
lation and ambition, can see much to admire in the strict morality 
and devotions of a man, who, in private life, apparently reverenced 
the institutions of religion. 

14. Richard Cromwell, by the father's dying request, suc- 
ceeded the latter in the protectorate. He w T as acknowledged 
in all parts of the empire ; but as he wanted resolution, and 
possessed none of those arts which take with the soldiery, he 
soon signed his own abdication. He retired to private life, 



240 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

and his virtues secured to him, rare enjoyment to extreme 
old age. 

15. After the abdication of Richard Cromwell, Charles 
II. was restored to the throne of his ancestors, 1660. The 
short interval that occurred, was a season of anarchy. 

§ The restoration was effected by the wishes of the people, who 
seem to have thought, that neither peace nor protection could be 
obtained, unless the ancient order of things should be re-esta.)lished 
Monk, a man of military abilities, had the sagacity to observe this 
change in the sentiments of the people ; and after temporizing in 
various shapes, rendered himself master of the parliament, through 
which Charles was duly acknowledged. 

16. Charles, who was thirty years of age when he began 
his reign, made a favourable impression on his subjects, by 
means of his personal appearance and accomplishments, and 
of the superior character of his intellect. He was easy in 
manners, unaffectedly polite, gay in his temper, lively, witty, 
and a great observer of men and things. It must be added, 
also, that he was base and unprincipled, and became at length 
immersed in pleasure and indolence. He was personally a 
favourite with his subjects, and continued so to be ; although 
the government became unpopular, after the king was so 
immersed in private gratification, as to neglect the true in- 
terests of his realm. Still, in this case, he escaped the re- 
proaches which he merited, and most of the odium of ex- 
travagance and unsuccessful public measures, fell on his ad- 
visers. The whole royal party were so elated at the return 
of their sovereign, that they were dissolved in thoughtless 
jollity, and many of the republicans, especially the younger 
part and the women, were glad to be released from the 
gloomy austerity of the commonwealth. During this reign, 
dissipation and infidelity became greatly prevalent 

Charles was. distinguished by the same arbitrary notions 
which had prevailed with his ancestors ; and though there 
were many struggles like those in the preceding reigns, a 
surprising change had taken place in the feeling of the peo- 
ple in general, in consequence of which, he escaped the fate 
of his father. The slavish doctrines of passive obedience 
and non-resistance, now came into repute, opposed indeed by 
the enemies of the crown. This was the origin of the dis- 
tinguishing epithets of Whig and Tory — the former oppos- 
ing the crown, the latter advocating it. This is a distinction 



GREAT BRITAIN. 



241 



of parties still existing. The Whigs have always favoured 
the rights of the people, the Tories, those of the monarch. 

In consequence of high church, or tory principles, an act 
of uniformity in religion was passed, by which two thousand 
Presbyterian ministers, were deprived of their livings. 

§ We may. emunerate among the other events of this reign, the 
following— an act of indemnity, by which ten only, out of twenty 
eight who were tried and condemned for the murder of the king, 
were -devoted to death — the sale of Dunkirk for £400.000, required 
by the prodigality of Charles, and which he soon squandered upon 
his pleasures — the war with the Dutch, which, after an immense ex- 
penditure, was attended with no material benefit — and finally, the 
measures excited by the influence of the duke of York, (afterwards 
James II.) consisting of numerous attacks upon the lives, liberties, 
and properties of the people, mingled with party intrigues, plots, and 
conspiracies. 

Before the reign of Charles expired, the Whigs became predomi- 
nant in parliament, and raging furiously against the Catholics, in- 
sisted on the king's assent to the bill for the exclusion of his brother, 
the duke of York. This affair induced the king to dissolve two 
parliaments iti succession. The consequence was, that England was 
thrown into a flarne. But trie king took measures to crush or in- 
timidate the opponents of the court. Lord Russel, who had been 
remarkable for his opposition to the popish succession, Algernon 
Sydney, and several other distinguished protestants, were tried, con- 
demned, and executed. The ground of proceeding against them, 
was a pretended conspiracy in favour of reform, called the Rye- 
House Plot. A pretended Popish Plot had, previously to this, been 
disclosed by the unprincipled Titus Gates, by means of which Lord 
Stafford and some other Catholics were condemned and executed. 

17. It was thought that Charles, having been guilty of 
arbitrary conduct, intended to take some measures for the 
future quiet of his reign, when he was seized with a sudden 
fit of illness, and after languishing a few days, expired, 1685, 
in the fifty-fifth year of his age, and the twenty-fifth of his 
reign. 

§ In addition to what has already been said of the character of 
Charles, it may he observed, that though he was a genius, he acted 
in direct opposition to every principle of sound policy. He chose 
rather to be a pensioner of France, from whose king he received 
£200.000 a year, for the concealed purposes of establishing popery 
and despotic power, than the arbiter of Europe. Rochester's epi- 
grammatic jest, that Charles "never said a foolish thing, and never 
did a wise one," forms a tolerable motto for his " picture in little." 

Charles, it is said, ha:l a constant maxim which was, never to 
fall out. with any, let the provocation be ever so jireat: t>v which he 
observed, he had found great benefit all his life, and the reason he 

21 



242 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

gave for it was, that he did not know how soon it might he necessary 
for him to have them again for his best friends. It has likewise 
been said of this king, tnat had he loved business as well as he un- 
derstood it, he would have been the greatest prince in Europe. 

Dryden did not scruple to laud this prince, in a fulsome manner 
as in the lines, 

" Truly good and truly great : 
For glorious as he rose, benignly so he set." 

18. On the death of Charles, the duke of York was im 
mediately proclaimed king under the title of James IT., 1G85. 
The history of this reign consists of little more than the 
weak and irresolute efforts of a bigotted and tyrannical prince, 
to introduce popery ; an attempt so absurd, that it did not 
meet with the least encouragement from the pope himself. 

§ The capacity of James was by no means equal to the subversion 
of those deep and solid foundations, which supported the civil and re- 
ligious liberties of his people. The share which he had in his father's 
sufferings had not sufficiently taught him, that the jealousy of the 
royal prerogative, was too strong in the hearts of his subjects, to be 
easily allayed. He was so violent and precipitate in his conduct, that 
he never failed to counteract his own purposes; and he established the 
protestant religion, on a firmer basis than ever, by his wild attempts 
to introduce those of the church of Rome. Though he ascended 
the throne with many advantages, he could never sit easy in it; anO 
having taught even the advocates of non-resistance, to resist, he wa* 
forced to relinquish a crown, which he was absolutely unfit to wear. 

19. One of the principal events of his reign, was the re 
bellion of the duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles 
IT., who undertook to seize the crown. He was defeated at 
Bridgewater, by the king's forces, taken prisoner, and be- 
headed. Had this victory been managed with prudence by 
James, it w r ould have tended much to increase his authority ; 
but the cruelty with which the revolt was punished, and the 
rash confidence with which this success inspired the king, 
led to his ruin. That most profligate of all the judges that 
ever sat on the English bench, Jeffries, aided the king in 
the work of murder, to an extent that has called down on 
him the execrations of mankind. He was wont, to boast of 
the numbers whom he had adjudged to the gallows. 

The spirit of the nation was roused, by the offensive and 
tyrannical measures which James took to establish popery; 
and many great men in England and Scotland, applied foi 
relief to William, prince of Qrange, who had married Mary 
the eldest daughter of James. William accordingly embark 



GREAT BRITAIN. 243 

ed for England, with an army, and determined, agreeably to 
request, to assume the government. 

§ Upon the arrival of the prince, he was joined, not only by the 
whigs, but by many whom the king had considered his best friends. 
Even his daughter Anne, inspired with protestant zeal, deserted 
him, and, with her husband, prince George of Denmark, joined the 
invader. 

Upon this, James, reasonably filled with distrust of his 
people, fled to France, where the palace of St. Germain was 
assigned him ; but as one remarks, " the convent of La 
Trappe would have been a much more suitable retreat." In 
France, he spent the remainder of his life. 

A convention-parliament declared the king's flight an ab- 
dication, and settled the crown upon William and Mary. 

§ The duke of Buckingham gave this character of the- two royal 
brothers, Charles and James; that " the elder could see things if he 
would, and the younger would see things if he could." 

On the access of James, an address of the quakers to him, is high- 
ly characteristic of that shrewd sect. " We come to condole the 
death of our friend Charles ; and we are glad that thou art come to 
be our ruler. We hear that thou art a dissents r from the church of 
England, and so are we. We beg that thou wo\ ldst grant the same 
liberty that thou takest thyself, and so we wish thee well. Fare- 
well." 

20. William and Mary now ascended the throne. This 
event constitutes what the British writers are pleased to call 
the glorious revolution of 1688. In the settlement which 
was then made of the crown, the sole administration remain- 
ed in the prince. The protestant succession was secured ; 
religious toleration granted, and presbyterianism re-establish- 
ed in Scotland. A declaration of rights was also made, in 
which the chief subjects of dispute between the king and 
people, were finally determined. The powers of the royal 
prerogative were more narrowly circumscribed, and more ex- 
actly defined, than in any former period of the English go- 
vernment. 

§ A revolution became indispensable, inasmuch as the principles 
of religious liberty were now generally established in Britain, and 
the princes of the house of Stuart, from their arbitrary notions, 
entertained a strong aversion to a large portion of their subjects. 
There was, however, a class, chiefly among the clergy, who held 
the doctrines of passive obedience, and the divine right of kings and 
bishops. Numbers of these, looking upon James as their lawful 
king, and refusing to take the oath of allegiance to William, were 



244 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

deprived of their stations. Hence, they were styled " non-jurora 
high-churchmen, and Jacobites." 

21. William experienced a degree of trouble from Ireland, 
as that country still adhered to James. The latter, being 
assisted by Louis XIV., landed with some French forces in 
Ireland, where he was joined by a large army of Irishmen. 
William, however, defeated them, in the memorable battle oi 
Boyne, and the country submitted to the new king. 

During most of the reign of this prince, the nation was 
involved in many active wars. Their principal cause was 
the ambition of Louis XIV. These wars were carried on 
with vigour and success, though without any distinguished 
actions, unless it be the sea-fight of La Hogue. The peace 
of Ryswick, in 1697, terminated hostilities, and it was ap- 
parent that the power of France was weakened. The prin- 
ciple on which William acted in his foreign wars, was, the 
balance of power, of which he was an ardent advocate. 

§ Louis, who used James to promote his own interest, was deter- 
mined, if possible, to restore him to the throne. With this object 
he furnished him With a powerful fleet, and the exiled prince re- 
paired to La Hogue, whence he was ready to embark for England. 
The English admiial, Russel, put to sea with all possible expedition, 
and being reinforced by the Dutch squadron, he sailed for the coast of 
France, with ninety ships of the line, besides frigates and fire-ships. 
On the 19th of May, 1692, the hostile fleets met off La Hogue ; and, 
after a bloody contest of ten hours, victory declared in favour of the 
English. The French, who had fifty-three ships of the line, lost 
a great part of their fleet, and could not be made to hazard another 
battle by sea. James returned in despair to St. Germains, where he 
died, in 1701, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, having, some time 
before his death, laid aside all thoughts of worldly grandeur, and 
subjected himself to uncommon penance and mortification. His 
body, brains, and heart, like those of Richard I., were deposited in 
different cemeteries. 

22. After the death of James, notwithstanding the succes- 
sion of the crown had been settled in the house of Hanover, 
his son was proclaimed king of England, at St. Germains, 
and treated as such at the court of Versailles. This act so 
exasperated the British nation, that both houses of parliament 
assured his majesty, that they would assist him to the ut- 
most of their power, against all his enemies, and the whole 
kingdom joined in a cry for war with France. While Wil- 
liam was making preparations for the approaching conflict 
he was suddenly removed by death, in the fifty-second yeai 



GREAT BRITAIN. 245 

of his age, and fourteenth of bis reign. His excellent consort, 
aiiu partner in the throne, died seven years before him, of the 
email pox. 

§ In person, William was small and slender. His complexion was 
brown, his nose Roman, and his eye piercing. His genius was pene- 
trating, and his judgment sound ; but in his manners he was distant, 
and better qualified to gain respect than love. 

During this reign, the system of borrowing money on remote 
funds commenced, which laid the foundation of the present national 
debt. A standing army, too, was first sanctioned by parliament, in 
the time of this prince, a measure only to be defended by the rela- 
tive situation of Europe. 

23. The crown now, (1702,) devolved on Anne, the 
second daughter of James IT., who was married to George, 
prince of Denmark. Her reign is one of the most illustrious 
in British history. The arms -of England were every where 
triumphant, nor were the achievements of its scholars less 
conspicuous. The great names of Newton, Locke, Addison, 
Swift, and others, have immortalized the times of the " Good 
Queen Anne," as she has been familiarly called. Though 
not endowed with superior talents, she was respected for her 
virtues. The military and literary distinction of her reign, 
could not, in any great degree, be attributed to her personal 
conduct or councils. 

The principal events of her reign w T ere, her war against 
Prance, carried on by the duke of Marlborough, the greatest 
general of the age, Who gained the splendid victories of Blen- 
heim, Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, the constitution- 
al union between England and Scotland, in 1706, and the 
confusions occasioned by the high party spirit which prevail- 
ed in the latter part of the queen's reign. 

§ The war against France, continued from the commencement to 
the last year but one of her reign. Germany and Holland were in 
alliance with England The commander, on the part of the empire, 
who was associated with Marlborough, was prince Eugene. In the 
famous battle of Blenheim, the French lost twenty thousand men. 
The duke, during the engagement, rode through the hottest of the 
fire, but neither in this, nor in any other conflict, did he receive a 
wound. This victory saved the house of Austria from ruin. In the 
battle of Ramilies, six thousand of the enemy lost their lives, and 
seven thousand were captured; and this success was soon followed 
oy the general conquest of the Netherlands. In the course of a most 
successful war on the part of the allies, Louis was humbled to a de- 
giee, that obliged him to demand peace, which though at first refu- 

21* 



246 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

seel, took place in 1713, when the change in Anne's ministry, gave a 
facility to negociations for that object. 

In the treaty of peace which was signed a< Utrecht, Spain yielded 
to England all right to Gibraltar, and the island of Minorca, while 
France resigned her pretensions to Hudson's Bay, Nova Scotia, St. 
Christopher's, and Newfoundland. 

Of Marlborough, it maybe said, that he never laid siege to a town 
which he did not take, or fought a battle which he did not win. His 
understanding was as injurious to France as h's arms. At St. James', 
he was a perfect courtier, the head of a party in parliament, and in 
foreign countries, one of the ablest negociators that any age has pro- 
duced. 

In the constitutional union of England and Scotland, it was stipu- 
lated, that the united kingdoms of Great Britian, should be represenl 
ed by one and the same parliament, that Scotland should be. repre 
sented by sixteen peers and forty-five commoners, and that all peers 
of Scotland should be peers of Great Britain, and rank next after 
English peers, of the like orders and degrees. 

The confusions occasioned by high parly spirit, were aggravated 
after the occurrence of peace. The strife between the Whigs and 
Tories, was never higher than at this time. After the peace, the mi- 
nisters, as leaders of the nation, no longer restrained by the tie of 
common danger, gave loose to their mutual animosity. 

The great duke of Marlborough was sacrificed, in consequence of 
these dissentions ; though every honour har! been accorded to him, and 
the most munificent benefactions bestowed upon him, (£500,000 
having been voted at one time, to build the castle of Blenheim,) when 
his enemies came into the ministry, the queen was induced to dis- 
miss him from all his employments. The tories had now supplant- 
ed the whigs in her favour, an event brought about by the preaching 
of Dr. Sacheverell, who inculcated the tory principles of passive 
obedience, and who, on account of his trial, before the house of com- 
mons, excited a sympathy which he did not deserve. 

24. Anne died in her fiftieth year, after a short reign of 
twelve years, in 1714. She became a victim to an apoplec- 
tic disorder, which was brought on, or hastened, by fatigue, 
and the agitation of her mind, in attending a prolonged ca- 
binet council, in which, her ministers fell into violent alterca- 
tions with one another. 

§ Anne was of the middle size, majestic, and well proportioned j 
her face was round, her features regular, her complexion ruddy, and 
ner hair a dark brown. 

GERMANY. 

25. Soon after the commencement of this period. 1612, 
Matthias was at the head of the German empire. He 



GERMANY. 247 

i tempted to reconcile the protestants to the catholics, but 
without success. The revolt of the Bohemians brought on a 
civil war, which lasted thirty years, in the course of which, 
Ferdinand, cousin to the emperor, was invested with the 
kingdom of Bohemia; and Hungary, also, was soon afterwards 
conceded. Matthias, overwhelmed with grief, died before the 
conclusion of the war. 

§ An excellent rule of conduct for a prince, which the emperor de- 
livered to his successor, was the following : " If you wish your sub- 
jects to be happy under your government, do not let them feel the 
full force of your authority." 

26. Ferdinand II. became emperor in 1619. During his 
reign, the ambition of Austria appeared, in her attempts to 
extinguish the protestant religion, to abridge the liberties of 
the empire, and to render the imperial diadem hereditary in 
her own house. But these attempts, especially in regard to 
the first two objects, were frustrated by the agency of Gusta-- 
vus Adolphus, king of Sweden, who, at the head of the 
Evangelical Union, made rapid progress in Germany, till 
death stopped his career, in 1632. Austria, however, has 
usually held the imperial sceptre, and has long had an as- 
cendancy in the empire. 

§ Ferdinand has been styled by the papists, the Apostolical Empe- 
ror, on account of his hatred to the protestants. He was an unfeel- 
ing bigot, and scourge of the empire. 

27. Ferdinand III., son of the preceding, was elected king 
of the Romans, (so is the head of the Germanic body often 
called,) in 1637. The protestants in the empire, found the 
most active support during the former part of this reign, both 
fiom the Swedes and the French ; and the emperor being 
forced to conclude the peace of Westphalia, 1648, these pow- 
ers dictated its terms. By this celebrated treaty, all disputes 
were settled between the contending princes of the empire, 
and the contending religions. 

§ The Swedes were indemnified for the charges of the war, and 
acquired Pomerania, Stettin, Wismar, &c, and their sovereign, the 
dignity of prince of the empire ; the Palatine family was restored to 
its chief possessions ; the king of France made landgrave of Alsace, 
and an equal establishment of the three religions, viz. the Catholic, 
Lutheran, and Calvinistic. 

Ferdinand was a devoted Catholic. He experienced many cal%* 
mities, but bore them with magnanimity. 

28. Leopold I., king of Hungary and Bohemia, was else* 



248 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD IX. 

ed emperor in 1657. His was a long reign, of nearly fifty 
years. Joseph I. succeeded him, 1705, and reigned till 171 1 
Both of these emperors were engaged in the war of the Span- 
ish succession, which commenced in 1700, on account of the 
claim advanced by Leopold, to the crown of Spain. Tie 
house of Bourbon was his competitor. The war was car- 
ried on by Austria, (England and Holland being her allies,) 
with success. Joseph, after having conquered Naples and Sar- 
dinia, forced the pope to acknowledge the Archduke Charles, 
as king of Spain. But, at length, the Austrian claimant 
being elected emperor, the Spanish crown was relinquished 
to the house of Bourbon, in the peace of 1713. In 1683, 
Yienna was besieged by an immense army of the Turks, 
but the place was relieved by John Sobieski, king of Poland. 
Charles VI. was elected in 1711. His reign extends many 
years into the next period, but before the conclusion of the 
present, occurred his memorable war with the sultan Achmet 
III., in which he obtained many victories over the Turks, 
by his general, the renowned prince Eugene. 

SPAIN. 

29. The successor of Philip II., on the throne of Spain, 
was his son, Philip III., 1 598. From the commencement of 
this reign, Spain declined in power, and notwithstanding her 
great sources of wealth, the national finances were exceeding- 
ly embarrassed. He had lost the seven United Provinces, 
whose independence was solemnly acknowledged, 1609. A 
most ill judged measure of his reign, was the expulsion of 
all the Moors, from his kingdom, who were its most industri- 
ous inhabitants. This, added to the depopulation occasioned 
by her American colonies, rendered Spain a mass of weak 
ness. 

30. Under Philip IV., who succeeded his father, in 1621, 
the national weakness and disorders increased, rather than 
diminished. Philip was implicitly ruled by his minister, 
Olivarez, a man of an indiscreet and insolent turn, who, 
while he encouraged the licentiousness of his sovereign, him- 
self wore the specious appearance, of extraordinary piety. 

The reign of Philip was indeed one continued series of 
miscarriages and defeats. The Dutch seized Brazil : the 



spain. 249 

French invaded Artois ; Catalonia revolted to France ; and 
Portugal, shaking off the yoke, recovered its independence. 

3L. The revolution of Portugal, was effected with unwont- 
ed ease and celerity. It took place, 1640, and Portugal, af- 
ter having been an appendage of the kingdom of Spain for 
sixty years, asserted tiie rights of self government. The 
people, disgusted with the administration of Olivarez, were 
prepared for a change. The duke of Braganza, descended 
from the ancient kings of Portugal, having command of the 
army at this time, and instigated by the ambition of his 
dutchess, caused himself to be proclaimed king, at Lisbon. 
The Spanish guards were attacked and overcome, and the 
principal adherents of the government, were put to death by 
the populace. The whole was accomplished in two or three 
hours. The example of the capital w T as followed by all the 
considerable towns, and soon after, by all the foreign settle- 
ments. The duke of Braganza took the title of John IV. 

§ The events which occurred hi. the history of Portugal, previous- 
ly to the above revolution, are summarily as follows: 

Portugal was the ancient Lusitania, and was successively subject 
to the Suevi, the Goths, and the Moors. 

In the early part of the twelfth century, Henry of Burgundy 
grandson to Robert I., of France, rendered assistance to Alphonso. 
in his wars against the Moors, and having distinguished himself by 
great bravery, Alphonso bestowed on him his natural daughter 
Theresa, in marriage, and also created him count of that part of 
Portugal, where Oporto was situated, from which place, formerly 
called Portus Calle, the whole country took its name. By the valour 
of Henry, the country regained its liberty, and he governed it with 
the title of count. 

His son, Alphonso Henriquez, having obtained-a decisive victory 
over five Moorish kings, was proclaimed king, by the soldiers. Seve- 
ral princes succeeded him, whose reigns deserve no particular notice. 
On the death of Ferdinand I., in 1383, the states gave the crown to 
his natural brother, John 1., surnamed the Bastard, who was equally 
politic and enterprising, and in whose reign, the Portuguese first 
projected discoveries in the western ocean. 

In the reign of his great grandson, John II., who was a prince of 
profound sagacity and extensive views, the Portuguese made con- 
quests in the interior of Africa, and discovered, under Diaz, the Cape 
of Good Hope. That cape was doubled in 1497, for the first time, by 
Vasco de Gama, who thence sailed for the East Indies. 

Emanuel, cousin of John, ascending the Portuguese throne, in 
l 495, adopted the plan of his predecessors, and sent out a fleet. It 
<vas with this fleet, that Gama doubled the cape as above mentioned; 
others of the king's vessels discovered Brazil, in 1501, 



250 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

These princes had the merit of exciting that spirit of discovery 
which led to many subsequent improvements of navigation and 
commerce. Their discoveries on the coast of Africa, led to the voy- 
age of Columbus, and the discovery of America Tney also estab- 
lished valuable colonies in Africa and America, and an extensive 
empire in India. The reign of Emanuel, was the most glorious ir. 
the annals of Portugal. He was a great and wise prince, and ban • 
ished poverty and distress from his dominions. 

John III., the son of Emanuel, admitted the new founded order 
of the Jesuits, which has since been a pow£rful engine of despotism 
and superstition. He encouraged, if he did not establish, the Inqui- 
sition in Portugal. 

Sebastian, his grandson, fanatically led an army against the Moors, 
in Africa, where he and most of his army perished in battle. Sebas 
tian, leaving no issue, was succeeded by his uncle, cardinal Henry, 
in 1578, who, also dying without children, Philip II., king of Spain, 
obtained the crown, in right of his mother, 1580. After sixty years 
of subjection to Spain, the Portuguese, as already related, threw oil 
the Spanish yoke, and became independent, under the duke of Bra- 
ganza, the legal heir of the throne. 

32. Charles II., succeeded his father, Philip IV., on the 
throne of Spain, in 1665. In order to frustrate the schemes 
of the kings of England and France, and of the states of 
Holland, he left his dominions to Philip, duke of Anjou, 
second son of Louis, dauphin of France. 

§ This prince is said to have been debilitated, both in body and 
in mind, by certain drugs which his mother administered to him in 
his chocolate. To so unnatural an act, she was led, in consequence 
of his refusal to accept of her assistance as regent. Certain it is, 
that active before, he lost, in the course of a few weeks, his wonted 
spirits ; and his future imbecility, proved highly detrimental to the 
interests of his kingdom. 

33. The duke of Anjou, under the title of Philip V., the 
first Spanish monarch of the house of Bourbon, ascended (he 
throne in 1700. In 1701, nearly all Europe united against 
France and Spain, and a useless and bloody war was carried 
on till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. Gibraltar was lost to 
Spain, in the course of this war. 

TURKISH EMPIRE. 

34. The most splendid period in the history of Turkey, 
was that which immediately preceded the present. The spirit 
of military enterprise was now considerably abated ; though 
the power of the empire continued undiminished, except in 



TURKISH EMPIRE. 251 

s naval force. The latter never wholly recovered from the 
effects of the fatal battle of Lepanto. 

The present period embraces the reigns of nine sultans, 
and a part of the reign of another. They were generally at 
war with the neighbouring powers ; Persia on the one side 
Venice, Hungary, and Austria, on the other. 

§ During the former period, the wars of the Turks with the Vene- 
tians, had been extremely frequent and bloody. That small, but 
enterprising and martial republic, had, during one hundred and fifty 
years, restrained the Ottoman power, and prevented it, most proba- 
bly, from overspreading a great part of Europe. The spirit of hos- 
tility continued through the present period, and broke out occasion- 
ally into fierce fightings. The Turks were for a long time superior 
to the Christian powers of Europe in military tactics, on account of 
having an order of men exclusively devoted to the profession of 
arms, and also on account of their frequent use of artillery. 

Achmet I., made war with Persia and Hungary, but with little 
success. During his reign, in 1611, Constantinople was afflicted with 
a dreadful plague, of which more than 200,000 persons died. 

Othman II., invaded Poland, but was forced to make peace aftei 
having lost 80,000 men. In 1622, he was strangled by tne Janizaries, 
whom he intended to disband. 

Amurath IV., tarnished a victory which he had obtained in the 
capture of Bagdad, by the barbarous slaughter of 30,000 Persians, 
who had laid down their arms, as well as of all the inhabitants. 

Mahomet IV. made a conspicuous figure in the annals of Europe, 
from the middle, till towards the close of the seventeenth century. 
Under him, the Turks again became formidable to Europe, and took 
Candia from the Venetians, and besieged the capital of Austria. 
The siege of Candia is one of the most remarkable of modern times. 
Candia was the ancient Crete, and an emporium for commerce. 
The Turks had long desired to take possession of it, and at length, 
in 1645, effected a landing on it, with 60,000 men. After several 
towns had surrendered, Candia, the capital, was invested. This 
siege continued twenty-five years. For the last two years, the 
Turks put forth every effort, inasmuch as the delay was mortifying 
to then pride, and disappointed their ambitious hopes. After the 
loss of 30,000 lives, on the part of the Venetians and their allies, and 
118,000 on the part of the besiegers, in the space of two years and 
four months, the city surrendered on honourable terms, in 1670, It 
is said the besiegers made against it, fifty-six assaults and ninety-six 
sallies ; and that the Venetians discharged 276,743 cannon balls, 
48,1 19 bombs, and consumed 50,317 barrels of powder. The Turks 
have ever since held possession of the island. 

In. the siege of the capital of Austria, in 1683, John Sobieski, 
king of Poland, particularly distinguished himself. His assistance 
was requested by the emperor of Germany, and readily bestowed. 
Through his efforts. Austria seems to have been saved from destruc* 



252 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

tion, and the Ottoman power prevented from effecting an establish 
merit in the heart of Europe— a service which Austria has since ill 
requited. Sqbieski, whose army, when joined by the Austrians, did 
not exceed 50,000 men, advanced to the environs of Vienna, and 
fought one of the most memorable battles of the age. An army ot 
nearly 200,000 Turks, brave and well disciplined, was entirely de- 
feated by the Pole, who lost only 600 men. The victors secured the 
great Ottoman standard, 180 pieces of cannon, and the immense 
treasures found in the camp of the enemy. The war continued 
after that defeat, in which the Turks were the greatest sufferers. 
The imperialists, however, were weary of it; but neither party 
could be speedily brought to an accommodation, on account of the 
intrigues of the French king, who wished to exhaust the resources 
of the house of Austria. 

Under Solyman II., the Turks were almost constantly defeated by 
the imperialists. Mustapha II., was severely beaten in the famous 
battle of Zenta, in Hungary, by prince Eugene, in 1697; and, in 
1699, concluded a peace at Carlowitz, by which he was forced to 
cede Transylvania, Karniniek, the Morea, and Azof. 

Under Achmet III., in 1715, the Ottoman court declared war 
against the Venetians, and recovered the Morea. At the same time, 
war was waged against Austria, but the most disastrous effects to 
the Turks, took place from this renewal of the contention. Prince 
Eugene defeated a powerful army, in the battle of Peterwaradin, 
and took Temeswar, in 1716. The next year, the strong town of. 
Belgrade surrendered to his again victorious arms. The disadvan- 
tageous peace of Passarowitz, m 1718, followed these defeats. And 
the Ottoman, formerly so terrible in arms, was obliged to yield the 
palm of military skill, if not valour, to the disciplined legions of 
Christendom. 

BRITISH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA. 

35. Our own country, is intended by the British Colo- 
nies in America. During the present period, and part of 
the following, the people inhabiting, chiefly, the south-eastern 
portion of North America, were known by the above appella- 
tion. 

These colonies were settlements made principally by the 
English, though some of them derived their origin from ad- 
ventures set on foot by other European nations. They were 
all, however, included within the English patent, and claimed 
by the English crown. 

3t>. It was more than a century, from the discovery of the 
northern portion of the American continent, by Cabot, before 
the English made any effectual attempts to colonize the 



BRITISH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA. 253 

country. The first grant from the crown, under which set- 
tlements were actually made in North America, was dated 
April 10, 1606. James I., by his letters patent, granted an 
exclusive right or privilege to two companies, called the Lon- 
don and Plymouth companies, by which they were autho- 
rized to possess the lands in America, lying between the thirty- 
fourth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude ; the southern 
part, called South Virginia, to the London, and the northern, 
called North Virginia, to the Plymouth company. Before 
the present patents, however, a project to settle the country 
was undertaken by Sir Walter Raleigh, who, under a com 
mission from Elizabeth, in 1584, had arrived in this portion 
of North America, which, upon his nattering account of it, 
was called Virginia, in compliment to the queen's virgin 
majesty. But this project, as well as two that followed it, 
wholly failed. 

Under the king's patent, the London company sent Cap- 
tain Christopher Newport to Virginia, December 20th, 1606, 
with a colony of one hundred and five persons, to commence 
a settlement on the island Roanoke, now in North Carolina. 
By stress of weather, however, they were driven north of 
their place of destination, and entered Chesapeake Bay. 
Here, up a river which they called James river, on a beautiful 
peninsula, they commenced, in May, 1607, the settlement of 
Jamestown. This was the first permanent settlement in the 
United States. 

37. Seven years afterwards, 1614, a colony of Dutch com- 
menced a settlement on the present island of New- York, 
which had been discovered in the year 1609, by Henry Hud- 
son, an Englishman in the service of Holland. The Eng- 
lish government claimed a prior right to the country, by vir- 
tue of Cabot's discovery ; but the first settlers retained pos- 
session, until 1664, when it was surrendered to an armament 
fitted out by Charles II., and received its name from his bro- 
ther, the duke of York. It had been previously called New- 
Amsterdam. The Dutch had built a fort here, and one also 
at Albany. 

38. The same year in which the Dutch settled on the 
Hudson, Captain John Smith, ranged the coast, from Penobs- 
cot to Cape Cod. King Charles, to whom a map of the 
country wcs presented, named it New-England, instead of 

22 



254 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

North Virginia. Sixteen years from this, December 22. 
1620, a colony of puritans landed at Plymouth, in Massa- 
chusetts, and began the first permanent settlement in New- 
JEngland. These colonists were originally from England, 
but had resided several years in Holland, on account of the 
religious intolerance which prevailed in their native country 
The colony of Plymouth was afterwards connected with 
another colony in New-England, called Massachusetts Bay, 
which was founded in 1628. 

39. In 1623, a number of persons from England, arrived 
in the river Piscataqua, and began two settlements ; one at 
the mouth, at a place called Little Harbour, the other at a 
place now called Dover. These were the first settlements in 
New-Hampshire. 

40. The next settlement in the order of time, seems to be 
that which was made by some bodies of the Dutch and 
Danes, about the year 1625, in New- Jersey. This was fol- 
lowed by the colonization of Delaware, in 1627, by the 
Swedes. 

41. In 1637, Charles I. granted a patent to Lord Balti- 
more, conveying to him a tract of country, on the Chesapeak 
Bay, which, in honour of Henrietta Maria, daughter of the 
French king, he named Maryland. The next year, Balti- 
more appointed his brother, Leonard Calvert, governor of the 
province, who, with about two hundred planters, chiefly Ro- 
man catholics, began a settlement, in 1634, near the mouth 
of the Potomac, on the northern side. 

42. In 1633, the first house was erected in Connecticut. 
This was a trading house built by some Plymouth adven- 
turers, who transported the materials up Connecticut river 
Two years from this, 1635, about sixty men, women and 
children, from Newtown and Watertown, in Massachusetts^ 
commenced their journey through the wilderness to Connec- 
ticut river. By these people, Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hart- 
ford, were settled. 

43. The settlement of Rhode Island, is dated from the 
year 1636, an event occasioned by the banishment of Roger 
Williams from Massachusetts, on account of his religious 
opinions. He removed with his family to Mooshawic, and 
began a plantation, which, on account of the Divine kind • 
ness, he called Providence. 



BRITISH COLONIES. 255 

44. The colony of New-Haven, was formed in 1638, m 
consequence of the English having occasion to visit the ter- 
ritory, in an expedition against the Pequots. This colony 
eventually united with that of Connecticut. 

45. In 1663, some of the Virginia settlers laid the foun- 
dation of North Carolina, which was followed by the settle- 
ment of South Carolina, in 1670. The Carolinas were so 
called in honour of Charles IX., king of France, under whose 
patronage the coast had been discovered, in 1563. 

46. In Pennsylvania, a small body of Swedes had plant 
ted themselves, at an early period. Their settlement in 
creased slowly, until the arrival of William Penn, in 1681. 
with a numerous company of Quakers, whom religious per- 
secution drove across the Atlantic. Penn had acquired a 
grant of the territory now constituting the state, in conside- 
ration of the debts due from the crown, for services perform- 
ed by his father, admiral Penn. 

47. The last settled of the original thirteen states, was 
Georgia, founded in 1732, by General Oglethorpe. This 
comes within our next succeeding period. At first, Georgia, 
and even the Floridas, were covered by the Charter, as it was 
afterwards confirmed and enlarged, which conveyed Carolina 
to its proprietors. 

48. The three eldest of the American states, it will be per- 
ceived above, are Virginia, New-York, and Massachusetts. 
These have hitherto been the most important and influential 
in the confederacy. Others, however, from their numbers, 
are beginning to acquire their just consideration. 

49. The causes of the settlement of the American states, 
were various. Some were made on mercenary views, the 
usual principle of colonization, for the particular benefits of 
the proprietors. This was the case with Virginia. The im- 
mediate purpose of the settlement of New- York, was com- 
merce. The Dutch were then particularly distinguished for 
their commercial and enterprising spirit. Massachusetts, and 
New -England generally, were planted principally to enjoy, 
in an unrestricted manner, the institutions of religion. 

50. In the original foundation of three of the states, viz., 
Rhode Island, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, the free tolera- 
tion of religion was recognized, and these were the first civil 
communities which acted on a principle that now seems to 



256 MODERN HISTORY. —PERIOD IX. 






be fast gaming the popular consent. In the other colonies 
there was a degree of intolerance on the subject of religion, 
the fault of the age ; and yet they laid the foundations of a 
civil community, the freest and best which the world had 
hitherto seen. In New-England, particularly, they wished 
to enjoy their religion in peace ; and in shutting out others, 
whose religious opinions differed from their own, they seem 
to have justified themselves on the principle of self defence, 
with a view to be delivered, ever afterwards, from evils simi- 
lar to those from which they had recently escaped. As, how 
ever, it must be impossible to prevent differences of opinion 
on the subject of religion, a civil community would be wise 
in providing for such a state of things, by suitable and tole- 
rant regulations. 

51. Many of the first settlers of the country, were men 
of talents and liberal culture ; and a wilderness has never 
been planted by a body of people, who were more solicitous 
for the interests of learning, and general education. Next, 
after the establishment of the Gospel, their greatest object 
was to multiply schools and higher seminaries of learning. 
Indeed, the colonists possessed excellent traits. Their mo- 
rality and piety, their spirit of enterprise and habits of indus- 
try, their love of liberty, and attention to education, were un- 
paralleled in the history of similar efforts. They were not 
perfect men, but they were the best and the noblest that ever 
founded an empire. These remarks are intended particular- 
ly for New-England, though they have a degree of applica- 
tion to all the American states. 

52. The colonists purchased their lands of the Indians ; 
and notwithstanding what has been often asserted, respecting 
the frauds that were practised, there is little reason to question 
the purity of motive, and the good faith of those who were 
engaged in these transactions. 

53. The settlers in some of the colonies, experienced at 
first but little trouble from the Indians, for many years. Tins 
was the case particularly with Massachusetts and Pennsylva- 
nia. In others, they were molested from this quarter, at a 
very early period. Connecticut, and particularly Virginia, 
were obliged, soon after their settlement, to make war against 
the savages, in self-defence. And all the colonies, sooner or 
later, suffered in various ways, and especially by contentions 



BRITISH COLONIES. 257 

witn the natives. It is not to be denied, that in the end, 
wrong - was sometimes done to these miserable tribes. Their 
ferocity and faithlessness were, occasionally, met with the 
sternest inflictions of vengeance on the part of the whites. 

Respecting the colonists as a body, during the present pe- 
riod, it may be remarked, in a very general way, that they 
struggled long with all the hardships, difficulties, and priva 
tions incident to new establishments among savages ; that 
they displayed a heroism and constancy, such as have rarely 
been witnessed among men, and though tempted to believe, 
in some instances, that their undertaking would never suc- 
ceed, yet that their virtues finally overcame every obstacle, 
and they found themselves before the conclusion of this pe- 
riod, increasing in wealth and population. 

It may be added, that the colonists were often involved in 
the wars of the mother country, with other powers ; that a 
few of their wars with the Indians, affected several of the 
states at a time, and that a consideration of their common 
exposure, led to a general intercourse with one another, and 
particularly to the union which was formed between the New- 
England colonies, in 1 643 ; a union which lasted more than 
forty years, or until their charters were revoked, and which 
furnished the example of that nobler confederacy which has 
since taken place, of all the American states. In general, 
however, it is with the individual colonies that we are mostly 
concerned in the history of this period, but the limits of our 
work will admit only of a very few details, in regard to one 
or two of the states. 

§ Two years after the settlement of Connecticut, occurred the war 
with the Fequots, a tribe of Indians, whose principal residence was 
on a hill in the present town of Groton These savages had pre- 
viously made depredations on the infant settlement, and killed seve- 
ral individuals, and carried others away captive. In this perilous 
state of affairs, a court, convened at Hartford, determined on war. 
Ninety men, nearly half the fencible men of the colony, were or- 
dered to be raised. Forty-two from Hartford, thirty from Windsor, 
and eighteen from Wethersfield. These troops, together with seventy- 
River and Mohegan Indians, were commanded by Captain Mason, 
who, sailing down the river, surprised Mystic, one of the principal 
forts of the enemy, in the present town of Stonington. 

Before the savages could get themselves in readiness, the troops 
instantly pressed forward and fired. The destruction soon became 
terrible, but the Indians rallied at length, and made a desperate re- 

22* 



258 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

sistance. All, however, was in vain. Upon 'an order to burn theify 
the work of destruction was completed. Seventy wigwams were in 
ruins, and between 500 and 600 Indians, lay bleeding on the ground, 
or smouldering in ashes, With the assistance of a detachment of 
nearly two hundred men from Massachusetts and Plymouth, the 
whites pursued the rest of the tribe, who fled towards the Hudson, 
and, defeating them in another terrible battle, in a great swamp, in 
Fairfield, the power of the Pequot nation, was entirely prostrated. 

In Virginia, the colonists were soon involved in contests with the 
Indians. In addition, they suffered severely by the scarcity and 
badness of provisions — the consequence of which was, that diseases 
swept off one half of their number, in a few months. In the latter 
part of the year 1609, Captain Smith, whose romantic story has been 
so often told, and whose name was a defence of the settlers, and a tei * 
ror to the Indians, returned to England. Soon after his departure 
the colonists were reduced to the greatest extremities, having had a 
company of thirty men slain by the Indians, and their provisions 
wasted on the occasion. A most distressing famine ensued, the ef- 
fect of which was the reduction, in six months, of the colonists, from 
nearly five hundred to sixty. The remainder embarked for their 
native home ; but being met by a neW company of adventurers, with 
a large supply of provisions, they were induced to return, and try 
the fortunes of a wilderness once more. For a number of years, 
it was only by the arrival of new comers, that the colony was pre- 
served from extinction. At last it began to prosper, from the date 
of Sir William Berkeley's administration, 1638, which lasted nearly 
forty years. Before the conclusion of this period, however, the 
colony experienced the evils of a terrible insurrection, known by 
the name of Bacon's rebellion, which terminated only with the death 
of its mover. 

54. The principal events which relate to the colonies, as a 
body, or to the greater part of them, during the present pe- 
riod, were Philip's war, in 1675 and 1676, which was the 
most general and destructive war with the Indians, in which 
the colonies were ever involved — the oppressive measures re- 
lating to the colonies under the Stuart family, who attempted 
the destruction of their charters and liberties — and the wara 
occasioned by the hostilities into which the mother country 
entered with other European powers, usually called king 
William's war, and queen Anne's war; the former com- 
mencing in 1690, and continuing to 1697, and the latter com- 
mencing in 1702, and ending in 1713. 

§ Philip's war was carried on by a king or sachem of that 
name, who was at the head of the Wampanoags, and whose re- 
sidence was at Mount Hope, Rhode Island. This distinguished 
warrior, designing to exterminate the whites, formed a most exten- 
sive combination of the Indians. The greatest battle during this 



iiussiA. 259 

wmtest. is known by the name of the Swamp Fight, December. 1675, 
in the Narraganset country, at the Indian fortress, situated in a large 
swamp. The English, who were commanded by Josiah Winslow, 
governor of Plymouth, obtained a great victory, but dearly bought, 
with the loss of two hundred and thirty men, killed and wounded. 
The Indians lost more than four times this number, besides many 
Women and, children. Though their power was greatly broken by 
this defeat, they continued their depredations and massacres, until 
the death of their great warrior, in 1676, and in some parts of New- 
England, two years later. This was a melancholy period in the an- 
nals of the country, during which, six hundred men, the- flower of 
its strength, had fallen ; twelve or thirteen towns had been destroyed, 
and six hundred dwelling houses consumed— a terrible destruction) 
out of a population not exceeding 60,000. 

The oppressive measures, under the Stuart family, were owing, 
in part, to the tyrannical disposition of the princes of that family^ 
and, in part, to the sinister attempts of certain men, who, having 
visited the colonies, became hostile to them, and infused their preju- 
dices into the king and his ministry. Under this baleful influence, 
the colonies were required to surrender their charters — a demand 
which was complied with, except in the case of Connecticut. The 
duration of this state of things, however, was short ; the revolution 
occurring in England, in 1688, when William and Mary were placed 
on the throne. 

From this time, the colonies, though unmolested by the mother 
country, in regard to their liberties, suffered by means of her wars 
with the French, who employed the savages as their auxiliaries. 
This was a long period of woe and desolation, lasting from 1688 to 
1713, with an intermission of only four or five j r ears. 

RUSSIA. 

55. The history of Russia is both obscure and unimpor* 
lant, until the time of Peter I., surnamed the Great, who as- 
cended the throne in 1689. Russia, then raised from bar- 
barism and ignorance, was brought into notice with the civil- 
ized world ; and, by successive advancements, has attained to 
a rank, in power anO, influence, second to no other state in 
Europe. To Peter, that country owes all its greatness. 

§ In regard to the early history of Russia, it is only ascertained, 
that in the fourth century, the country was possessed by several 
different tribes. In the tenth century, it is said to have received the 
light of Christianity. In the fifteenth century, John Basilowitz re- 
deemed the empire from its subjection to the Tartars, and united the 
greater part of the Country under one monarchy. The sovereigns 
of Russia, until Ivan Basilowitz IV., in the sixteenth century, bore 
the title Wenike Knez, " Great Prince," but he added that of czar, 
which, in the Sclavonican language, signifies king. Peter the Great 



260 MODERN HISTORY.— -PERIOD fX 

assumed the title of emperor. It was not till the end of the six 
teenth century, that Siberia was added to the empire, which, to that 
time, was bounded by the limits of Europe. 

The predecessors of Peter, maintained considerable splendour, as 
sovereigns; but their dominions were uncultivated, and their sub- 
jects barbarians. Alexis Michaelowitz, father of Peter, was the first 
who published a code of laws. 

Peter became master of the empire, by setting aside a weak elder 
brother, and banishing a factious sister, who had seized the govern- 
ment. His youth was spent in ignorance and debauchery ; but hi3 
new situation immediately displayed his talents, and gave birth tc 
the wisest plans for the improvement of a barbarous people. 

56. The principal events of his reign, were, his war with 
the Turks, and taking of Azof, in 1696 — his sending an 
embassy into Holland, which he accompanied in disguise, 
in order to learn the art of ship building— his destruction of 
the Strelitzes, a body of troops, much resembling the Janiza- 
ries of Turkey — his abolition of the patriarchate of Moscow, 
which rivalled the authority of the czars — the several de- 
feats he experienced in a war with Charles XII. of Sweden — 
his signal victory over that monarch, in the battle of Pul- 
towa — his building of Petersburgh— and, finally, his institu • 
tion of a numerous infantry, and powerful army. 

§ Having gained the little knowledge he possessed from foreigners, 
he resolved to travel in search of more. Appointing De Fort, an 
able Genevese, his ambassador, he travelled as a private person in 
his suite, through Germany to Holland, and when he arrived at 
Amsterdam, engaged himself as a workman in the dock yard, under 
the name of Peter Michaelof. Here was exhibited the astonishing 
spectacle of a mighty prince, at the age of twenty-five, quitting the 
luxury of a court, labouring with his own hands, at a toilsome me- 
chanic art, fed and clad like the rest of his fellow-workmen, and 
obeying the orders of his temporary master ! His occupation did 
not prevent him from attending the lectures on anatomy, surgery, 
mechanics, and other branches of practical philosophy, cultivated in 
Holland. From Holland he passed to England, where he was simi- 
larly employed, and where he gained still higher improvement. 
At the end of sixteen months, he returned to Moscow, laden with 
knowledge, and the fruits of experience, which he employed for the 
benefit of his own subjects. 

Charles the XII. was, at this time, sweeping all before him. He 
had beaten the czar, in a number of engagements ; and, suddenly 
breaking off a negociation, he entered Russia with 45,000 men, with 
the design of dictating peace at Moscow. He would probably have 
accomplished his object, had he not been induced, by a treacherous 
promise of aid from the Cossacs, to march through "the Ukraine, in 
the midst of winter. Here Peter seized his opportunity, when the 



SWEDEN 261 

enemy's army was wasted by fatigue and famine, and meeting 
Charles, at Pultowa, he gave him battle, killing 9000 of the Swedes, 
and taking 14,000 prisoners. 

Peter died in 1725. His usefulness, as a sovereign, is un- 
questioned ; yet, as a man, he is justly obnoxious to the 
charge of being ferocious, impatient, passionate, and prodigal 
of the lives of his subjects. 

SWEDEN. 

57. The history of Sweden is unimportant, until the re- 
volution of 1523, which placed Gustavus Vasa on the throne, 
who was followed by eight sovereigns to the time of Charles 
XII., in 1697. The crown was elective till 1544, when 
Gustavus persuaded the states to render it hereditary in his 
family. Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, had been united 
into one kingdom, from the time of Margaret of Denmark, 
in 1389, to the time of Gustavus. The last king (Christian 
II.) of the united countries, was so tyrannical, that Gustavus 
was induced to take up arms against him, and deliver his 
subjugated countrymen. He introduced Lutheranism into 
his states, administered the government with great firmness 
and wisdom ; and, considering the age in which he lived, was 
one of the most extraordinary of men. 

Two at least of his successors to the period of Charles 
XII., were eminent sovereigns, viz. Gustavus Adolphus, sur- 
named the Great, and Christiana. Gustavus was illustrious 
as a hero, and Christiana was enthusiastically devoted to 
literature, and distinguished for her patronage of learned 
men. 

§ Sweden was the eastern part of the ancient Scandinavia, and, 
together with Denmark, was first inhabited by the Cimbri, a colony 
of the Gomerians. From this country came the Goths, the Gepidoe, 
the Heruli, and the Lombards. The Swedish monarchy is very an- 
cient ; but the history of its earlier sovereigns is too uncertain, to 
satisfy the sober enquirer. Eric IX., in the twelfth century, is the 
first monarch whose reign approximates to chronological truth. 
There appear to have been nine sovereigns between him and 
Gustavus Vasa. 

During the oppressive reign of Christian II., Gustavus Vasa was 
sent as an hostage into Denmark, in 1518, whence he made his 
escape on hearing of the massacre at Stockhold of ninety-four 
senators, among whom his father perished. For a while he con- 
cealed himself in Dalecarlia ; at length he entered into a small town 



262 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

on a day when a fair was held, harangued the country people, and 
with their assistance took possession of the fortress, and put the 
Danish commander to death. 

From this moment his life became a scene of triumphs. Follow- 
ed by his brave Dalecarlians, he besieged Stockholm ; and it hap- 
pening, when the Danes came to relieve that city, that a sudden 
frost detained their ships at a great distance from the port, Gusta- 
vus's soldiers advanced on the ice and set fire to them. This victory 
opened the gates of Stockholm, and he was proclaimed king. 

Gustavus Adolphus began to reign in 1611. He became a hero 
in early life, having in his twelfth year been encircled with the 
laurels of victory. At the age of eighteen he was successfully 
prosecuting a war with Denmark, which he concluded in 1613 
with an advantageous peace. He was equally successful in his 
wars with the Poles and Russians, from whom he took many towns. 
In his war with the Imperialists, he defeated their forces in the battle 
of Leipsic, in 1631, and afterwards in that of Lutzen ; but in the 
latter he lost his life. 

Christiana, in 1632, succeeded her father Adolphus when only 
seven years of age, and during her reign, Sweden preserved its 
ascendency in the affairs of Germany. She ruled the kingdom with 
great wisdom and prudence, till 1654, when she resigned her crown 
to her cousin, Charles Gustavus. She was so eager to quit Sweden, 
and to reach a land more congenial to the cultivation of science, 
that when she arrived at a small brook, which separates that country 
from Denmark, she alighted from her carriage, and leaped over the 
stream : " At length," said she, " I am free, and out of Sweden, 
whither I hope never to return." She visited Paris, where unbound- 
ed homage was paid to her genius, but where her manners gave of- 
fence to the court for want of decency and conformity to rules. 
Rome, however, became the place of her residence, where she em- 
braced the Catholic religion, and where she died. 

58. Charles XII. succeeded, in 1697, at the age of fifteen 
years. He was a competitor of Peter the Great, and divided 
with him the admiration of Europe. He has been ranked 
with the greatest conquerors of antiquity, on account of his 
heroism of character and, extraordinary achievements. But 
Charles was rather a singular, than a great man. His suc- 
cess as a warrior, for a time, alarmed and agitated Europe. 
Soon after his accession, his dominions were attacked on 
three sides, by Russia, Poland, and Denmark, and he, al- 
though then only a boy of seventeen years, successively took 
the field against these powers, and signally defeated them. 
Poland he humbled in the dust. A negociation having been 
begun by the czar, Charles abruptly terminated it, and de- 
clared that he would negociate only at Moscow. The rigour 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS 263 

of a Russian winter, prepared his army for the defeat, wnich 
it so signally experienced at Pultowa. After this battle, he 
fled into Turkey, where his conduct seemed to be that of a 
maniac, rather than of a man in his senses. 

§ The war with Denmark he despatched m six weeks. The 
Danish king purchased the safety of his capital and kingdom, by 
making full indemnity to the duke of Holstein, whose territory he 
had attempted to wrest from him. 

The Swedish monarch then hastened into Ingria, which the czar 
had attacked, and at the battle of Narva, with eight thousand men, 
he defeated an army of eighty thousand Russians, of whom he took 
thirty thousand prisoners. 

In his chastisement of Poland, he satisfied the dictates of the 
amplest revenge. He reduced Courland and Lithuania, penetrated 
into the heart of the kingdom, and subdued the capitals of Warsaw 
and Cracow. He then, by means of the assembled states, declared 
the Polish Augustus deposed, and procured Stanislaus, his own de- 
pendent, to be elected sovereign of Poland. 

When Charles fled into Turkey, he had only eighteen hundred 
men. He still hoped to dethrone the czar, by engaging the Otto- 
man power against him. After many efforts the Sultan was induced 
to send two hundred thousand soldiers against the Russians. But 
upon the capitulation of Peter's army, peace having been made, 
Charles was disappointed, and vented his rage against the Turk. 
He had been hospitably entertained more than three years, but his 
arrogance becoming insufferable, he was ordered to quit the Turkish 
dominions. This order he refused to obey, and proceeded immedi- 
ately to fortify his camp. With only three hundred men, he de- 
fended himself for some time, against an army of twenty thousand 
Turks, and only yielded, when he was taken by the legs and arms ; 
and dragged to the tent of the bashaw. 

Distinguished Characters in Period IX. 

1. Tycho Brahe, a Dane, celebrated as an astronomer. 

2. Cervantes, a Spaniard, the celebrated author of Don 
Q,uixote. 

3. Shakspeare, the greatest of dramatic poets. 

4. Galileo, an Italian, distinguished for his discoveries in 
mathematics and astronomy. 

■ 5. Raleigh, an eminent navigator and man of letters. 

6. Bacon, au English philosopher and universal genius. 

7. Kepler, a German astronomer. 

8. Grotius, a Dutch writer, of various and profound learn- 
ing. 

9 Des Cartes, a famous French philosopher 



264 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 

10. Gassendi, a Frenchman, distinguished as an astrono- 
mer. 

1] Pascal, an eminent French philosopher and theologian. 

12. Milton, the greatest of epic poets among the moderns. 

13. Corneille, the prince of the French dramatic poets. 

14. Boyle, an Englishman, distinguished in natural philo- 
sophy. 

15. Dry den, an eminent English poet. 

16. Locke, the greatest among the English metaphysi- 
cians. 

17. Leibnitz, an acute German philosopher and mathema 
tician. 

§ 1. TychoBrahe, descended from an illustrious Swedish family, was 
born in Denmark, 1546. He was sent by his father to Copenhagen, 
for the purpose of studying rhetoric and philosophy ; but the great 
eclipse of the sun on the 21st of August, 1562, engaged him to study 
astronomy. With this science he was excessively delighted. He 
often spent whole nights with a small celestial globe in his hands, in 
learning the names of the stars, and in the acquisition of a science 
which he called divine. He was honoured by the noble and learned 
of his age, and patronized by his sovereign, for a time ; but the ma- 
lice of his enemies drove him from his country, and he found an 
asylum in Prague, where he died, in 1601. 

It is said, that his learning made him superstitious, and his philo- 
sophy irritable, to such a degree, that in a philosophical dispute with 
some person, the argument rose to such a pitch of personal violence, 
that he lost his nose. This he supplied by a gold and silver one, 
admirably constructed. 

The best of his works are, the Rodolphine Tables, and the Histo- 
ria Cceleslis. He opposed the Copernican system, which is a suffi- 
cient proof of the unsoundness of his judgment. 

2. Cervantes, who is better known by this name than by his sur- 
name, Saavedra, was born at Madrid, 1549. He led a life of hard- 
ship and poverty. Before he became an author, he engaged in the 
military profession, and five years and an half he endured all the 
horrors of an Algerine captivity. After his release and return to 
Spain, he began to write plays for his maintenance, but though his 
pieces were acted with universal applause, he pined in poverty, and 
at last, found himself in a prison. In his confinement, he began his 
immortal work Don Quixote, which was not finished till the ex- 
piration of several years. This work is read and admired in every 
known language; but though popular from the beginning, -it pro- 
duced him neither notice nor bread. He was, however, serene 
amidst his wretchedness. 

In Don Quixote, Cervantes appears the purest of all humourists, 
gentle, genial, and kind. 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 265 

3. Shakspeare, (William) was born of a respectable family, at 
Stratford-on-Avon, April, 1546. Few events of his life have been 
recorded, while scores of volumes have been written on his poetry 
and on the character of his genius. He was designed to carry on 
the trade of his father, which was that of a wool dealer, and with 
that view, he was early taken from school. He married at the age 
of seventeen, and soon became the father of a family. An un- 
fortunate and criminal act, (deer stealing,) which he committed 
in connexion with some thoughtless companions, was the means of 
driving him to London. 

Here, a new scene opened upon him, and he soon laid the foun- 
dation of a fame, which is unequalled in the history of human genius. 
He first enlisted among the players, and became an actor on the stage. 
It is not known that he excelled in the profession of an actor ; the 
contrary is rather inferred. But from acting, he passed to the wri- 
ting of plays, which, at first, he adapted to the lower classes j but 
when his performances had gained the favour of the queen and 
her court, he aimed at more elaborate compositions. Having by the 
productions of his pen, and by the management of the play-house, 
acquired a competent fortune, he retired to his native town, where 
he lived respected and beloved by his neighbours. Shakspeare died 
23d April, 1516, in the fifty-third year of his age. 

Several relics of the immortal bard, are still preserved in the house 
where he was born, the front of which is now occupied as a meat- 
shop. Among the articles are, his sitting-chair, a table on which 
he wrote, a Spanish card and dice-box, presented to the poet by 
the prince of Castile, part of a Spanish match-lock, the remains of 
the piece with which he shot the deer in Charlicote Park, a table-co- 
ver, a present from good Queen Bess, &c. &c. This is a place, which 
is visited by thousands, of all ranks, conditions, and countries, in 
homage to the genius which was there first brought to light. 

Of Shakspeare, it has been said, almost in the language of adora- 
tion, " that he is the greatest of poets and of men — that he went be- 
yond all men, and stands in the array of human intellect, like the 
sun in the system, single and unapproachable." But eulogy has 
been exhausted on him. After all, it is melancholy to reflect, that 
amidst his great and incomparable beauties, there are many moral 
blemishes and defects. 

4. Galileo made discoveries in astronomy, that were too astonish- 
ing, and too opposite to the doctrines of Aristotle, to escape the cen- 
sure of the philosophers of tl e age ; and no sooner was it known, 
that he had embraced the Coj ernican system, than he was sum- 
moned before the Inquisition. Into its terrible dungeons was this 
illustrious mhi twice thrown, where, in the whole, he spent three or 
four miserable years, and this for embracing opinions then deemed 
so false in philosophy, and so heretical and contrary to the word of 
God. 

Among the discoveries that have rendered the name of Galileo 
mmortal, are his observation of the inequalities on the surface of 
tne moon, and his knowledge of her vibration, his calculation of the 

23 



Sb6 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

longitude by the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, which he first noti- 
ced, his invention of the cycloid, and his perception of the increas- 
ing celerity in the descent of bodies. 

He lived seventy-eight years. Towards the close of his long life, 
he became blind. Milton has finely alluded to him in the lines 

" Like the moon, whose orb 
Through optic glass, the Tuscan artist views 
At evening, from the top of Fesole, 
Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands, 
Rivers, or mountains, on her spotty globe." 

5. Raleigh (Sir Walter) was one of the most brilliant and useful cha- 
racters of the times in which he lived. His perseverance in making 
discoveries, first inspired the British nation with that ardour after 
maritime distinction, which has given both wealth and glory to the 
empire. He was also a valiant leader, an able negociator, and a man 
of letters. His works, composed in the obscurity of a dungeon, on 
history, politics, geography, and philosophy, as well as some good 
poetical pieces, will make him known to future time. It must be 
owned, nevertheless, that his genius was cramped by the fashions of 
the age. 

His life, not indeed free from stain, was clouded by misfortune — 
he became the victim of royal persecution, — and his head was finally 
brought to the block. On the most frivolous and arbitrary charges, 
king James confined him in the tower thirteen years ; and though 
he was afterwards released, it was not long before he fell again 
under the king's suspicion, the consequence of which was his tragical 
end, on the 29th Oct. 1618. 

That at one time Sir Walter aspired to the hand of Elizabeth, 
would seem to be inferred from the following incident. On a win- 
dow where the queen could see it, he wrote this line — 

" Fain would I climb, yet fear I to fall." 

Attracting Elizabeth's eye, she replied to it with her usual good 
sense. 

" If thy heart fail thee, climb not at all." 

6. Bacon (Sir Francis) was born 22d January, 1561, in West- 
minster. His astonishing faculties were early developed, and when 
only a child he was favourably noticed by Queen Elizabeth, who 
used to call him her "young lord keeper," alluding to the office held 
by his father. On the accession of James I., he rose into power—he 
was knighted, and successively made attorney-general and keeper 
of the seals, lord chancellor, and raised to the peerage. His eleva- 
tion excited the envy of his enemies, and he was accused of bribery 
and corruption in the office of lord chancellor. The consequence 
was, that he was fined £40,000, and sentenced to be imprisoned in 
the tower. But his fine was remitted by the king, he was restored 
to the public opinion, and sat in the first parliament called by 
Charles. It is a matter of some doubt whether Bacon was guilty of 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 267 

the crime alledged against him. The blame is with much reason 
supposed to attach to his servants, so that the eulogy of the poet, is 
more clearly due to him than the poet's censure — 

" The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind." 

Bacon was indeed one of the greatest and most universal geniuses , 
that any age or country has produced. As an author, his " No^ 
vum Organum Scientiarum," has, among his other performances, 
immortalized his name. He was the first who taught the proper 
method of studying the sciences : that is, he pointed out the way in 
which we should begin and carry on our pursuit of knowledge, in 
order to arrive at truth. In this view he has been very properly 
denominated " the miner and sapper of philosophy," " the pioneer 
of nature," " the priest of nature's mysteries." The great princi- 
ples of the Baconian philosophy, are now universally established. 

7. Kepler, (John,) though the contemporary of Bacon, and the 
worthy precursor of Newton, was by no means freed from the illu- 
sions of the old philosophy. The old or Aristotelian philosophy 
was the method of anticipating nature, or dictating to her as to 
what her operations are to be, instead of observing what they ac- 
tually are, and inferring general truths from particular facts. Thus, 
Tycho Brahe anticipated nature, in taking it as a certain truth, that 
the earth must be at rest, though he admitted the reality of the 
planetary motions. Thus the great Kepler, imagined that the planets 
must be six in number, because of certain properties of numbers, 
and he maintained other puerile absurdities. He was, however, a 
man of high celebrity as an astronomer, and deservedly commended 
by most of the great astronomers who succeeded him. He first 
proved that the planets do not move in circles, but in ellipses ; and 
that in their motions, they describe equal areas in equal times,. &c 

His earliest years were not improved by education. When, how- 
ever, he began to study, the turn of his intellect was abundantly 
manifest. He was born in 1571, and died in 1630. 

8. Grotius (Hugo) was born at Delft, in 1583, and died, in 1645. 
A singular event of his life, showing the sufferings and dangers of 
literary men in those times, was the following. In consequence of 
the persecution of the Arminians, of whom Grotius was one, and 
an able defender, in 1618, he was doomed to perpetual imprisonment. 
His confinement was alleviated by his literary occupations, and the 
assiduities of his wife. The fond care of this worthy woman at 
last procured his deliverance, after a captivity of nearly two years. 
On pretence of removing books, which she declared proved injurious 
to her husband's health, she was permitted to send away a small 
chest of drawers, of the length of three feet and a half, in which he 
was confined. Thus, carried by two soldiers from the prison, the 
chest was then removed to a distance on horseback, and at the house 
of a friend the illustrious prisoner was set at liberty, pursuing his 
flight afterwards in the guise of a mason with a rule and a trowel. 

His particular profession was the law, and he pleaded his first 
cause at the age of seventeen with great eclat. But polite literature 



268 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

engaged much of his attention, and he wrote many works on moral 
and religious subjects, together with histories, poetry, critical notes, 
epistles, &c. His learning was very various and profound. 

9. Des Cartes, (Renedes,) though a man of genius and extensive 
attainments, was too much of a theorist. He, however, advanced 
far beyond his predecessors in many respects, and if he had done 
nothing besides introducing a spirit of inquiry, and a wish of ex- 
amining the mysterious operations of nature, he would have effected 
much for mankind. He was well acquainted with mathematics and 
philosophy, and possessed a mind capable of profound meditation 
and patient inquiry, though highly imaginative. He wrote ingeni- 
ously on the laws of the universe, but his theory of vortices, ac- 
counting for the movements of the planetary worlds, is sufficiently 
visionary. 

He was courted by the learned and the noble, and princes almost 
vied with one another in paying him their attentions. He died at 
the age of fifty-four, at Stockholm, but after he had been interred 
seventeen years, his body was removed to Paris, as his countrymen 
chose to claim it. 

10. Gassendi, (Peter,) also a native of France, was born in Pro- 
vence, 1592. He contributed somewhat to weaken the dominion oi 
Aristotle over the human mind, though he was not himself altoge- 
ther based on the true philosophy. He was nevertheless a great 
man and a great scholar ; and to his genius and labours, the intel- 
lectual improvements of subsequent ages are not a little owing. His 
studious habits proved injurious to his constitution, but he was in 
some degree relieved by phlebotomy. He, however, at length sunk 
under his chronic complaint, and placing the hand of his faithful 
amanuensis on his heart, after perceiving that the motion of that 
spring of life was faint and fluttering, he exclaimed in these last 
words, " You see what is man's life," and immediately expired, 
22d Oct., 1655. 

11. Pascal, (Blaise) whose early extraordinary powers and at- 
tainments astonished the world, was born at Clermont in Auvergne, 
19th June, 1623. From a child, he inquired into the reasons oi 
every thing, and he could be satisfied with nothing but with such 
proof as the subject examined would admit. He always sought for 
demonstration and truth, if they could be attained. 

The following circumstance evinces his wonderful aptitude for 
mathematical studies, and the superiority of his intellect. His father 
an eminent mathematician, had carefully secured him, as was sup 
posed, from learning the mathematics, by denying the child the 
requisite books. The father's object was first to perfect Blaise in the 
languages ; but the latter extorting from his father by entreaty, a 
definition of geometry, which was very vague and general, imme 
diately entered on the study, without any oth?r help. He was then 
but twelve years of age. He pursued his inquiries clandestinely, 
till his father happened to enter the room, where he was busy with 
his bars and rings, (used in place of geometrical lines and circles,) 
and to his infinite astonishment, found that the child was endeavour- 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 269 

mg lo demonstrate what makes the thirty-second proposition of 
fiuelid's first book. He had proceeded thus far in geometry, from 
axioms and principles which he had laid down, and which he had 
applied in a connected series, through the intervening propositions, 

At the age of sixteen, he composed the ablest treatise on conic sec- 
tions, that had appeared since the time of the ancients. At the age 
of nineteen, he contrived a mathematical machine, by which calcu- 
lations of every kind could be made, without the help of a pen. 
And at the age of twenty-three, he demonstrated the phenomena o 
the gravity of the air, and soon after solved a problem, proposed 
by Mersennus, which had hitherto perplexed the ablest mathema- 
ticians of Europe. 

All these mighty powers and attainments, he consecrated to re- 
ligion, and Christianity never received a more splendid offering than 
she did from the genius of Pascal. His religious views and feelings 
are embodied in his Provincial Letters, and his Thoughts on Re- 
ligion, &c. works, whose celebrity has not surpassed their merits. 

Voltaire, with his characteristic scorn of piety, calls Pascal, " a 
sublime madman, born a century too early." 

12. Milton, (John,) was born in London, 1608. His political and 
controversial writings are justly celebrated, and contain many ad- 
mirable passages. He was a strenuous asserter and defender of 
liberty, and, in many of his views on this and kindred subjects, was 
far in advance of his own age. But as a poet, he is still more justly 
celebrated, and is, at least, a compeer of Homer and Virgil. His 
Paradise Lost, is the greatest poem which modern ages have pro- 
duced. In his life time, the poet never received the meed of praise 
which was his due ; but ample justice has since been accorded to 
him, and air posterity will render homage to his transcendent genius. 

The incidents of his life are interesting, but they are so well 
known, that we shall pass them over, except to say that he was 
thrice married; was subjected to much domestic infelicity, in his 
first marriage ; became blind in writing his Defence of the English 
People, against the Attack of Salmasius ; suffered not a little from 
personal and political enemies ; and, finally, died comparatively poor 
and forsaken by the world. . ' 

It may be added, that he was uncommonly handsome, when 
young ; was economical in his living, and rigidly abstemious ; and, 
in religion, was a puritan, with some diversity, however, in his re- 
ligious views, at the different periods of his life. He died of the 
gout, in 1674. 

13. Corneille, (Peter,) whose poetical works are among the sub- 
limest effusions of the French muse, was born at Rouen, 1606. He 
was brought to the bar, but he soon abandoned it for poetry, which 
was far more congenial to his taste. He wrote plays, the most cele- 
brated of which was, the Cid, a tragedy, which drew against him 
the persecution and obloquy of rival wits and unsuccessful poets. 
He is said to have been a very meritorious man ; in private life : 
liberal, humane, and devout, and rather inclined to melancholy. He 
died at the age of seventy-nine years. 

23* 



270 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. 

14. Boyle, (Robert,) was the seventh son and fourteenth child oi 
Richard, earl of Cork, and born in 1626. After having visited foreign 
countries, he retired, in 1646, to his estate at Stalbridge, and, amidst 
the confusion and tumults of the time, enjoyed there a peaceful soli- 
tude. He, however, laboured assiduously for the promotion of 
learning and religion, to both of which he was devoted in a most 
exemplary manner. He was eminent in natural philosophy and 

hemistry, in which, from adopting the Baconian method, he made 
many discoveries. " To him," says Boerhaave, " we owe the secrets 
of fire, air, water, animals, vegetables, fossils ; so that, from his 
works may be deduced the whole system of natural knowledge." 
He invented the air-pump, and founded the Royal Society. His re- 
gard for religion, he showed in the purity of his life, the general 
tendency of his writings, his aversion to temporal honours, which 
were abundantly offered him, and his liberal benefactions in aid of 
benevolent and pious undertakings. His regular charities amounted 
to £1000 annually. He founded a public lecture for the defence of 
divine revelation against unbelievers, and particularly interested 
himself in the propagation of the Gospel among the nations, send- 
ing many hundred copies of parts of the New Testaments into the 
east. He died in his sixty-fifth year. 

15. Dryden, (John,) early gave proof of his superior poetical abili- 
ties. He continued to write to old age, and improved to the very last, 
not only in judgment, but in fire, of which, his Ode on St. Cecilia's 
Day, and his Fables, are a proof. He wrote much, both in poetry 
and prose, and doubtless too much ; for the rapidity with which he 
composed, prevented correctness. He produced no less than twen- 
ty-seven plays, besides a very large number of other works. He 
excelled less in dramatic composition, than in any other species of 
poetry. In his prose, he was equalled by few of his age, for judg- 
ment, criticism, and erudition. He professes himself to have derived, 
in regard to prose writing, more essential aid from Tillotson, than 
from any other writer. 

Dr. Johnson's critique on Dryden, is very just and discriminating. 
The Edinburgh reviewers place him at the head of his line; they 
think him great as a satirist, but, in respect to genuine poetic power 
a step lower than the poets of Elizabeth and James. His writings 
are too much tinctured with the licentiousness of the age, and, in 
his religious views, the poet was too flexible and accommodating. 
The year of his birth was 1631-that of his death 1701. 

16. Locke, (John,) so celebrated as a philosopher, and an orna- 
ment of English literature, was born in 1632. In the field of men- 
tal and political philosophy, he has won laurels that can never fade. 
He has been called, " the glory of theorists." 

By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, he held a respectable situa- 
tion under government, and wrote, at that time, several political 
tracts. The danger of prosecution for high treason, compelled his 
.ordship, at length, to fly to Holland. Thither Mr. Locke followed 
him. After a time, the English demanded him of the States Gene- 
ral, on suspicion of being concerned in Monmouth's rebellion. 



SWEDEN. 271 

Thus persecuted, Locke concealed himself twelve months, devoting 
his time to literary labours ; and, two years after, when he returned 
to England, in consequence of the revolution, he published his cele- 
brated Essay on the Human Understanding, in the composition of 
which, he had been engaged nine years. The latter portion of his 
life was passed in religious retirement, and in the composition of 
theological treatises. He died at the seat of lady Masham, his 
friend, in 1704, giving emphatic testimony, in what he said, to the 
vanity of human life. 

17. Leibnitz (William Godfrey) was not undistinguished as a 
statesman, lawyer, and poet, though he is most celebrated as a 
mathematician and philosopher. On the principle of the Baconian 
philosophy, he must be pronounced wanting, in some respects, yet 
he enjoyed the singular, felicity of being esteemed the greatest and 
most learned man in Europe. * 

In civil life, he had considerable employment, and attained to 
some distinction. He spent thirteen years in studying the plan of an 
universal language, but he died before he had completed the extra- 
ordinary design. Leibnitz proposed characters which, like those in 
algebra, might not only be simple, but expressive, and enable men 
of all nations to converse familiarly together. He died in 1716, of 
those complicated disorders, the gout and the stone, aged seventy. 

In temper, he was passionate ; in character, avaricious. At his 
death, such a quantity of money was found in his house, hoarded in 
sacks, that the wife of his nephew, who possessed his property, died 
with excess of joy at the sight. 



PERIOD X. 

The period of the American and French Revolutions ; ex- 
tending from the death of Charles XII., of Sweden, 
1718 A. C, to the final restoration of the Bourbons, 
1815 A. C. 

SWEDEN. 

Sect. 1. In pursuing the history of Sweden, a country 
which at this time excited much attention, on account of the 
character of its sovereign, we have to record an event, which 
secured for Sweden a reformation of her government, and 
saved Europe from the ravages of a fatal ambition. This 
was the death of Charles XII., who, while besieging a Nor- 
wegian fortress, was killed by a cannon ball, on the 11th oi 
December, 1718. 



272 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

§ While Charles remained in Turkey, the czar and the king o 
Denmark ravaged Sweden on every side. At the same time, through 
the influence of the czar, Stanislaus had been driven from the throne 
of Poland, on which Augustus was replaced. This state of affairs 
made Charles desirous of returning to his own country, especially 
as he despaired of engaging the sultan in a war with Russia. Re- 
turning in disguise, he immediately conceived the design of wresting 
Norway from Denmark. This project, however, he soon abandoned, 
in consequenee of failing in the outset. Sweden was too much 
exhausted and distracted, and surrounded by too many powerful 
enemies, to sustain him at that time, in a war of conquest. 

His able minister, Goertz, advised him to a different course, which 
was, to make peace with the czar, and with him, unite in the attempt 
to dethrone George I., and reinstate James, on the throne of Great 
Britain. These measures were agreed upon ; but in the interval 01 
preparation, Charles, still wishing to wrest Norway from the Danes, 
made an attack on that country. It was in this expedition that he lost 
his life. A half pound ball, discharged from a cannon loaded with 
grape shot, struck his head, while he was exposing himself, with per- 
fect temerity, to unnecessary danger. Though he expired without a 
groan, the moment he had received the blow, he instinctively grasped 
the hilt of his sword, and was found in that position, so characteristic 
of his temper. 

No conqueror, either of ancient or modern times, ever had a more 
enthusiastic passion for glory, than Charles XII. This is the clue to 
all those eccentricities and acts of daring, which have justly entitled 
him to the epithet of " mad-man." His preceptor asked him, when 
a pupil, what he thought of Alexander. "I think," said he, " that 
I should choose to be like him." " Aye, but," said the tutor, " he 
lived only thirty- two years." " Oh," answered the prince, " that is 
long enough, when a man has conquered kingdoms." 

After the death of Charles, Sweden, exhausted and impoverished, 
demanded repose and enjoyed it. She engaged in the pursuits of com- 
merce, and cultivated the attendant arts. Her islands in the West 
Indies, were of great consequence to her foreign trade. The states 
took the opportunity to reform the government, and wisely restricted 
the prerogatives of the crown. 

2. Charles XII. was succeeded by his sister, Ulrica 
Eleonora, by the election of the states, who permitted her 
husband, the prince of Hesse, to be associated with her in 
the government ; bat they greatly limited the power of the 
sovereign. Ulrica soon resigned the throne to her husband. 
On his death, in 1751, the states elected Adolplius Frederick, 
a prince of mild and pacific virtues, but whose reign was 
rendered most uneasy, by the factions of the senate. After 
his decease, the sceptre was given to his son, Gustavus III.' 
in 177 J, who, notwithstanding his coronation oath, deprived 



Prussia. 273 

the senate of its privileges, and rendered himself absolute. 
The despotism, however, which he wrongfully procured, he 
moderately exercised, and the succeeding part of his reign was 
marked with peace and prosperity. In 1792, he was assas- 
sinated, at a masked ball. 

§ Gustavus effected the change in the government, in the following 
manner. Having assembled the officers of his army, without making 
any communication of his design, he repaired to the senate house, 
where he read a decree, already prepared, for making the crown ab- 
solute, caused it to be signed by all the members of the senate, and 
then dismissed the assembly. 

3. Gustavus IV., son of the former, now succeeded to the 
throne, under the regency of the duke of Sudermania. In 
1800, he joined the Northern Confederacy against England, 
but made peace with that power the next year. In 1805, he 
united with Austria and Russia, in the war against France. 
He soon after, lost Pomerania and Rugen, and in 1808, Fin- 
land, which was conquered by Russia. He was dethroned 
in 1809, and the crown given to the duke of Sudermania. 

§ The conduct of Gustavus, in the latter part of the period of these 
wars, was marked by so much extravagance, that he was considered 
mentally deranged ; and to prevent the total ruin of the kingdom, 
it was determined to dethrone him. This plan was carried into ef- 
fect, without difficulty or blood-shed. 

4. The duke of Sudermania, under the title of Charles 
XIII., made peace with France ; but the king having no 
children, Bernadotte, a favourite general of Napoleon, was, 
through his influence ; declared crown prince, and successor 
to the throne, 1810. Bernadotte, however, has been faithful 
to the country which adopted him, and he never afforded any 
aid to his former master. 

§ Upon the death of Charles, in 1818, the crown prince quietly 
succeeded to the throne. He rendered efficient aid in the wars which 
terminated in the overthrow of the French emperor. He proves to 
be a wise prince, and promotes the welfare of his subjects, by salu- 
tary improvements and reforms. A few years before the accession 
of Bernadotte, (1814,) Norway was taken from Denmark, and an- 
nexed to Sweden, in opposition to the wishes and efforts of the Nor- 
wegians. 

PRUSSIA. 

5. Prussia was very little noticed, till some time within 
the present period, when Frederick 11., the Great, raised the 
kingdom to a high degree of splendour. It had existed as a 



274 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

kingdom, from the year 1700, when all the German states 
acknowledged it as such. It was before stlyed the Electorate 
of Brandenburgh. 

§ This country was inhabited by the Borussi, who denominated it 
Borussia, which has been corrupted to Prussia. They were conquered 
by the knights of the Teutonic order, whom Cassimer IV., king of 
Poland, compelled to acknowledge themselves his vassals, and to al- 
low Polish Prussia to continue under the protection of Poland. 

Modern Prussia, is a kingdom formed of several states, united bv 
alliances and conquests. The house of Brandenburgh, which now 
occupies the throne, is descended, in a direct line, from the ancient 
family of Hohenzollern, mentioned in history from the year 800. 
The more distinguished predecessors of the great Frederick, were 
Frederick William, surnamed the Great Elector, and Frederick Wil- 
liam I., the father of the Great Frederick. Frederick William, the 
Elector, was a prudent and valiant prince. At the commencement 
of his reign, his electorate resembled a desert ; the villages were 
burnt, the cities presented nothing but ruins, and a part of his inheri- 
tance was in the hands of the Swedes. He began by regulating the 
finances, and discharging his father's unworthy ministers, and by 
skilful negotiations, regained all the provinces guaranteed to him by 
the peace of Westphalia. 

Frederick William I., would have been deemed an extraordinary 
man, had he not been eclipsed by his greater son. As the case is, 
his talents and management excite a degree of wonder. His father 
was profuse, and lavished treasures without an object. Frederick 
William was economical in the extreme, and expended nothing ex- 
cept on the soldiery. In his dress and diet, he was remarkably sim- 
ple and plain. He even denied himself the common comforts of 
life, being wont to say, that a prince ought to spare not only the blood, 
but the property of his subjects. Voltaire describes this monarch 
thus. " He used to walk from his palace, clothed in an old blue coat 
with copper buttons, half way down his thighs ; and when he bought 
a new one, these buttons were made to serve again. It was in this 
dress that his majesty, armed with a huge Serjeant's cane, marched 
forth every day to review his regiment of giants. These giants 
were his greatest delight, and the things for which he went to the 
heaviest expense. The men who stood in the first rank of this re- 
giment, were none of them less than seven feet high ; and he sent 
to purchase them from the farthest parts of Europe, to the borders 
of Asia." 

Frederick William was a man of vulgar habits, and coarse manners, 
and often treated his children with a rudeness and asperity, that 
would have disgraced a savage. According to an account given by 
his daughter, Wilhelmina, princess of Prussia, it would be difficult 
to count the canings and the fisticuffs with which he gratified his 
son, the great Frederick, who could never appear before the king with- 
out being beaten, or, at least, insulted. The princess, too, had her 
full share of the brutal liberality of her father, who often struck her. 



PRUSSIA. %75 

She tells us, one day, " he seized her by the hand, gave her several 
blows on the face with his fist, one of which knocked her over." 
What added to their misfortunes was, the severe diet to which they 
were condemned, for they were almost literally famishing. There 
was often nothing at their father's table but garden-stuff, so badly 
cooked, that it disgusted them. Frequently, indeed, it was impossi- 
ble to touch it, for, after serving the other guests, Frederic William 
would spit in the dish, that his children might not break their fast. 
What a specimen of a prince's court. 

6. Frederick II., the Great, ascended the throne, 1740. 
His father had left him an efficient and well disciplined army, 
amounting to sixty-six thousand men. His views were bent 
on conquest, and on the enlargement of his small territory. 
With the best army in Europe, he was by no means backward 
in putting his ambitious projects into execution. The next year 
after his accession, he revived some obsolete claim to Silesia, 
and accordingly marched against the Austrians, whom he de- 
feated at the battle of Molwitz. He effected the conquest of 
Silesia, in 1 742. He next invaded Saxony, but the part he 
had already acted, was sufficient to alarm the neighbouring 
states. Accordingly, Russia, Austria, and Prance, concluded 
a treaty of defensive alliance against him. This confedera- 
cy took place in 1756, and constituted what is called, " the 
seven years' war," which proved to be an extremely sangui- 
nary contest. 

§ The success of this war was various. Frederick maintained his 
ground against his powerful enemies, sometimes conquering, and 
sometimes conquered. He lost, perhaps, as many battles as he gain- 
ed ; but so equal a contest was wonderful, considering the vast su- 
periority of numbers on the side of his opponents. At last, howe- 
ver, his affairs became so critical, from his diminishing resources, 
and the increase of his enemies, that he began to act solely on the de- 
fensive. But the death of the Russian empress, at this time, afford- 
ed him the most essential relief. Her successor made peace with 
the Prussian king, and being joined by the Russian troops, with 
whose aid, Frederick obtained an important victory, he was enabled 
to secure an honourable peace with all the hostile powers. 

In 1772, Frederick added New Prussia to his dominions, 
which, in conjunction with Russia and Austria, he dismem- 
bered from Poland. In 17S6, he died, at the age of seventy- 
four years, with the reputation of being the greatest warrior 
of the time, and one of the most distinguished princes of 
whom history has preserved any memorial. This distinc 



%76 MODERN HISTORY. — fERIODX. 

tion, however, lies not in his moral, but in his intellectual 
endowments. 

§ Frederick possessed a discernment, energy, activity, decision, 
and constancy of purpose, which fitted him to act the part of a hero; 
and, together with these qualities, as much moral perverseness as is 
required to make a consummate hero. He was not so distinguished 
for the conduct of a battle, or a campaign, as for resources in adver- 
sity, for celerity of operation, and, especially, for the discipline of 
his troops. An instance of his decision of character, and the seve- 
rity of his discipline, appears in the following relation : 

Intending to make, in the night, an important movement in his 
camp, which was in sight of the enemy, he gave orders, that by eight 
o'clock, all the lights in the camp should be put out, on pain of death. 
The moment that the time was past, he walked out himself to see whe- 
ther all were dark. He found a light in the tent of a captain Zietern, 
which he entered, just as the officer was folding up a letter. Zietern 
knew him, and instantly fell on his knees, to intreat his mercy. 
The king asked, to whom he had been writing; he said it was a let- 
ter to his wife, which he had retained the candle these few minutes 
beyond the time, in order to finish. The king coolly ordered him to 
Write one line more, which he should dictate. This line was to in- 
form his wife, without any explanation, that by such an hour the 
next day, he should be a dead man. The letter was then sent as had 
been intended, and the next day the captain was executed. 

Frederick was remarkably attentive to business, and every depart- 
ment of administration was under his own immediate inspection 
The most minute particulars of national and domestic policy, did 
not escape his observation. He extended the limits of his kingdom, 
and much increased its industry, population, and wealth. 

His intellectual powers were great, and when we consider his 
situation, and the little care that had been taken of his education, 
we must acknowledge, that his literary acquisitions were considera- 
ble. He had much general knowledge of the sciences, and was well 
conversant with French writers on polite literature. He aimed at 
the reputation both of philosopher and poet, and was a voluminous 
author in prose and verse. 

Nothing favourable can be said of his moral and religious charac- 
ter. He was sceptical, undevout, and addicted to various species of 
Vice. Atheists and libertines were his bosom companions, particu- 
larly the corrupting and flagitious Voltaire. 

7. He was succeeded. 1786, by Frederick William II., his 
nephew, an impolitic, pleasure-loving prince, who joined in 
the league against the French republic, and then deserted his 
allies. Dying in 1797, he was succeeded by his son Frede- 
rick William III., who unhappily revived some obsolete pre- 
tensions to Hanover, in 1805, and on Napoleon's proposing to 
restore that electorate to the king of England, in 1806, Fre* 



GERMANY. 277 

dericktook the field against him, and experienced an utter 
overthrow at the great battle of Jena, which Was fought Oc- 
tober 14, 1806. 

§ A hereditary animosity against Austria, prevented a co-operation 
of strength, when their national existence was threatened. The 
whole of Germany well united and organized, would, probably, 
at any time, have resisted the power of Napoleon. But being di- 
vided, both Prussia and Austria, as well as the lesser states, were 
overrun and subjected by the fortunate conqueror. Prussia, after 
neglecting several opportunities of humbling the common enemy, 
with a strange inconsideration, risked her national existence on the 
•ssue of a single battle. She trusted too implicitly in her ancient mi- 
litary fame, and the beauty of her army, (for there was not a proud- 
er army in Europe,) and, therefore, fell before her more sagacious 
and calculating enemy. Frederick was shorn of nearly half of his 
dominions. 

8. In 1812, the Prussian monarch assisted the French in 
their Russian campaign ; but on the failure of that enter 
prise, joined his forces with those of the emperor Alexander, 
and contributed to the subsequent overthrow of Napoleon. At 
the battle of Waterloo, his army, under the valiant Blucher, 
turned the fortune of the day, and thus essentially contributed 
to the restoration of the Bourbons. Prussia honourably acquit- 
ted herself in this great contention, and regained her former 
territory. Of late years, the Prussian king has been effectu- 
ally engaged in promoting the intellectual improvement of his 
people. Perhaps, no monarch in Europe, has done more than 
he, to advance the true happiness and glory of his kingdom. 
He has declared, that a Bible shall be put into the hands of 
every peasant's family in his realm. 

§ It has been conjectured by politicians, that Prussia cannot long 
preserve the rank that she has now attained, situated as her territory 
is, running out in different parcels of lands, of singular shape, and 
intersected by half of the secondary states of Germany. It is, there- 
fore, further supposed, that Frederick only waits a favourable oppor- 
tunity, to consolidate his territory ; and they are little acquainted 
with the intelligence, energy, and ambition of the Prussian people, 
who imagine they will be backward in attempting any thing which 
promises to promote their national honour and security. 

GERMANY. 

9 In the history of Germany, during this period, we aie 
principally concerned with Austria, its more important mem- 
ber, in which the imperial crown usually resides. From the 

24 



278 MODRRN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

commencement of this period, there was no war of any con 
sequence, till that of the Pragmatic Sanction, which was an 
engagement of several powers, to secure the Austrian domi- 
•nions to the female children of the emperor Charles VL, in 
case of the failure of male issue. 

§ Charles VI. died without male issue, 1740. The house of Austria, 
in the male line, thus became extinct, after it had governed Austria 
for several centuries, and the whole of the Austrian dominions now 
belonged to Maria Theresa, the eldest daughter of the emperor. She 
was accordingly raised to the Austrian throne ; but the neighbour- 
ing powers, regardless of their engagements, supported the duke of 
Bavaria, in his claim to the crown. After much opposition, the lat- 
ter was invested with the imperial dignity, in 1742, under the name 
of Charles VII. ; but this prince, worn out by a complication of 
bodily complaints, and by a long train of misfortunes, died two years 
afterwards. In the mean time, the queen, though nearly overwhelm- 
ed by her numerous adversaries, finally triumphed over them, and 
at the peace of 1748, was confirmed in the possession of her domi- 
nions, and her husband, duke of Lorrain, under the title of Francis 
I., was raised to the imperial throne. 

10. Francis L, was crowned at Frankfort, in 1745. He 
continued the war till 1748, when the peace of Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle was concluded, and Maria Theresa obtained the succes- 
sion of her father. She had all the time been sustained by 
the affection of her subjects, and had received important aid 
from Great Britain. 

During the reign of Francis, the " seven years' war," the 
fiercest that had hitherto been waged in Germany, took place ; 
but of this, an account has been given in the history of Prussia. 

§ Maria Theresa, as heiress to the Austrian dominions, was queen 
of Hungary and Bohemia; and as the wife of Francis, was empress 
of Germany. She was a woman distinguished for her heroism, in- 
telligence, felicity of temper, and captivating condescension. As a 
wife and parent, she was unrivalled ; she was blessed with a nume- 
rous and amiable progeny, and left her possessions to a son, who 
was worthy of the empire. She built hospitals, encouraged com- 
merce and science, and did every thing which humanity and muni- 
ficence could devise to render her infirm soldiers comfortable. 

11. Joseph II., the son of Francis and Maria, succeeded 
to the empire, in 1765. He seized Bavaria, on the death of 
Maximilian II., the elector, 1777 ; made war two years with 
Prussia ; reformed the church of Germany, indulging the 
protcstants with the imperial protection, and curtailing the 
authority of the court of Rome ; dismantled the fortified 
towns in Brabant ; restrained the excesses of the clergy in 



GERMANY. 279 

liiat country, and carried on a disastrous war against the 
Turks. During that war, he died. He maintained the cha- 
racter of a most equitable and tolerant prince. 

§ Joseph promulgated a decree in favour of the liberty of the 
press, which had been, hitherto, much circumscribed in the Austrian 
dominions. He even permitted, that all strictures upon the throne 
itself might be published, with full security, provided they did not 
descend to the character of libels and pasquinades. " If they be 
founded in justice," said he, " we shall profit by them ; if not, we 
shall disregard them ;" a remark well worthy of his character and 
dignity. 

It was during the reign of Joseph, that a series of unfavourable 
seasons had occasioned a general dearth of corn, which was more 
or less felt in all the countries of Europe ; but in parts of Germany, 
the scarcity was so great, that vast numbers of people actually pe- 
rished, and the peasants, in many places, were compelled to unthatch 
their cottages, to supply the want of provender for their cattle. They 
themselves, in some instances, subsisted on the bark of beech and 
alder, mixed with a quantity of spice. A part of this time, terrible 
inundations overspread the country ; several districts were totally 
ruined by a flood of the Elbe ; Hamburgh was in a most critical 
situation ; and the great suburb lying towards the Elbe, was so com- 
pletely covered with water, that only the tops of the trees were dis- 
cernible. 

12. Leopold II., brother of Joseph, was invested with the 
empire, in 1790. Though powerfully solicited to arm against 
the revolutionists of France, his moderation and prudence 
kept him aloof from the vortex ; but a speedy death cut short 
the promise of much excellence. At the time of his death, 
however, he was preparing to take the field against France. 

§ After the " seven years' war," the Germanic body remained in 
comparative quiet, till the French Revolution. During that period, 
up to the time of the restoration of the Bourbons, Germany suffer- 
ed more than most other nations. Its territory was the theatre of 
most of the wars that were waged during the great struggle. This 
country, however, had been eminently prepared to experience the 
evils which such an event was calculated to produce. The Germans 
embraced the fashionable prevailing system of anarchy and irreli- 
gion, with almost the same ardour which characterized the French 
themselves ; and their country was early inundated with the deadly 
publications which proceeded from the school of atheistical disor- 
ganizes. 

In nearly all the wars ol the revolution, and of the subsequent 
period, Austria has had a share. She has generally been arrayed 
against France, and often been beaten. In the production of such a 
result, some have been disposed to ascribe more to French intrigue, 
than to the superiority of the French soldiers, or generals, over those 
of Austria. The archduke Charles, brother of the present emperor 



280 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

Francis II., has often shown himself not inferior to any of the com 
manders of his time. 

13. Francis II., son of Leopold, was crowned in 1792. He 
has proved to be a prince of mild virtues, and is much re- 
spected. He prosecuted the contemplated war with the 
French republic ; but it proving unsuccessful, he concluded 
the treaty of Campo Formio, in 1797, by which, the Nether- 
lands were ceded to France. This was the first in that series 
of hostilities, which distinguished that period of convulsion. 

14. Hostilities w^ere renewed in 1799, in Italy, on the part 
of Austria, assisted by Russia ; for it was evident to the Aus- 
trian sovereign, that France was bent on aggrandizement. 
The Russian forces were commanded by Marshal Suwarrow. 
The war was carried on with great success, on the part of the 
Austrians and Russians, and the French were in a few months 
driven out of Italy. Much now might have been accom- 
plished for the salvation of Europe, had it not been for the 
jealousy which the Austrian court felt towards their ally. 

§ This jealousy was, without doubt, excited by the intrigues of 
France ; and the consequence was, that Paul, the Russian emperor 
recalled his victorious troops. 

Austria, left single-handed to sustain the contest, and meet- 
ing the enemy with scattered forces, suffered most severely 
in the great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden. Peace 
was concluded at Luneville, in 1801. This was the second 
war, and more humiliating to Austria than the former. 

§ During the peace, Francis formed a numerous army, and fore- 
seeing the ruin of the German constitution, caused himself to be 
proclaimed hereditary emperor of Austria, in 1804. 

15. The Austrian sovereign had been mortified too severe- 
ly, to remain contented at peace. A third warlike coalition 
was formed between Austria and Russia, against France, in 
1805. But the destruction of an Austrian army, under Ge- 
neral Mack, and the fatal battle of Austerlitz, speedily ter- 
minated this war. The same year, the peace of Presburgh 
followed, in which the Austrian monarchy was far more hum- 
bled than ever, by the loss of some of its most important pos 
sessions. 

§ A part only of the emperor of Russia's forces, had joined those 
of Francis, when the battle of Austerlitz took place. To this im- 
prudence, was added the greater one, of risking an engagement 
without the assistance of the archduke Charles, who, al the distance 



GERMANY. 281 

of only a few days 5 march, was hastening with a victorious army 
of nearly one hundred thousand men. 

In 1806, several of the states of Germany were united 
under the name of the " Confederacy of the Rhine," of which 
Napoleon was acknowledged the head ; and in the course of 
the same year, Francis was compelled formally to resign the 
title of emperor of Germany, and to absolve the German 
states from their reciprocal duties towards the empire. 

§ According to the terms of this confederacy, all those states of 
the ancient German empire, that did not accede to the act of federa- 
tion, were excluded from common protection. By this means, the 
French emperor united Bavaria, Wirtemburg, Baden, Burg, Darm- 
stadt, Nassau, Hohenzollern, &c, to the political interests of France, 
and, virtually, raised himself to the head of the German empire. 

16. In 1809, Austria, for the fourth time, took the field 
against France. In this war, was fought the sanguinary 
battle of Essling, in which the French emperor, almost for 
the first time, was beaten in a regular field fight ; but re- 
ceiving a large reinforcement, he crossed the Danube, from 
which he had been driven back, and fought the long and ob- 
stinate battle of Wagram. This battle, lost by Austria, ter- 
minated the war, and the conditions of peace were soon after 
settled by the treaty of Vienna, according to which, Francis 
was obliged to relinquish a further portion of territory, and 
consented to bestow his eldest daughter and child, Maria 
Louisa, on the emperor of France. 

§ In this war, the Austrians had taken wiser measures than before. 
Their best commanders were in the field ; the archduke Charles, as- 
sisted by the archduke John, the prince of Lichtenstein, and the 
prince of Schwartzenburg. The whole strength and resources of the 
empire were held in requisition ; but Austria had become essentially 
weakened, and really less a match for France than ever : and, be- 
sides, the French emperor was in advance of the Austrian. Antici- 
pating the event of a declaration of war, he was soon prepared for 
action, and joining hig army, marched at once into the heart of Ger- 
many. So expeditious was the French emperor, that forty-five 
days after the declaration of war by Austria, the battle of Essling 
was fought below Vienna. 

1 7. In 1813, Austria engaged in a fifth war with France, 
having united its forces with those of Russia, Prussia, Great 
Britain, and almost all Europe, in the invasion of Fiance, in 
obtaining possession of Paris, and in dethroning Napoleon. 
On this occasion, the emperor accompanied the army, which 
was commanded by the prince of Schwartzenburg. Then 

24* 



282 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD X. 

was gained the celebrated battle of Leipsic, which produced 
the overthrow of Napoleon. The whole allied forces were, 
in this battle, principally commanded by Schwartzenburg. 

§ When this junction of the greatest part of Europe was formed, 
Napoleon had just returned from Russia, having lost his great army, 
composed in part of troops of many European nations, then his tri- 
butaries. Austria, at first seemed reluctant to take the field, proba- 
bly on account of its family alliance. A remembrance of former 
sufferings may also have had its effect. But, though late, the assis- 
tance of Austria was very efficient. 

It was on hearing of the issue of the battle of Leipsic, which was 
announced by Schwartzenburg himself, to the emperors of Austria 
and Russia, and to the king of Prussia, that these three sovereigns, 
who were viewing the battle from a distant hill, on horseback, im- 
mediately dismounted, and, on their bended knees, offered a tribute 
of thanks to the God who had crowned their arms with victory. 

18. On the return of Bonaparte from Elba, in 1815, Au- 
stria, for the last time, combined with the other powers of 
Europe, to dethrone him, and succeeded. At this time, a 
new union was formed by the states of Germany, designed 
to secure its future tranquillity, under the title of the Ger- 
manic Confederation. This was signed at Vienna, by its 
sovereigns and free cities ; and it is to be hoped that, as it 
has done hitherto, so it will continue to prove, a powerful 
preservative against the renewal of those wars, domestic and 
foreign, of which Germany has so often been the cause and 
the victim. 

§ In the new order of things, which succeeded the downfal of the 
French emperor, Austria manifested a due regard to the rights of 
the Germanic body, as appears from the nature of the confederation 
above noticed. The several states have been reinstated, as far as 
possible, in their former possessions, and Francis is now acknow- 
ledged, as formerly, the emperor of Germany. 

Shortly after, another union, of a more doubtful character, was 
formed between the emperors of Austria and Russia, and the king of 
Prussia, to which they gave the name of the Holy Alliance. The 
object, in a great measure, seems to have been to confirm their own 
power, and to suppress any effort, on the part of their subjects, to 
obtain liberal constitutions. 

The improper views of this confederacy, were openly displayed 
on the occasion of the Neapolitan revolution. A congress of the 
three sovereigns, in 1821, issued a manifesto against Naples, in 
which they plainly avow their hostility to every form of improve- 
ment. To enforce their views, an Austrian army marched towards 
the territories of Naples. This alliance may, at the present mo 
ment, be considered as virtually dissolved. 



POLAND. 283 



POLAND. 



19. Poland, which existed in independence, during a 
part of the present period, was a nation of some importance, 
for several ages ; but we feel little interest in its history, till 
nearly the memorable era when it was blotted out from the 
list of nations. Its fine situation, and rich natural resources, 
are strikingly contrasted with its wretched government and 
institutions ;• nor can we, perhaps, find a spot on the globe, 
where, with so many physical means of securing felicity, a 
civilized people are found, that have been involved in greater 
miseries. Its former government, which partook of all the 
different kinds, with a peculiarly strong infusion of aristocracy, 
and with a weak executive power, waa wholly inadequate to 
the administration of justice, or the maintenance of peace. 
Weakness, anarchy and crime within, and injustice, trea- 
chery, and oppression on the part of others, without, consti- 
tute a great portion of the history of Poland. Yet its in- 
habitants were not without some striking and noble charac- 
teristics. They were a brave and martial people. Amidst 
their degradation, they cherished the love of liberty in an 
eminent degree. 

Till the first division and plunder of Poland, in 1772, we 
find a long list of kings up to the year 842, A. C. But we 
can record the names of a very few only. 

§ Poland is denominated by the natives, Poloka ; which is a Scla- 
vonian word, signifying a level or champain country. Such is the 
surface of Poland. 

In the history of its sovereigns, we notice the name of Lech V., 
who is here introduced for the sake of a singular maxim, which he 
used to utter, and which must be very convenient to a king. " A 
sovereign is not bound to observe his oath, except when neither his 
safety nor his advantage requires that he should violate it." His 
reign, it is said, was the most inauspicious in the annals of the na- 
tion. 

Cassimer III., the Great, formed a new code of laws, which he 
committed to writing ; for, before his time, the Poles had only oral 
traditions. This was in the middle of the fourteenth century. Cas- 
simer is said to have been a model of integrity, wisdom and pru- 
dence. 

Sigismund I., whose reign began in 1506, was one of the most 
accomplished monarchs that ever sat on the throne of Poland. In his 
epitaph, which was not composed in the language of exaggeration. 



284 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

he was styled the " conqueror of the Russians, Wallachians, and 
Prussians," and obtained the still more honourable appellation of the 
" father of his country." He applied himself to the improvement 
of the manners o r his subjects, by inspiring them with a taste for 
the arts and sr'ences, and fortified and embellished the cities 

No Polish monarch was more distinguished, on the whole, than 
John Sobieski, who ascended the throne in 1674. Many of the 
rulers of Poland were foreigners, but Sobieski was a native, elected 
on account of his eminent virtues, and military talents. He was 
particularly distinguished by his wars with the Turks, and his vic- 
tories over them. The assistance which he rendered to the house 
of Austria, when Vienna was besieged by an army of 200,000 men, 
has been mentioned in another place. He died in 1696, leaving his 
country in prosperity and peace. 

Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony, was chosen as the succes- 
sor of Sobieski, after an interregnum of twelve months. The fac- 
tious nobles, who had been kept in awe under Sobieski, were un- 
willing to place any one of his family on the throne, and thus showed 
themselves unworthy of such a sovereign. Augustus made war against 
Charles XII. of Sweden, mistaking utterly the character of his ene- 
my. Being defeated and overcome, he was dethroned, and Stanislaus, 
through the influence of Charles in the diet of Warsaw, was elect- 
ed to fill his place, in 1704. After the ruin of Charles, at Pultowa. 
Augustus was restored to the throne, and in 1773, was succeeded by 
his son Frederick Augustus II., after an interregnum of eight months 
The reign of the latter was generally tranquil and peaceable, though 
both before and afterwards, the kingdom was in a very unquiet state, 
owing to political and religious controversies, as well as foreign wars. 

Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, elected in 1763, was the last 
king of Poland. He was the creature of Catharine of Russia, placed 
on the throne, more by the influence of her armies and treasures, 
than by the free consent of the Polish nobles ; and in the subsequent 
difficulties of his reign, was unable to manifest the independence of 
a sovereign. He was finally kept as an honourable prisoner, at Pe- 
tersburgh, where he died, in 1798. 

20. In 1772, the dismemberment of Poland, by Russia, 
Prussia, and Austria, which had, for some time, been secret 
ly meditated, took place, to the utter astonishment of all 
Europe. This has been stigmatized as one of the most un- 
principled acts recorded in history. The pretexts of the 
plunderers, as set forth in their manifestoes, were various ; but 
they were doubtless encouraged to this act of violence, in 
consequence of the perpetual divisions in the Polish counsels, 
and the mutual animosities of the nobility. Indeed, they 
purposely increased the factions and difficulties in which the 
nation was involved. 

§ Prussia laid the train of events, by flattering the Russians with 



POLAND. 285 

the idea of giving a king to Poland; but not designing that Poland 
should sink into a Russian province, it was contrived on the part of 
Prussia, to make the Poles dissatisfied with their king. This was 
easily effected, and in the course of two or three years, nothing could 
exceed the disorder, dissensions, and weakness of the kingdom. In 
this situation of affairs, when the Poles were prevented from vindi- 
cating their sacred rights, the unholy deed of partition was perpe- 
trated. Each party had previously agreed on its portion, the whole 
including nearly half of the Polish territory. The Diet was assem- 
bled, and surrounded by the partitioning powers, it could do no other- 
wise than sanction, by a legislative act, the crime which these 
powers had committed. 

In the division which was made, Frederick seized Polish 
Prussia, and a part of Great Poland ; the emperor of Austria, 
the kingdoms of Galicia and Ludomiria ; and Catharine, 
Polish Livonia, with a part of Lithuania. 

21. In 1791, a revolution took place in Poland; a new 
constitution was proclaimed, which opened to the middling 
classes, the avenue to every employment ; and the crown, 
hitherto elective, was declared to be hereditary. This was 
done in an assembly of the people, with entire concord. But 
Poland, despoiled of half her territories, was weak; and 
though the change was approved by all Europe, except Russia, 
the Poles were suffered to become the victims of the Russian 
empress, and eventually again of the Prussian and Austrian 
sovereigns. A new division was agreed on, in 1793, which 
included a considerable portion of the remainder of Poland. 

§ Catharine first resented the act of the Poles in framing a new 
constitution, as it was wholly opposed to her ambitious views in re- 
gard to the remainder of Poland. Frederick William, though he at 
first expressed his approbation of the measure, yet finally, with un- 
blushing effrontery, consented, with the others, to act the royal 
plunderer. 

22. Before, however, this second nefarious project could be 
executed, it became necessary to encounter the hazards of 
war. The spirit of the Poles was raised, and under the brave 
and patriotic Kosciusko, they resisted, for a time, the united 
force of their powerful enemies. But on the part of enfeebled 
Poland, numbers were wanting, which could not long be 
supplied by love of country and a desire of vengeance ; and 
Kosciusko, after making every effort that man could be ex- 
pected to make, was defeated and taken prisoner. Under 
the barbarous Suwarrow, Warsaw was captured and sacked. 



288 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

In attempting to defend it, nine thousand gallant Poles 
perished. 

§ But the carnage which succeeded the victory, was greater, and 
has forever tarnished the laurels of the Russian general. " The houses 
were pillaged, women violated, children murdered, and thirty thou- 
sand victims fell a prey to a ferocity bordering on that of savages. 

Kosciusko, who originated from a noble family, had been a dis- 
tinguished officer in the United States of America, during the war 
of the Revolution. The Poles elected him their general, and he 
proved worthy of their choice. Under more propitious circumstan- 
ces, he would have been hailed as the deliverer of his country. After 
his defeat, he was held as a prisoner at Petersburgh, till the death of 
the empress, in 1797. Upon the accession of Paul, he obtained his 
freedom, and was favoured with a pension — an act on the part of 
the Russian monarch, which received the applause of the civilized 
world. Kosciusko has since been in America. 

23. A third and final dismemberment of Poland, took place 
in 1795. when the three powers appropriated it entirely to 
themselves. Both Stanislaus and Kosciusko, were secured ; 
the spirit of the Poles was crushed, and the robbers had only 
quietly to divide all that remained of their bloody prey. 

At the congress held at Vienna, in 1815, part of Poland 
was united to the Russian Empire, with the preservation of 
its own constitution ; and on this event, Alexander, emperor 
of Russia, assumed the title of king of Poland. 

RUSSIA. 

24. In the history of Russta, we find Catharine I., the wife 
of Peter the Great, on the throne, near the commencement 
of this period. By his appointment, she succeeded him, in 
1725. She reigned only two years, but with great ability, 
and pursued the plan begun by her husband, in civilizing her 
people. 

§ Catharine was originally the wife of a Swedish soldier, but fall 
ing into the power of the Russians, she was employed in the gene 
ral's kitchen, where Menzicoff, one of Peter's favourites, saw and 
obtained her. Peter having met her at Menzicoff' s house, and being 
delighted with her understanding, at first made her his mistress, but 
afterwards married her. She obtained a complete control over the 
emperor, by her singularly gay and cheerful temper, as well as by 
her respectful and kind attentions. 

25. Peter II., grandson of Peter the Great, succeeded her. 
in 1727. * He reigned only three years, but his reign wns a 



Russia. 287 

scene of peace and prosperity. He was extremely beloved 
by his people. 

§ The succession, during several reigns after Peter the Great, seems 
not to have been regular, or fixed by any certain rules ; yet the prin- 
ces came to their thrones with little difficulty, and pursued the gene- 
ral features of that wise policy which Peter adopted. The great 
object constantly kept in view, was the advancement of civilization 
- and knowledge among the people. 

1 26. Anne, duchess of Courland, next ascended the throne, 
in 1730, the male line of the house of Romanow, to which 
( Peter the Great belonged, having become extinct. She was 
a niece of that monarch. Her reign was glorious and happy, 
'and comprised the war against Turkey, in 1736 ; the con- 
quest of the principal towns in Crim Tartary ; and the vic- 
tory of Choczim over the Turks, in 1739. 
, 27. On the death of Anne, Ivan, or John, only about two 
.month's old, was elected emperor, 1740 ; but the next year 
a sudden revolution took place, by which the young prince 
was deposed, and Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, 
was proclaimed empress. 

i There were strong points of resemblance between her and 
■ Iier father, and like him, she seemed to possess an inherent 
capacity for reigning. She united benevolence with great 
political talents, and to her, Russia is indebted for much of 
its influence in the affairs of Europe and Asia. In 1757, 
her troops, in conjunction with those of Austria, entered upon 
" the seven years' war" against the great Frederick, and her 
part was so well acted, that had she lived, the Prussian mo- 
narchy would probably have been in jeopardy, as to its very 
existence. 

§ Elizabeth founded the universities of Petersburgh and Moscow 
and decreed a new code of laws, called Elizabeth's code. It is re- 
ported that a few years preceding her death, this princess indulged 
in the most unbounded intemperance and sensuality. 

28. She was succeeded, in 1762, by her nephew, Peter III., 
son of her elder sister Anne, and consequently grandson of 
the great Peter. He was at first somewhat popular with his 
subjects, but they soon became disaffected towards him. He 
was found to be deficient in talents and strength of charac- 
ter ; and his wife, Catharine, becoming disgusted with him, 
nnd inspired with ambitious views, is supposed to have been 



288 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD X. 

the mover of the conspiracy by which he was dethroned and 
murdered, in the first year of his reign. 

§ Catharine of Anhalt, a princess of Germany, had been married 
to Peter several years before his accession ; and as she began her 
political life with crime, she seems never afterwards to have been 
scrupulous as to the means with which she executed her plans. It 
was by the help of her paramour Orloff, that she arrested the em- 
peror, and procured his deposition and death. Orloff first gave him 
poisoned brandy to drink, and then strangled him. 

29. Catharine II., who was immediately proclaimed, com- 
bined with her singular depravation of principle, a powerful 
intellect. As a woman, she was a disgrace to her sex and to 
human nature, but as an empress she was great, and justly 
denominated " the Semiramis of the North." Her reign was 
brilliant and long, and at once the admiration and terror of 
all Europe. Notwithstanding the great extent of her empire, 
she sought continually to enlarge its boundaries. In hei 
wars with Turkey, Persia, and Poland, she secured immense 
acquisitions of territory. Her transactions in regard to the 
dismemberment of Poland, have already been related. In 
regard to Turkey, her object appears to have been nothing 
less than the possession 01 the Ottoman throne in Europe- 
an object which Russia has ever since had at heart. 

§ One of the victorious wars which Catharine carried on with 
Turkey, cost her two hundred thousand men, and 200,000,000 rubles ; 
while it cost the latter three hundred and thirty thousand men, and 
200,000,000 piastres — a war scarcely less ruinous than triumphant. 
In this war, Ismail was the last town that surrendered. Twice 
were the Russians under Suwarrow repulsed j but at the third at- 
tack, they scaled the ramparts, forced their way into the place, and 
put to the sword all who opposed them. Fifteen thousand Russians 
purchased with their lives the bloody laurels of their leader, who 
wrote to the empress with his usual brevity, " The haughty Ismail 
is at your feet." 

30. Catharine was succeeded by her son, Paul Petrowitz, 
1.796, whose reign was the reverse of that of his mother, and 
who occupied himself with trifles. In 1799, he declared war 
against revolutionary France, and sent Suwarrow into Italy, 
who met with great success till he passed into Switzerland, 
whence he was recalled by his sovereign. In 1801, Paul 
declared war against England, and obliged Sweden and 
Denmark to join ; but soon afterwards this unhappy monarch 
was strangled, by some conspirators, who were officers in 
nis court. 



hussia. 289 

31. Alexander L, the eldest son of Paul, was proclaimed 
in 1801, at the age of twenty-two. His name will descend 
with renown to after ages, as the deliverer of enthralled 
nations. His reign was at first pacific, nor did he make those 
efforts against France, which seemed desirable at that junc- 
ture. He, however, became alarmed at length by the am- 
otion of Bonaparte, and in 1805, formed a coalition with 
Austria, against the conqueror. 

He was able to effect a junction with only a remnant of 
the Austrian forces, which had previously been deserted, and 
being attacked unexpectedly at Austerlitz, he experienced a 
signal overthrow. He then withdrew his army into Russia, 
but designing to assist Prussia, the next year he hastened to 
the scene of war ; but before his army could reach it, the 
battle of Jena had been fought, and the power of Prussia half 
annihilated. Russia left alone on the field, maintained the 
contest with the French emperor for a few months, during 
which several sanguinary battles were fought, without any 
decisive advantage on either side. At length the fatal battle 
of Friedland, obliged Alexander to sign the treaty of Tilsit. 

In 1808, he engaged in a war with Sweden, in which Fin- 
land was conquered, and in 1811, he commenced hostilities 
against Turkey. At this critical time, a mighty contest was 
about to ensue, which was to decide the fate of a great part 
of the globe. The refusal of Alexander, in 1812, to concur 
m Bonaparte's scheme, of excluding British commerce from 
the whole European continent, highly displeased the latter. 
This circumstance, concurring with the French emperor's de- 
sire to establish an universal monarchy, induced him to march 
against Russia, with all the force of the territories under his 
dominion, and of every state rendered subservient to his 
views. "In that way," says Prof. Heeren, " a storm of na- 
tions arose, (about twenty were united under the standard of 
the conqueror,) unparalleled in history, since the expeditions of 
Xerxes and Attila." The Russians retreated steadily before 
the French, not without engaging in several bloody battles, 
in which the French were victorious, but by means of which 
they were continually weakened. 

At Borodino, a few miles in advance of Moscow, the Rus- 
sians made a stand, and here was fought one of the most 
terrible battles ever recorded. The loss on both sides was 

25 



290 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD X. 

nearly equal ; the Russians, however, retired, and the French 
entered Moscow. But they entered it to witness its confla- 
gration ; the Russians had set it on fire, and thus deprived 
the French army of its expected winter quarters. It was 
obliged to retreat ; and the animosity of the Russians, aided 
by the terrible severity of the weather, contributed almost to 
annihilate the most efficient military force that ever invaded 
a nation. 

§ Upon the invasion of his dominions, Alexander soon made peace 
with the Turks, and this on advantageous terms, as has always been 
the case in the wars between Russia and Turkey. Alexander might 
have met his foe with an equal number of nations, if he had had 
time to summon them from the mountains and deserts of Asia. All 
his troops, divided into three armies, by no means equalled, in num- 
ber, those of the enemy, which amounted to more than half a mil- 
lion. But although the collection of the Russian force was only 
partially effected, yet there was a high moral preparation in the spirit, 
both of the prince and his people. After one conspiracy in the be- 
ginning of the contest was detected, and its authors summarily pun- 
ished, all orders of the people manifested the most determined pur- 
pose to resist the enemy, submitting to sacrifices, which nothing but 
devoted patriotism and the deadliest hatred of the invader, could in- 
spire. Alexander, in his manifesto, declared that he would never 
make peace, so long as the enemy remained within his empire. And 
to engage God and religion on the side of Russia, one entire conse 
cration of the empire and of the church, was made to the God os 
armies. 

The constant retiring of the Russians, without risking a great bat- 
tle, greatly weakened the expectation indulged by Bonaparte, ol 
speedily terminating the war, by penetrating into the heart of the 
empire. Fire and rapine, by friends and foes, marked the course of 
the invading army, and seemed to render return impossible. Wilna 
was occupied the 28th of June. The French advanced with many 
skirmishes by way of Witepsk to Smolensk, where two of the Rus- 
sian armies formed a junction, August 6th, while the Prussian aux- 
iliaries besieged Riga, and the Austrians were manceuvering in Vol- 
hynia. Smolenk Was stormed and destroyed, August 18th ; after 
which, Koutousoff was vested with the chief command. After the 
battle of Borodino, the solitary capital was entered, September 14th 
and 15th. In the Kremlin, the ancient residence of the Czars, the 
conqueror took up his head quarters, the limit of his expedition, and 
the grave of his greatness. 

Moscow, fired by its own citizens, fell a victim for the empire ; for 
such a drama demanded such a catastrophe ; but in its pillars of fire 
the first dawn of freedom shone over shackled Europe in the farthest 
East. Instead of a Capua, the army suddenly stood in a waste. 
' The campaign may now end," was the proposal of Napoleon ; " the 
campaign is now beginning," was the reply of Koutousoff. A spee- 



RUSSIA. 291 

dy retreat, before the beginning of the winter's cold, might, perhaps, 
have saved the army ; but the pride of the conqueror disdained this 
measure, till it was too late. When three-fourths of Moscow were 
consumed to the ground, just as the fatigued and debilitated army of 
the French entered it, needing repose and refreshment, and an un- 
conquerable Russian army was before it, it was impossible for Na- 
poleon to stay there. Never was a disappointment more sudden and 
more bitter. " The retreat which he had declined, he was obliged to 
undertake, and such a retreat, so disastrous and terrific, history never 
before recorded. 

32. Alexander pursued the enemy beyond the boundaries 
of his empire, and thus gave the signal for the emancipation 
of Europe. He first exhorted Prussia to war. She obeyed 
the call, and others, the late vassals of France, sooner or later, 
joined his standard. "From this time the storm of nations, 
which had gathered in the west, against the east, was to be 
turned from the east against the west." An immediate erup- 
tion was prevented, by the fortresses and countries which were 
occupied by the relations of the rulers, and the certainty that 
Napoleon had himself escaped. But in the nature of the 
case, it could not be long ere the subjugated nations should 
turn upon their falling master. Austria was the last to join 
the alliance ; her weight in the scale was decisive. 

The campaign of 1813, which thus began, is one of the 
most memorable in history. Never were more battles fought 
within a given space of time, and never w 7 ere greater than 
some of them. In regard to the battle of Leipsic, which fin- 
ished the campaign, Heeren says, " If the mass of combat- 
ants, almost half a million, met on the field, makes it the first 
battle of modern times, its consequences do so no less." The 
way was now opened to France itself, in the signal defeat of 
the French emperor. Accordingly, in the beginning of the 
year 1814, the respective sovereigns entered Paris, dethroned 
Napoleon, and replaced on the throne the house of Bourbon. 
The renown of Alexander was now complete, as the provi- 
dential deliverer of Europe. 

§ This prince deceased 1st December, 1825, and was succeeded by 
Nicholas I. 

The character of Alexander, will appear with advantage on the 
page of history, and his success in saving Russia and Europe, from 
tne grasp of military ambition, will consecrate his name as the most 
fortunate of sovereigns. The circumstances under which he enter- 
ed upon nis reign, were, indeed, calculated fully to bring into action 
all his faculties. Though inferior to his great antagonist in native 

J 



292 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

intellectual power, he was, perhaps, of all the European sovereigns 
the most fit, by his indefatigable spirit, to contend with him. He 
appears to have been guided mainly by a principle of honesty ; and 
if several private accounts are to be credited, there are pleasing in- 
dications, that he was one of the very few princes who can be called 
truly religious. The most inexplicable part of his character, in a 
moral view, was his suppression of the Russian Bible Society, which 
had, a few years before, commenced under his own auspices. 
i Since the event, which we have mentioned as the termination of 
the tenth period, the affairs of the Russians have been generally pros- 
perous. Besides a successful conflict which they have maintained 
with Persia, they have rushed into war recently, with their old ene- 
mies, the Turks; and although the present is the second campaign, 
they have been met with so vigorous a spirit, on the part of the lat- 
ter, under their warlike sultan, Mahmoud II., that the issue of the 
contest seems somewhat doubtful. Russia puts forth her whole 
power, and Turkey fights for her existence. Russian successes have, 
of late, been reported ; but it is altogether probable, that other cam- 
paigns* will be necessary, in order to drive the Ottomans into Asia, 
should the other great powers of Europe suffer the contest to con 
tinue. 

ENGLAND. 

House of Brunswick. 

33. George I., Elector of Hanover, had been proclaimed 
king, by the regency, on the death of Anne, 1714. At the 
commencement of the present period, he had, therefore, been 
on the throne about four years. Notwithstanding the divided 
state of the kingdom, the accession of George took place 
without the least opposition, tumult, or sign of popular dis- 
content. 

It was protestantism that gave the house of Brunswick the 
throne, and it was protestantism that was to preserve it to 
them. No new maxims, no new continental policy, could 
therefore become prevalent ; it was the ancient policy of Wil- 
liam IIT., modified according to the circumstances of the times. 
Thus harmony was established between the nation and the 
government ; and fortunately for the new house, there was 
for a long time yet, a pretender, who did not permit these 
maxims to be forgotten. 

* Since the above was penned, a series of splendid victories has attended 
the Russian arms, in consequence of which, a peace has been, concluded be- 
tween the contending powers, on terms exceedingly humiliating to the Turks 



ENGLAND, 293 

The natural consequence of this policy was, the fall of the 
tory ministry, which had made itself more than suspected by 
its conduct towards ihe pretender, and the restoration of the 
superiority of the whigs. 

§ George I., was the son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover, 
and of Sophia, grand-daughter of James I., and was in the 55th year 
of his age, when he ascended the throne. 

The Pretender, who was styled the Chevalier St. George, was the 
son of James II. His exclusion from the throne affected the public 
tranquillity, for a time. He had his partisans chiefly among the to- 
nes, and in Scotland ; but the several attempts which they made m 
his behalf, were ineffectual ; his intrigues were detected ; his forces 
were overpowered in battle ; many of the leaders among the rebels 
were captured and executed ; but the chevalier had the good fortune 
to escape to France. 

34. In 1720, the king having recommended to the com- 
mons the consideration of proper means for lessening the na- 
tional debt, this proved a prelude to the famous South Sea 
act, which became so ruinous in its consequences. In this 
scheme, it was believed possible speedily to perform by art, 
what can be the result only of continued exertion — the liqui- 
dation of the public debt ; but the projects of the South Sea 
company foundered, and thousands were involved in ruin. 
As the English government, however, allowed itself no des- 
potic steps, its credit was preserved entire ; and it found itself 
able, by a diminution of interest, to establish a sinking fund, 
which only needed a better administration, to effect its object. 

§ The character of George I. was that of a wise and good mo- 
narch, but he was less popular than he might have been, had he staid 
more at home, and manifested less partiality for his German domi- 



nions. 



una. , 

He died suddenly, of a paralytic disorder, on the continent, in the 
68th year of his age. 

34 i George II., succeeded his father, 1727, and, like him, 
favoured the whigs, and was strongly attached to his German 
possessions. His character was that of an active, intelligent 
prince, possessing a violent temper, and a love of war. His 
administration of affairs was generally equitable, and satisfac- 
tory to the people. A period of peace, during ten years, in 
the former part of his reign, happily occurred through want 
of a plausible pretence for embarking in a war. At length, 
occasion was found for collision with Spain, and war was 
declared in 1739. It produced no important results. In 1744, 
England declared war against France, and assisted Maria 

25* 



294 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X, 

Theresa, of Austria, in the war of succession. In this public 
contest, the principal states of Europe were involved ; and 
among others, the battles of Dettingen and Fontenoy were 
fought ; the former terminating in favour of the allies, the 
latter in favour of the French. The British king command- 
ed, in person, his army on the continent. 

§ The minister who guided the destinies of England, during this 
part of the reign of George II., as also during the principal part of 
the former, was Sir Robert Walpole. Concerning him, the his- 
toric professor of Gottingen says, "that without the restless ac- 
tivity which is often called greatness, he was a statesman most wor- 
thy of respect. He introduced uprightness into politics, at a time, 
when they were disgraced by the profligate Dubois, and the false 
Alberoni. But his maxim, to be on good terms with all, entangled 
him in a web of negotiations and relations ; from which, only an 
island state, like England, could have disengaged itself." Others, 
however, speak of him as distinguished for the system of corruption 
and venality which he practised in his administration. 

35. During the absence of the king on the continent, the 
rebellion in Scotland, 1745, took place, in consequence of an 
effort made by the son of the old pretender, for the British 
throne. The young Charles was assisted by Louis XV., 
and having landed in Scotland, led an army against the royal 
forces, which he defeated in the battles of Preston Pans, and 
Falkirk ; but in the subsequent battle of Culloden, he met 
with a decisive overthrow. The Stuart family made no more 
attempts to take possession of the sceptre which they had lost. 

In 1755, war was renewed between France and England, 
on account of encroachments made on the British territories 
in North America. The war was not at first very fortunate 
to the British ; but, at length, they met with signal success, 
and the result of it was, the surrender of all Canada, on the 
part of the French. It was in this war, that the brave "Wolfe 
perished, having distinguished himself by the capture of the 
city of Quebec. 

§ In the expedition against Quebec, the courage and perseverance 
of General Wolfe, surmounted incredible difficulties. It was on the 
Heights of Abraham, which he succeeded in gaining, that he fought 
and defeated the French army. As he occupied a conspicuous 
station in the front of the line, he had been aimed at by the enemy's 
marksmen, and received a shot in the wrist. Wrapping a handker- 
chief round his hand, he gave his orders, as usual, without betraying 
the least emotion ; and while he was advancing, at the head of the 
grenadiers, another ball, unfortunately, pierced the breast of this 



ENGLAND. 295 

young hero, who thus fell at the moment when victory was announ- 
ced. His death was mourned as a national ioss. 

36. At this period, the arms of Great Britain were trium- 
phant in every quarter of the globe ; but in the midst of his 
successes, the old king suddenly expired, in the 77th year of 
his age, and in the 34th of his reign. 

37. George III., grandson of the deceased, succeeded him 
in 1760. He w r as then in his eighteenth year, and swayed 
the sceptre during the long period of sixty years ; the longest 
reign in the annals of Great Britain. It is distinguished as 
a period of important events, and of the nation's advance- 
ment in power, wealth, commerce, and the arts. The re- 
sources of the British, in their great contests, during this 
reign, appear to have been almost inexhaustible. 

George III. commenced his reign at a favourable period, 
when the arms of the nation were triumphant, and w 7 hen 
Chatham, the ablest and most popular of the British minis- 
ters, administered the government. His ministry, which be- 
gan under the former reign, continued from the 20th of Octo- 
ber. 1756, to the 5th of October, 1761. 

§ " What five years !" says Heeren. " By the greatness of his 
own character, he elevated the spirit of his nation, for he was the 
first to breathe into it a confidence in itself." Upon the resignation 
of Mr. Pitt, violent political dissensions arose, which were afterwards 
increased, upon the retirement of the duke of Newcastle. 

38. An ill-judged course of policy, pursued by the ministry 
towards the American colonies, gave rise to those animosities, 
which ended in the separation of the colonies from the mother 
country. This colonial war commenced in 1775. The elo- 
quence of Chatham was arrayed against the unjust and op- 
pressive measures of the British parliament. But his coun- 
sels were overruled, and after a long and distressing conten- 
tion with the American states, Great Britain acknowledged 
their independence in 1783. Thus was laid the foundation 
of a great and rising empire in the new world, which bids 
fair, in time, to rival the most renow r ned nations of Europe, 
and of antiquity. Antecedently to this contention, party 
spirit had become general and violent in Great Britain, and 
produced frequent changes in public men and measures. 

§ In the colonial war, France and Holland, after a time, formed an 
alliance with the American government, and took part in the con- 
tention. Though England thus lost important foreign possessions 



2% MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

and increased her public debt, (from 146,000,000, to 257,000,000 
sterling,) yet she lost nothing in her contest with other powers; her 
commerce and resources were constantly extending, and her spirit 
was equal to every effort. 

39. Another important feature of this reign, was the ex- 
tension of the British possessions in India. The British East 
India Company, before the year 1766, conquered, and took 
possession of the kingdom of Bengal, together with Bahar 
and part of Orissa, a large and nourishing country, contain- 
ing above 10,000,000 of people, and producing an immense 
revenue. These territories, afterwards, received a very great 
addition, as the fruits of several wars, which the Company 
had with the natives. Hyder Ally, and afterwards Tippoo, 
his son, distinguished themselves by their opposition to the 
British encroachments, but they were obliged to submit to 
superior prowess. 

§ Tippoo was vanquished by Lord Cornwallis, in 1792, and de 
prived of one half of his dominions. In 1799, Seringapatam, the 
capital of Mysore, was taken by Gen. Harris, and Tippoo was slain. 

40. The Irish rebellion, in 1798, and the subsequent union, 
in 1800, of Ireland and Great Britain, w T ere also important 
events during this reign. The rebels in Ireland were princi- 
pally Romanists, the most numerous and least favoured part of 
the Irish population, whom the spirit of the French revolution 
had at this time affected. The Act of Union was the favour- 
ite object of Mr. Pitt, and made Ireland an integral part of 
the British empire. From the danger of the separation of 
Ireland from the British sovereignty, the ministry and the par- 
liament, both had been urged to this project of a legislative 
incorporation ; and in the anxiety which was felt, were less 
scrupulous as to the means of securing a majority in both 
bouses, than became the dignity of the empire. For this object, 
the arts of corruption were employed. The effects of the 
union, however, have been mutually advantageous. 

§ A spirit of discontent and revolution, had been working for a 
Jong time, in the minds of the Irish people. This was inflamed, by 
the countenance which the government of France had given to cer- 
tain insurrectionary projects. With a view to effect a separation 
from England, and form a close connexion with France, several at- 
tempts were made on the part of the French, to land troops in Ire- 
land ; but these attempts proved abortive. The French fleets were 
either dispersed by storms, or defeated by the valour of the British 
admirals, Duncan and Warren. 

In the summer of 1798, the spirit of revolution had arisen to such 



ENGLAND. 297 

a height, that several counties were in a state of insurrection. Lord 
Cornwallis was now appointed lord lieutenant, and took command 
of the government's forces. He engaged the rebels, on several oc- 
casions, and many lives were lost. Pursued by the vigilance of the 
government, and despairing of foreign succour, they at last submit- 
ted. Some of them suffered punishment, others emigrated to 
America. 

41. The reign of George III., was particularly distinguish- 
ed, by the wars which grew out of the French revolution. 
This great event, which will be more particularly noticed in 
the history of France, commenced in 1789. It threatened 
in its consequences, the overthrow of all established govern- 
ments, and deeply convulsed the whole civilized world. From 
the commencement of the revolution, to the restoration of the 
Bourbons, m 1815, Europe endured more, in the loss of lives 
and property, and suffered more misery, than in any other 
equal portion of time, since it has been known in history. 

§ The government of Great Britain, early conceiving a just alarm 
for its own safety, zealously embarked in the European war, with a 
view to check the dissemination of disorganizing principles, both at 
home and abroad. All the Christian states in Europe, opposed in 
their turn, the tyranny and ambitious views of France ; but Great 
Britain only pursued the object with undeviating constancy, and 
with a just conception of the character of the common enemy. Wil- 
liam Pitt, one of the ablest ministers which it ever had, was then at 
its head. Under his auspices, after various vicissitudes of disap- 
pointment and success, victory crowned the efforts and sacrifices of 
the British nation ; efforts and sacrifices, of which history does not, 
perhaps, record a second example. All Europe was arrayed against 
her at tfmes ; yet, so far was she from being intimidated, or dis- 
heartened, that she met the enemy, whether on the sea or land, 
wherever he was to be found. Her greatest efforts, particularly in 
the former part of the war, were made on the sea. Here Nelson, the 
first of naval captains, gained the battles of the Nile, Copenhagen, 
and Trafalgar, and almost annihilated the maritime power of the 
continent. In the latter part :>f the contention, Wellington conquer- 
ed the armies of France, at Talavera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and 
Waterloo. 

An interval of peace occurred between the years 1801 and 1803. 
But this short suspension of arms, was felt to be too long for the 
safety of the British government, while the emperor of France 
seemed to set no bounds to his ambition. The war was accordingly 
renewed ; and though, on the part of the French, the invasion of 
England was threatened, and her commerce was designed to be ex- 
cluded from the whole continent, yet one of the projects was aban- 
doned, and the other proved fruitless. 

In the battle of the Nile, which happened August 1, 1798, the mar- 



298 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

ritime fame of Great Britain was established beyond all competition 
The French fleet had every advantage of situation, but Nelson cap 
tured nine ships of the line, and destroyed several others. In the 
battle of Trafalgar, which was fought on the 21st of October, 1805, 
the great English hero defeated a powerful fleet of the enemy, con- 
sisting o' thirty-three ships of the line. His own force amounted 
to twenty-seven ships of the line. Nineteen of the French and Span- 
ish ships were captured, though four of them only reached port, the 
rest having been purposely destroyed, as it was impossible to take 
care of them on account of tempestuous weather. Subsequently, 
the greater part of the enemy's ships which escaped, were either 
wrecked or captured. The day of this great triumph to the Eng 
lish admiral, was the day of his death. His person was much ex 
posed in the battle, and being observed by the enemy, he was point- 
edly assailed by the musketry, and received a mortal wound. 

42. While the resources of Great Britain were called forth 
in the great European contest, she found, or made an enemy 
in the United States of America. The long depending dis- 
putes between the two nations, respecting commercial rights, 
terminated in hostilities, which were commenced on the part 
of the United States, in the summer of 1812, by an attack 
on Canada. This war, though not very vigorously prosecu- 
ted, inasmuch as the affairs of Europe engrossed the attention 
of the British ministers, was, nevertheless, marked by uncom- 
mon acrimony. It continued until the last of the year 1814. 

43. During the last ten years of the reign of George TIL, 
he was reduced to helplessness, by an inveterate insanity. 
In the meantime, his son, the prince of Wales, acted as re- 
gent. In regard to the great contest, the latter pursued the 
course which had been adopted by his royal father. 

§ The old king died on the 29th of January, 1820. The subver- 
sion of his intellect, is supposed to have been brought on, by the 
sickness and death of his youngest daughter, Amelia, aided by the 
advance of age, and the toils and anxieties of state. Amelia, when 
sensible of her approaching dissolution, presented to him a ring, re- 
questing him to wear it in remembrance of her affection. This ten- 
der incident, created a sympathy which soon mastered his faculties, 
and he gave way to an incurable despondency. He was a good 
monarch, seemed to be guided by religious principle, and was ho- 
noured and beloved, as the father of his people. His natural endow- 
ments were not great, though he possessed good sense, and a culti- 
vated mind. 

His successor, the present king, is George IV., who has, hitherto, 
generally reigned in peace and prosperity The only war of any 
consequence which has occurred during his reign, is that which was 
carried on a few years since in the East. By this, the British pos- 



FRANCE. ^99 

sessions have been immensely enlarged, particularly by a reduction 
of a considerable part of the Burman empire. To the above we 
may add, the single battle of Navarino, against the Turkish fleet, in 
connexion with the naval forces of France and Russia. 

FRANCE. 

House of Bourbon. — Revolution. — Napoleon. — Bourbons 
restored. 

43| The successor of Louis XIV, was a great grandson, 
who ascended the throne under the title of Louis XV., at the 
age of five years, 1715 A. C. Contrary to the will of the 
old king, his nephew, Philip of Orleans, obtained the regency. 

§ Without morals, and without sense of shame, the duke of Orleans 
was regarded as more profligate than he actually v/as, and the long 
continued anxiety respecting the life of the young king, who was 
sickly, had a strong influence on the politics of the times. Cor- 
ruption of manners was a natural consequence of such a regency, 
and the French court was never more dissolute than at this time. 

It was during this regency, that France made an abortive attempt 
to pay off its debts by means of the paper bank law, and the Missis- 
sippi scheme, connected with it. These were of no small conse- 
quence for its future fate, and its whole influence in the European 
political system. The ruin of thousands of families might be re- 
paired in time, but it was the arbitrary money operations of the go- 
vernment, that reduced its credit to irrevocable ruin. From this 
time, no paper money could be issued in France, under the old con- 
stitution. The French financial system was ever after in an unset- 
tled state. 

44. The minister whom Louis chose soon after he came 
of age, was cardinal Fleury, whose seventeen years' admi- 
nistration, if it was not free from faults in the interior, secu- 
red tranquillity to France, and was beneficial to Europe. 

The reign of Louis, which was fifty-nine years, was too 
long for his reputation as a sovereign, and for the happiness 
of his people. He was at first styled well-beloved by them, 
but they had occasion eventually to lay aside that flattering 
epithet. 

§ Louis pursued a long course of rapacity, profusion, and tyran- 
ny, and in the latter part of his reign, he became infamously licen- 
tious and debauched. He was the slave of his mistresses, and his 
government was a government of mistresses. The last epoch of his 
reign, may be compared to what has been mythologically de- 
nominated the iron age. He became insensible, not only to the 
disgrace and ruin of his state, but to the loss of his nearest and 



300 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

dearest relatives, many of whom deceased during the latter 
part of his life. 

It is said, that the profusion of this monarch, led him, in the first 
instance, to undertake the scandalous traffic of a monopoly of corn, 
which, while it starved his subjects, enabled him to support the ex- 
travagant claims of his minions and mistresses. It is at least certain, 
that at his demise, 200,000,000 of livres, in specie, were found in his 
private treasury, and that their acquisition could be traced to no other 
source. It is no matter of surprise, that the vices and errors of Louis, 
particularly his extortions, should have produced difficulties between 
him and his people. These were manifested in the disputes which 
lie carried on with his parliaments, and in the opposition which they 
expressed against his rapacious acts. He conducted the controversy, 
on his part, in so ill-judged and unjust a manner, that affairs grew 
worse and worse, and fast ripened for that dreadful state of things 
which followed under his unfortunate successor. 

The aggregate of the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., is one 
hundred and thirty-one years, which is unparalleled in history. Du- 
ring so long a period, what treasures were drawn from the French 
people, in consequence of the ambitious wars of the one, and the 
profusion and fiscal mismanagement of the other ! And is it to be 
wondered at, that they felt their burdens to be insupportable ? 

45. Louis XVI., who was grandson of the late king, as- 
cended the throne in 1774, at the age of twenty years. His 
situation, from the first, was critical and dangerous, beyond 
the common lot of kings. With a temper fitted to make a 
people happy in ordinary circumstances, he was ill calculated 
for the evil days on which he was fallen, when his subjects 
were almost maddened by the oppression of their former mas- 
ter, and now unreasonably jealous of his successor. 

§ Louis seemed to aim at a prudent and conciliatory course. He 
early made some removals from office, that were designed to be po- 
pular, and sought integrity and talents in his ministers. Turgot, 
Necker, and Calonne, were successively placed at the head of the 
finances. 

After the efforts made by France in favour of American indepen- 
dence, and the consequent great increase of her debt, her financial 
situation became alarming, and demanded attention. The disclo- 
sures and discussions on this subject, led directly to the great con- 
vulsion which followed. There were other concurrent causes, such 
as the corruption of religion, and the abuses which existed in the 
church ; the despotism and profligacy of the government ; the ine- 
quality, and the enormous burden of taxation ; the hauteur and 
odious privileges of the nobility and clergy ; the notions respecting 
liberty and equal rights, generated by the revolution in America, and 
especially the progress of philosophy, freethinking, and atheism, 
which the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, and others, so effectually 
aided. These, and perhaps other causes combined, threw a great 



FRANCE, 301 

nation into madness, and created a revolution which rocked the 
world. 

A state of things arose not only in France, but among all civilized 
nations, very different from any which ever existed before. " The 
contemporary world, which lived in this period," says professor 
Heeren. "calls it the revolutionary ; it is as yet, too early to decide 
with what name it shall be denoted by posterity, after the lapse of a 
century ; probably, the constitutional ; for the struggle after regular 
but free constitutions, is the thread that guides through the whole 
confusion." 

46. Our limits preclude a minute account of the revolution 
which was now about to burst forth. Suffice it to say, that 
the operations of government being nearly suspended for want 
of supplies, the king was induced to convoke, first an assem- 
bly of the notables, next the parliament, and afterwards, the 
parliament and notables together ; but nothing was effected 
by their measures. At last, the convocation of the states-gene- 
ral, May 5th, 1789, was resorted to ; but difficulties arising 
between the branches of which it was composed, the popular 
branch soon declared themselves the representatives of the 
people, and constituted the National Assembly. Conciliatory 
as the language of the king had been, the measures of this 
body were dictated by a spirit of opposition to his prerogatives, 

The revolution, properly speaking, began with the destruc- 
tion of the ancient prison of the state, the Bastile, 14th July, 
1789. This was followed b3 r other excesses on the part of 
the populace, till Paris became a field of blood. 

§ The States General consisted of three orders — nobility, clergy, 
and the " tiers etat" or commons. With the commons, a small portion 
of the nobility and clergy united in calling themselves a national 
assembly. When this measure was adopted, there actually remain- 
ed of the monarchy only the name. The king and the royal family 
were obliged to yield to the popular feeling, which demanded their 
removal from Versailles to Paris. Here, however, the king was with 
difficulty preserved from violence, which the mob seemed inclined 
to offer to his person. He attempted to flee at one time, but his 
flight was intercepted. 

The progress made by the National Assembly at its earlier sit- 
tings, in the work of reform, was manifested by several important 
acts, such as the abolition of titles of nobility, and feudal rights — 
the exclusion of the clergy from all judicial functions — the suppres- 
sion of religious houses and vows— and the division of France into 
eighty-three departments. 

Iii the year 1790, those political societies began to appear, parti- 
cularly the Jacobin club, which controlled the measures of the As- 
sembly in sv; remarkable a degree. 

26 



MODERN HISTOitV.— Jt-UiRiUu A.. 

47. Although Louis accepted the new constitution of 1791, 
which established the equality of all ranks and was other- 
wise obsequious to the Assembly, yet the Jacobins were 
clamorous for the abolition of royalty ; and accordingly, the 
regal government was abolished, and France declared to be a 
republic, on the 21st of September, 1792. This was done by 
a new body, called the National Convention, on the first day 
of its meeting. The views of the enemies of royalty, were 
not as yet, fully answered. For the king, nothing further 
Was to remain, than in the language of Manuel the re- 
porter of the commune, "the right of justifying himself 
before the sovereign people." He and the royal family were 
immediately imprisoned in the temple. Soon after, he was 
brought to the bar of the Convention, and being condemned 
on several charges brought against him, he was sentenced to 
suffer death, by the axe of the guillotine, which took place on 
the 21st January, 1793. 

The fate of Louis has been widely commiserated. His 
character was that of an intelligent and inoffensive man, but 
he wanted firmness, to stem the torrent of faction. In death, 
he displayed a manly dignity and fortitude. 

§ Among the charges alledged against the king, were, his having 
supplied the enemies of France with money ; his being the author of 
the war waged on the French territory ; his having conspired against 
the liberty of the country, &c. &c. He answered the accusations 
against him, in a self-possessed and dignified manner. 

The man who was the most influential in procuring the destruc- 
tion of the king, was the Duke of Orleans, one of the princes of the 
blood, and a monster of wickedness. 

It was a sublime remark, made by the king's confessor to him, as 
he mounted the scaffold, on which he was executed, " Offspring of 
St. Louis," he said, " ascend to heaven." 

48. After the death of the king, the " reign of terror/' as 
it has been denominated, commenced in France, under the 
revolutionary tribunal erected by Robespierre and his associ- 
ates. Factions soon arose in the Convention, and their mu- 
tual jealousy led to the most fearful consequences. The san- 
guinary excesses of monsters in human form, which France 
for a long time was doomed to suffer, are too shocking to be 
described. Besides the countless massacres of the rich and 
noble, and generally of those who opposed the revolutionary 
fury, the parties in the Convention sought the destruction of 



FRANCE. 303 

/ 

one another. Each successive faction, as it triumphed, was 
at length put down, and made to answer with blood, the cruel- 
ties which it had committed. Thus these execrable wretches 
became the instruments of inflicting merited vengeance on 
one another. The Convention, in its acts, outraged decency, 
and rendered its infamy immortal, by renouncing the Chris- 
tian religion. The queen of France, Maria Antoinette, 
perished by the axe, 16th October, 1 793. Madame Elizabeth, 
sister of the late king, was beheaded 4th February, 1794. 

§ The human monster who exercised the longest and most terrific 
sway, was Robespierre, with his villanous accomplices, at first Dan- 
ton and Marat, and afterwards Collot d'Herbois, Billand-Varennes, 
Coulthon, and. St. Just. The party which was opposed to Robes- 
pierre in the Convention, called the Girondin, fell under his ruth- 
less domination. Among them was the infamous Orleans. He 
smiled at his condemnation, and made but one request, which was, 
that his punishment should not be delayed until the following day. 
On his way to execution, he braved the insults of the multitude, 
whose contemptible idol he had so long been ; and perished with- 
out the smallest remorse of conscience. 

Robespierre and his party, were at length put down, and of all 
the actors and victims of the revolution, he suffered the most in the 
circumstances of his death, and was the least pitied. In attempting 
to destroy himself with a pistol, he dreadfully mangled his jaw, and 
while overwhelmed with indescribable agony from the wound, he 
was conveyed to the place of execution, surrounded by a populace 
intoxicated with joy. With him perished eighty-three of his as- 
sociates. 

49. After the fall of Robespierre, the Jacobin clubs were 
suppressed, and in the course of the succeeding year, 1795, 
Oct. 26th, the Convention closed its sittings, having been the 
means, in all probability, of more human suffering than any 
other deliberative body that ever met. Two days after, the 
executive power was vested in a Director}? - of five, and the 
legislative power in two Councils. 

50. While these transactions, which belong to the internal 
history of the revolution, were taking place, the external re- 
lations of France were seriously affected. The republic had 
waged a desperate war with the adjoining states, from nearly 
the commencement of the revolution. These states, particu- 
larly Austria and Prussia, took the part of Louis a*nd his 
government, from natural sympathy, from a sense of danger, 
from resentment at the disorganizing principles which the 
revolutionists disseminated, and from the desire to restore 



304 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

tranquillity, and reinstate the king on his throne. The nu- 
merous emigrants also, consisting of the nobility, clergy, and 
rich citizens, who had been enabled to escape from the scene 
of blood, offered encouragement and aid. Accordingly, seve- 
ral armies marched to the borders of France, but the repub- 
lic, up to the time of the Directory, not only sustained itself 
against the efforts of its enemies, but made the conquest of 
the Netherlands, changed Holland, then perhaps the richest 
country in Europe, into a dependency of France, and inva- 
ded Germany. Such was the energy of the republic, that 
alone, without allies, it had at command, one million of fight- 
ing men, in the year 1794. 

51. The government of the Directory, continued till 1799, 
when the executive power was vested in three consuls, 
of whom the first was Bonaparte, the second Cambaceres, 
and the third Le Brun. The Directory had been in several 
instances unfortunate in the field, and the consulate was de- 
signed to restore, and, as we shall soon see, did effectually re- 
store, the energy of the government. 

The series of hostile efforts, which the different states op- 
posed to France directed against that country, are termed 
coalitions. Including both republican and imperial France, 
there were six of these coalitions with which she contended ; 
two under the former character, and four under the latter. In 
these combined efforts, all the nations of Europe were, at one 
time or another, engaged. 

The first of these coalitions, includes the wars already ad- 
verted to, and beginning in 1793, it continued till nearly 
the time of the consulate. In this coalition, England, Spain, 
and the Stadtholder, were included. France had declared 
war against these powers ; and indeed Portugal, Naples, 
Tuscany, and the Pope, were involved. 

§ William Pitt, was the founder and head of these combinations, 
" He was more correct than others in his estimate of the danger, 
and no less great in character than in talents, he never capitulated 
with- political maxims. Whatever could be accomplished by gold 
and perseverance, he accomplished." This war was not merely a 
conflict of arms, but of clashing - elements. An express decree of 
the Convention, announced the introduction of the sovereignty of the 
people, in every country which its armies should subdue. 

The nature of the warfare carried on by the combined powers, 
aroused in France a resistance of despair. This called forth, as has 
already appeared, a reign of terror, with all its cruelties, and all its 



FRANCE 305 

vigour, and sanctioned, at the same time, a maxim more momentous 
and fearful than a series of victories — that every citizen is a soldier. 

The success of France in this war, was signal. At length, some 
ot the powers, as Prussia, Spain, and the grand duke of Tuscany, 
withdrew from the coalition, and made peace with the republic. The 
coalition, however, was not entirely dissolved. It was held together 
by British gold. A foreign commerce, embracing every quarter of 
the globe, and aided by an oppressive maritime law, oppressive to 
neutrals, supplied Great Britain, at this critical time, with wealth, 
which no other nation, ancient or modern, possessed in an equal de- 
gree. 

The war of the continent was carried on with the most vigour 
against Austria ; but the fate of Austria was not to be decided in 
Germany ; there, the archduke Charles repelled the armies of the 
republic. It was to be reached through Italy. This country, there- 
fore, became the principal theatre of the war, in 1796, 1797. Here, 
Napoleon Bonaparte, in his 27th year, first entered on the splendid 
and bloody career he was destined to run. To him the command of 
the army of Italy was intrusted, February 23d, 1796. One cam- 
paign gave him Italy ; the second, peace. This was the peace of 
Campo Formio. Out of the Austrian and Papal provinces in Italy, 
a new republic was formed, under the name of the Cisalpine Re- 
public. 

After the peace of Campo Formio, there was no suitable theatre 
in Europe, for the hero of the day. Egypt, the land of ancient won- 
ders, was invaded and seized by the conqueror of Italy, 1798. Pre- 
pared under the mask of an expedition against England, the execu- 
tion was yet more wonderful than the preparation. No undertaking 
ever created such immeasurable anxiety in England. Even the 
great naval victory at Aboukir, could not allay it, though that victo- 
ry produced important results. England, therefore, was determined 
not to rest, till Egypt should be torn from France. 

52. The second coalition was formed in 1799, by means of 
England and Russia. This was a consequence of the victo- 
ry of Aboukir. Austria, and some other powers, soon enga- 
ged in it, making it a more extensive combination than the 
preceding. Prussia, however, maintained its neutrality. Un- 
der the mismanagement of the directorial government of 
France, one campaign gave the victorious allies, Italy, Swit- 
zerland, and Germany ; but they were headed by the able 
archduke Charles, and the dreaded Suwarrow. 

§ A brief account of the situation of Switzerland will now be given, 
as here a convenient place is found. That country, in the heart of 
Europe, had succeeded for three hundred years in avoiding all parti- 
cipation in those great disputes in which the world had been involv- 
ed ; but it was destined to come within the vortex of the French re- 
volution. This country became agitated, and the revolution began 
in the Pays de Vaud, December, 1797. The evils of the federal consti- 

26* 



306 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

tution were disclosed ; there was a want of unity, and the burden 
at last fell almost exclusively on Berne. The French advanced on 
two sides, with bloody fights ; Berne was overpowered, March, 1798, 
and the other cantons were conquered, except the three smaller. 
These made an obstinate resistance, and an honourable capitulation. 
The consequence of the French military operations against Switzer- 
land was, that the Helvetian Republic was proclaimed, April, 1798. 
Then followed five unhappy years of war and faction, till the French 
act of mediation, 1803, restored to the Swiss, their federal, but alter- 
ed constitution. 

It was at the critical period, when the success of the allies, 
and their approach towards the borders of France, excited such 
alarm for the fate of the republic, that Bonaparte returned 
from Egypt and Syria, to Paris, and overthrew the directorial 
constitution. The directory abdicated ;• the deputies of the 
people were driven asunder with clubs, and Bonaparte was 
appointed regent, as first consul. The most important results 
ensued. Factions were quelled ; internal enemies were over- 
awed ; tranquillity was restored; and new energy and life were 
infused into every department of the government. From this 
time, the popular sovereignty was at an end. The military 
force of the nation was put in a better train, and a series of 
victories and conquests commenced, which have no parallel 
in modern history. Before Bonaparte put himself at the head 
of the French armies, Russia had seceded from the coalition, 
and it was necessary to conquer only Austria, on the continent, 
feebly aided by Naples, and the south of Germany. The 
great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden, besides many 
smaller ones, brought Austria to terms, and led the way to 
the general peace of Amiens, 1802. This peace raised Bona- 
parte to the zenith of his renown. He was soon after elected 
first consul for life. At this epoch, he might have ruled Eu- 
rope, without further contests, had he been able to rule himself. 
Absolute sovereignty only could suffice, and he was according- 
y proclaimed emperor of France, in 1804, to which, the next 
year, he added the title of king of Italy. This elevation was 
brought about in consequence of a new war, which had com- 
menced the preceding year, and which is soon to be spoken of. 
§ The peace of Amiens was enjoyed throughout Europe; but it 
was enjoyed only for a short time. This was to have been expected, 
when the object for which the war had been waged by the coalition- 
ists, viz. the freedom of Europe, was farther than ever from being 
secured. Ever England desired peace, inasmuch as she had effected 
the deliverance of Egypt. This was with her, after the failure of 



FRANCE. 307 

the general object, the turning point. She never could consent to 
see Egypt a colony of France. Egypt was restored to the Porte, in 
1800, by means of the successes of Abercrombie, and others. 

From the conflict which has been related, France had retired 
with its interior well ordered and tranquillized, with an increase of 
territory, and with the restoration of all its colonies. This seemed 
to be the work of Napoleon, together with the rebuilding of the al- 
tars, and the establishment of religious liberty. The project of an 
universal monarchy, was now in a fair way of being realized. 
Such a project, Napoleon doubtless had formed, but it was defeated 
by a concurrence of providential circumstances. No potentate in 
Europe ever had such resources at command. His sovereignty in the 
interior, was absolute. Abroad, France extended to the Rhine, and 
beyond the Alps, and the kingdom of Italy fell under Bonaparte's 
sceptre j the rest of Italy, Spain, Holland, Switzerland, and the Ger- 
man states on the Rhine, were kept in dependence by alliances, or 
by fear, and Hanover was occupied by a French army, in the heart 
of the Prussian monarchy. 

53. The third coalition against Fiance, was formed in 1805, 
by England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. England was 
its centre. A general rising of Europe was, according to 
Pitt's plan, to reduce France to its ancient bounds, and the in- 
dependence of the states was to be secured by judicious regu- 
lations and divisions. England had been at war with France 
nearly two years before this combination, the peace of Amiens 
having continued between these nations scarcely a year. The 
coalition was most unfortunate. The power of Austria was 
broken at Ulm, and at Austerlitz, and the peace of Presburg 
followed, 26th December, 1805. The expeditious movements 
of the French emperor, overthrew the whole plan of the 
allies. 

§ The war between England and France alone, which commenced 
in 1803, was brought on by the refusal of England to give up the 
island of Malta, which is the bulwark of Egypt, and with that island, 
the dominion of the Mediterranean. France would not concede 
these points. Though these nations were professedly at war, there 
were found few points of contact, as the one, at that time, had no 
power, except on the sea, and the other none except on land. Great 
Britain swept from the ocean, all the enemy's forces that could be 
found on that element, and recovered the colonies that had been re- 
stored to France. Before the conclusion of this war, it was, that 
the famous naval battle of Trafalgar was fought. 

The first instance of a royal family being dethroned, by a bare 
proclamation, occurred at Naples ; and Bonaparte, by placing his el- 
der brother, Joseph, on that throne, laid the foundation of the do- 
minion of his family in Europe. 



308 MODERN HISTORV. — PERIOD X. 

In this war, Prussia obstinately insisting on neutrality, was not to 
be gained. And yet, without the accession of this power, it was im- 
possible to make an efficient attack on France ; the northern half oi 
which, was protected by Prussia's neutrality. The consequences, 
however, of the peace of Presburgh, revealed to Prussia, as well as 
to the rest of Europe, what was to be expected from the gigantic 
ambition of Napoleon. It was ascertained that neutrality could noi 
be preserved, towards one who wished for none. Prussia stood di- 
rectly in the conqueror's way, and its neutrality was violated with- 
out hesitation, by the march of French troops through one of its 
provinces. That power began to make preparations after the war 
had been actually decided at Ulm and Austerlitz. When, however, 
the Prussian monarch found that according to the treaty of peace, 
the quiet of northern Germany was to be purchased, on the condi 
tion that he was to cede to France several provinces, and occupy 
Hanover in return, thereby exposing himself to a war with Englanu 
and Sweden, his embarrassment was extreme. But the scales turn- 
ed in favour of a war with France, and thus arose a new combi- 
nation, though the old one could hardly be said to have ceased, since 
Russia had not wholly retired from the field. 

54. A fourth coalition, as it may perhaps be numbered, 
was soon "matured, 1806, which included Prussia, Russia, 
Austria, Sweden and England. Prussia, which began the 
war, was utterly overthrown by one battle, that at Jena and 
Auerstadt. Its capital was entered, and here Bonaparte is- 
sued the Berlin Decree, announcing the blockade of the British 
islands. The conqueror's army passed into Poland, and the 
war was thus transferred from the banks of the Soal, to those 
of the Vistula, where Russia was under the necessity of de- 
fending its frontiers. In the course of this war, were fought 
the obstinate and bloody battles of Pultusk, Eylau, and 
Friedland, with the Russians. The last only was decisive, 
and led to a peace, which was concluded at Tilsit, 7th Jul}'', 
1807. Peace was concluded two days after with Prussia, by 
which about one half of the monarchy was returned, as a 
gift of charity, and this once potent nation, was reduced to a 
state of second rank. Russia gained a small accession of 
territory, but both nations agreed to close their harbours and 
countries against British navigation and trade. All was 
now French law or influence throughout continental Europe, 
and all was made to bear against Britain. 

§ By the peace of Tilsit, Russia had been made beforehand, not 
merely a spectator, but an active participator in the project of crush 
ing Britain, by excluding it from all trade and communication with 
the continent. This was done by the secret articles of the peace. 



FRANCE. 309 

England, however, anticipated the enemy's dependance on the fleet of 
Denmark, and effected its surrender, by the bombardment of Copen- 
hagen. One consequence of this act was, a declaration of war by 
Russia against England, and another was an alliance of Denmark 
with France, which was to open to this latter power the road to 
Sweden. 

The Berlin Decree was met by the British Orders in Council 
which prohibited every ship from entering any French port, or any 
port under French influence, under pain of confiscation. This was . 
followed by the Decree of Warsaw, declaring that all British com- 
modities, in the Hanseatic cities, were confiscated, without respect oi 
owners. This decree was retaliated by a strict blockade of the Elbe 
and the Weser, and by the Order in Council, declaring in blockade, 
all ports from which the British fla^; was excluded, and that all ships 
proceeding thither, should be captui ed, unless they had touched at a 
British port, and paid a duty. This was answered by the Decree ol 
Milan, by which every ship which should submit to these conditions, 
was declared denationalized, and a lawful prize. Thus, neutral pow- 
ers could have no navigation. Afterwards, the mad Decree of Fon- 
tainebleau, consigned to the flames, all British manufactures from 
Naples to Holland, and from Spain to Germany. But Europe could 
not subsist under the operation of such measures. Industry was 
fatally paralized. 

55. Napoleon, triumphant and powerful, now wished to 
enlarge the dominion of his family, by appropriating to his 
remaining brothers, the thrones of Portugal and Spain. 
Spain was destined to receive his brother Joseph, whom Mu- 
rat, the emperor's brother-in-law, was to succeed in the king- 
dom of Naples. Louis Bonaparte had before been made 
king of Holland, and Jerome, king of Westphalia. His de- 
sign on Portugal failed, though its throne was prostrated. A 
new and greater throne arose, on the other side of the ocean. 
Under a British convoy, the royal house of Portugal emi- 
grated to Brazil. His design on Spain succeeded for a time, 
by his having artfully secured the person of the Spanish mon- 
arch, and compelling him to resign his crown, in favour of 
Joseph Bonaparte, 20th June, 1808. 

This act, to say nothing of its moral character, was a political 
fault on the part of Napoleon ; the first fatal step which he took, 
towards his subsequent downfal. He bad already the con- 
trol of Spain, by his influence. " It was done without a 
knowledge of the country and nation : an universal insur- 
rection having ensued, it opened the abyss which devoured 
alike, the French armies, and the French finances ; and it 
gave England a theatre for war. But it taught Europe that 



310 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

tlie people are more powerful than mercenary armies, and it 
was destined to give freedom to another quarter of the globe." 
The British, who were called to the aid of Spain, in connex- 
ion with the Spanish forces, carried on the war from 1808, 
to 1813. Many battles were fought, in which the English- 
Spanish troops were generally victorious. Here " the Marl- 
oorough of the nineteenth century," began his brilliant career. 
The French were eventually driven out of the country. 

56. While the war in Spain, employed the best forces of 
the French empire, the insatiable conqueror meditated a new, 
greater, and more formidable war. That was the war with 
Russia, in 1812 ; a war which decided the destiny of Europe. 
It is unnecessary to repeat wiiat has already been said con- 
cerning this terrible conflict, in the history of Russia. 

57. After Napoleon's defeat, he fled to Paris, and raising 
another army, he hoped to regain the dominion which he 
had lost in the east. To oppose him, the Fifth Coalition 
was formed, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, a part of 
the Confederation of the Rhine, and Sweden. Of this con- 
flict also, no particular mention need be made here, since the 
details have been given elsewhere. It may only be said, that 
the allies carried the war into the heart of France- -that 
after much and strenuous fighting, they entered Paris, which 
capitulated, 30th March, 1814 — and that with the capital, 
France was conquered, because in France, the capital is 
every thing. 

5S. The results of these successes of the allied poweis, 
were important, and great changes took place. The situa- 
tion of Napoleon becoming extremely critical, he abdicated 
the throne of France, and was removed to the island of 
Elba. His mighty empire, reared by a military despotism, 
fell into ruins. And Louis XVIIL, after an absence of twen- 
ty-three years from his kingdom, returned and took possession 
of his rightful throne. 

§ Bonaparte bad it in his power, while the allies held a congress 
at Chatillon, to preserve the throne and empire, had he been satis- 
fied with ancient France. But it was fortunate that he demanded 
too much, and even this, as an intercepted letter of his minister, 
Maret, afterwards showed, was only a deception. After his defeats 
in defending France, the senate, lately his slave, openly proposed the 
deposition of Bonaparte, and he himself, not without many useless 
attempts in favour of his son, descended from the falling throne, 



FRANCE. 31 1 

having executed an unconditional abdication on the part of himselfl 
and his heirs, 1st April, 1814. He was soon after escorted to Elba, 
which he received with full sovereignty, with a pension of two and 
a half millions from the revenues of France, and with a body guard 
of four hundred men. 

Louis XVIII. had spent his time in Italy, Germany, Russia, and 
finally England. The same month that restored to France her king, 
beheld three other princes, who had been driven from their thrones, 
ascend them again. — Pius VII., returned to Rome, Ferdinand VII. 
to Madrid, and Victor Emanuel to Turin. 

59. To restore the political system of Europe, which had 
been so completely subverted, a General Congress was as- 
sembled at Vienna, 1st November, 1814. Six of the crowned 
heads of Europe were present, united in peace as in war, 
with a long and splendid list of princes, ambassadors, and 
ministers. While they were engaged in their difficult and 
important deliberations, an event occurred w T hich was the 
cause of the sixth and last coalition of the European powers. 
" The man of destiny" again made his appearance on the 
bloody arena where he had lately acted so conspicuous a part, 
but whence, it was hoped, he had been excluded forever. 
Having escaped from Elba, Bonaparte, after an unparralleled 
adventure, reached Paris, and re-seated himself on the im- 
perial throne. A temporary confusion ensued, but the result 
proved that the army, and not the nation, was the support of 
that throne. The great day of Waterloo, the 18th June, 
1815, buried the hopes of Napoleon Bonaparte in the dust. 

§ The French king, upon Bonaparte's return to Paris, withdrew to 
Lille, and afterwards to Ghent. He came back to his capital after 
an absence of one hundred days, and was the second time seated on 
his throne. 

In the whole career of Bonaparte, nothing was more extraordina- 
ry than his progress through France, and re-occupancy of the 
throne. He landed at Cannes, March 1st, 1815, and in twenty days 
from that time, accompanied with about fifteen hundred men, he 
reached, though without opposition, the scene of his former triumphs. 
No blood was spilt. The previous conspiracy seems not to have 
been very extensive, because the emperor could, and of course did, 
rely on the assistance of the troops. They received him with en- 
thusiastic shouts. The nation was held in mute astonishment for a 
lime ; but it soon became evident that he had lost in a measure his 
influence over it. Instead of ruling the parties as formerly, he 
se^ms to have been swayed by them. So much the more energetic 
were his warlike preparations — he could now indulge no hope of 
oeace. 

It was a happy circumstance that the news of Napoleon's return, 



312 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD A. 

reached the congress of Vienna, while still in session. The most 
prompt and decisive measures were adopted. By a special act, he 
was declared the enemy of the nations, and to have forfeited the 
protection of the laws. Almost every nation in Europe, small and 
great, combined against the usurper. The sum of all the contin- 
gents to be furnished, amounted to 1,057,400 fighting men. A Bri- 
tish-German and a Prussian army were assembled with the utmost 
speed, under Wellington and Blucher. Napoleon was equally active, 
and pressed forward across the boundaries with 170,000 men, 15th 
June, 1815. He first met "the gray hero" (Blucher,) at Ligny, 
who, after a bold resistance was forced back to Wavre. Meanwhile 
the army of Wellington was drawn up at Waterloo. Napoleon 
commenced the attack at noon, of the 18th June, with a great su- 
periority. After an awful conflict, the victory was fluctuating at 
evening, when Blucher appeared with his auxiliaries, at the right 
crisis, and decided the battle. 

Bonaparte fled to Paris, abdicated anew in favour of his son, and 
after fruitless attempts to escape to America, he surrendered himself 
to a British ship of the line ; but instead of being permitted to land 
in England, as he wished, he was transported to the island of St 
Helena, Oct. 16th, and was detained as a prisoner of war till his 
death, which happened 5th May, 182L 

Thus " on an island rock in the midst of the ocean, died, almost 
Unnoticed, the man, Whose name but a short space before, had filled 
the world. His plans were wrecked ; from the thraldom, which lie 
was preparing for the nations, there sprang liberty in more than 
one quarter of the globe. Unknown to himself, he was but the in- 
strument of a higher power; for his objects were not its objects. 
Whatever judgement posterity may pass on him, universal his- 
tory can view him only from this point." He was the author of 
several valuable institutions, and effected some propitious changes, 
not only in France, but in the rest of Europe ; yet they were pur- 
chased at too dear a price — infinitely dearer than if he had taken 
Washington, and not Caesar, as his model. Like other great con- 
querors, he sacrificed the repose, liberty, and happiness of millions, 
to his insatiable ambition. 

France, having been* conquered the second time, by the second 
taking of its capital, was required to indemnify the allies for their 
expenses and sacrifices. She was left a great and a powerful nation, 
little less diminished in territory than after the first pacification! 
which fixed her limits nearly as they were in 1789. The indemnity 
which the allies received, consisted chiefly in money, and in the 
occupancy of eighteen fortresses, by a portion of their troops, to be 
supported at the cost of France. These troops, however, were all 
Withdrawn long before the term agreed on, which was five years. 

Louis XVIII., whose reign was that of a prudent, though ineffi- 
cient monarch, died in 1824, and was succeeded by his brother, the 
Count d' Artois, under the appellation of Charles X. The princi- 
pal event of the reign of Louis, was the invasion of Spain, in 1823, 



8I?AtN> 313 

by a French army under the Duke d 5 Angouleme, but without a 
declaration of war, in consequence of the decisions of the congress 
3f Verona, in 1822. This unjustifiable act resulted in the overthrow 
of the Cortes ; and the despotism of absolute royalty was immedi- 
ately re-established. 

ITALIAN STATES. 

60. In the history of Italy, during modern ages, nothing 
important occurred till the late convulsions, occasioned by the 
French revolution. The Italian states shared deeply in them, 
as has already appeared, It may be only added, that the 
Congress of Vienna, in 1815, decreed the subdivision of Ita- 
ly, between the house of Austria, the king of Sardinia, the 
Pope, and the king of Naples. The free republics of Venice, 
Genoa, and Lucca, have, in consequence, been amalgamated 
with arbitrary sovereignties ; and Austria is become the pre- 
ponderating power of Italy* 

SPAIN. 

61. Philip V., the monarch of Spain, at the commence- 
ment of this period, reigned till the year 1746. During his 
long rule, the nation degenerated as before, from the opera- 
tion of a despotic government, a superstitious and cruel reli- 
gion, aided by the natural indolence of the people. 

§ In 1717, the Spaniards took Sardinia j but the next year invaded 
Sicily, without success. 

62. Philip was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand VI., 1746, 
who was a mild and pacific prince, but whose reign is barren 
of those events which usually furnish matter for history. 
The indolent and effeminate Charles III., brother of Ferdi- 
nand, succeeded him, in 1759, who reigned till the year 1788. 
The principal events of his reign were, the formation of the 
family compact, between France and Spain ; the union of 
these nations against England, in the American war ; and 
their unsuccessful siege of Gibraltar. 

§ In the siege of Gibraltar, twelve thousand pieces of heavy ordi- 
nance were accumulated before the place, for the numerous intended 
attacks by sea and land ; there were, also, in proportion, gun-boats, 
bomb-vessels, battering ships, military stores, and ammunition. In- 
deed, nearly all the frigates and smaller armed vessels of the king- 
dom, were assembled to afford requisite assistance, and the combined 
fleets of France and Spain, amounting to about fifty ships of the line, 

27 



314 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X, 

were to cover and support the attack. But all this formidable fow« 
was employed in vain, from the almost impregnable situation of the 
'"ort and the valour of its defenders. It seemed as if so many can- 
non and other means of destruction, playing upon the rock, would 
have annihilated it — all looked like a mass of fire in and around it 
but the loss sustained by the besieged was much less than might 
have been expected, while that of the Spanish and French was im- 
mense. The mortification which the Spaniards always have felt, ever 
since this fortress fell into the hands of the English, was greatly in- 
creased by the unsuccessful issue of this celebrated siege. 

63. Charles IV. possessed the crown upon the death of his 
father, 1788. He was an inefficient and unfortunate mo- 
narch. In 1792, he entered into a league against the French 
republic, bat being defeated, he united with France against 
Great Britain. After the rupture of the treaty of Amiens, 
Spain professed to be neutral, till the capture of several of 
her treasure ships, by a British squadron, after which, the 
weakness of the government led to an insurrection, and Fer- 
dinand VII. dethroned his father. 

The father and son, under the influence of French intrigue, 
afterwards appealed to Napoleon, to whom the father formal- 
ly surrendered his kingdom, at Bayonne, for the purpose of 
defeating the claims of his son ; who, after being also obliged 
to sign a renunciation of the throne, was then treacherously 
detained a state prisoner, at Compeigne, in France. From 
this period, the situation of Spain, appears in the account al- 
ready given concerning France. 

§ Since the restoration of the general peace, Spain has been more 
unfortunate than any other of the European communities. Abroad, 
she has lost her colonies in South America ; at home, the horrors oi 
anarchy and internal war, and, at length, of despotism and the In- 
quisition, she has been doomed to bear. 

Portugal has experienced scarcely a milder fate than Spain. Its 
situation since the emigration of the royal family to Brazil, has been 
singular, and at the present time, is deplorable. A monarch residing 
in a colony, and governing the parent state, is altogether a novelty 
in the history of the world ; yet such has been the fact in regard to 
the emperor of Brazil. At this moment, the despotism of the usurp- 
er, Don Miguel, is producing consternation and distress among the 
adherents of the regular government. 

The history of Portugal, from the time of its independence under 
John, duke of Braganza, in 1664, to the time of the French revolu- 
tion, is of so little consequence, that it has been omitted altogether. 
Since the latter period, the incidental notices which have been given 
of its affairs, must suffice. It may be remarked, that the Portuguese 



THE NETHERLANDS. 315 

are still rich in colonial possessions, notwithstanding they have lost 
most of what they used to hold in Asia. 

THE NETHERLANDS. 

64. The history of the Netherlands, under the name of 
Holland, was briefly sketched in the period preceding the 
last. Holland, as including seven united provinces, and as 
constituting an independent nation, was the most important 
portion of the Low Countries. The character of its inhabi- 
tants, as an eminently enterprising and industrious people, 
also placed them at the head of these countries. In the ages 
preceding the French revolution, their commerce was exceed- 
ed by that of no nation, and wealth from this source poured 
in upon them apace. Their maritime force was consequently 
extensive, and they had numerous collisions with their great 
rivals, the British, who were destined, at last, far to surpass 
them in riches and naval power. 

Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century, it was 
apparent, that the Dutch were falling from their high eleva- 
tion. Indolence, luxury, and avarice, the consequence of 
wealth, had, in a degree, affected this excellent people ; and 
their spirit, which would otherwise have been invincible, 
yielded to French intrigue and military enthusiasm, at the 
era of the revolution. 

The ten provinces, called Belgium, or Flanders, since 
they were freed from the Spanish yoke, have been usually 
divided into Austrian, French, and Dutch Netherlands. 
Prussia, also, has shared in them ; and, indeed, they have 
often changed masters. They were swallowed up eventually 
in the great political vortex, to which reference has been so 
frequently made. 

§ No space remains for an account of the stadtholders of Holland, 
since the time of Maurice, who was mentioned in the eighth period. 
Nor is their history very important, as the stadtholdership was seve- 
ral times abolished. During the separate times of its existence, it 
has been held by the princes of the house of Orange. 

65. After the United Netherlands were overrun by the 
French, in 1795, and the stadtholder and his family were 
obliged to flee to England, the whole country was oppressed 
and plundered by the French, and the melancholy spectacle 
was presented, of ruined commerce and civil discord, with an 



316 MODERN HTSTORY. PERIOD X. 

incredible mass of public and individual suffering. Besides 
misery at home, there was loss abroad ; and Holland, rich in 
colonies, was stripped of most of them, by means of the re- 
volutionary wars, in which she was involved. 

In 1814, the prince of Orange was recalled, and Flanders 
being annexed to Holland, and forming one kingdom, he as 
sumed the title of king of the Netherlands. 

§ The restoration of the state of the Netherlands, was one of the 
principal points in the restoration of the political system of Europe, 
effected by the congress at Vienna. That its fate was connected 
with the fate of the Belgic, no less than the Batavian provinces, ap- 
peared from the fact, that Belgium, in the hands of France, first 
opened the avenue to universal dominion. It was felt to be necessa- 
ry, to found there a powerful state, which, at least in alliance with 
Prussia, should be strong enough for its own defence ; and the union 
of all the Netherlands into one kingdom, was resolved on by the 
Congress. The sovereign of the house of Orange adopted the 
royal title, and gave them a free constitution. 

TURKISH EMPIRE. 

66. In the history of Turkey, we perceive the evidences 
of a rapid decline, from about the commencement of the 
present period. The people have been extremely depressed, 
and the nature of their institutions is such as to preclude, in 
a great measure, the improvements common to the rest of 
Europe. Some changes have very recently been effected. 
The discipline of the army has been improved, and the an- 
cient body of the Janizaries, so formidable to the government 
and its master, has been broken up by the present energetic 
Sultan. Yet the empire, as it respects European dominions, 
is now on the brink of destruction,* from the victorious ca- 
reer of the Russians. From its conflicts with that people, it 
has generally retired, shorn of some portion of its territories, 
and with diminished strength and resources. With Persia, 
also, it has often fought, but on more equal terms. 

At the commencement of this period, Achmet III. was the 
reigning Sultan. He was deposed in 1730, since which time, 

* By the late treaty of peace, which the Sultan ratified, on the 20th Septem- 
ber, 1829, European Turkey is nominally preserved in independence ; but the 
terms of pacification werts so favourable to Ruaota, that the latter enjoys almost 
every advantage which would accrue from the actual possession of the 
country. 



TURKISH EMPIRE, 317 

there have been seven sultans, viz. Mahomet V., Osman TIL, 
Mustapha 111., Achmet IV., Selim III., Mustapha IV., and 
Mahmoud II., the present sultan. 

§ Under Mustapha III., Turkey and Russia engaged in a furious 
and bloody war, which lasted from 1769, to 1774. By means of a 
fleet which sailed to the Archipelago, the Russians seized a part of 
the Morea, whose inhabitants soon rose in a general revolt, and de- 
clared in favour of Russia. But the sultan sent an army to th 
Peninsula, and quelled the revolt, inflicting the severest punishment 
on many of the unhappy Greeks. This war was disastrous to the 
Turks. 

The war was renewed by Achmet IV., in 1787, and concluded not 
until 1792, under Selim III. Important concessions were made to 
Russia. Koutousoff greatly distinguished himself in this war, as 
did also Suwarrow. It was during the reign of Selim, that Bona- 
parte invaded Egypt, and the transactions took place in regard to 
that country, which have been related in the history of France. 
Achmet, and also his successor, Mustapha IV., were deposed and 
murdered by the Janizaries. 

The Porte had kept itself remote from the convulsions connected 
with the French revolution, with the exception of the war with Rus- 
sia, from 1809 to 1812, which cost it Bessarabia, and a part of Mol- 
davia. Assisted by the powerful Bashaw of Egypt, the Porte was 
more active in Arabia, against the Wechabites. than in Europe, the 
tranquillity of which it is not for its interest to 'disturb, if it be itself 
left in quiet. This, however, has not been suffered to be the case, 
since the year 1821. Since that time, it has had an almost inces- 
sant struggle with the Greeks, and lately it has been involved in a 
ruinous war with Russia. 

The inhabitants of Greece, oppressed beyond endurance by the 
barbarous Turk, and recalling to remembrance their ancient freedom, 
and their ancient renown, have asserted their rights by arms. An 
insurrection broke out simultaneously, in almost every section of the 
territory, and has been pursued on both sides, on the mainland, and 
on the sea, With a furious rancour. After eight years of unprecedent- 
ed suffering, Greece has become effectively free, by its own heroism; 
and the interference of Russia., France and England. 

The insurrection, which has thus terminated in securing the liber- 
ties of Greece, broke out in the month of April, 1821, in Moldavia, 
and almost at the same time, in the Morea, as well as on most of the 
islands of the Archipelago. Of these islands, the naval force was 
generally superior to the Turkish. At the end of the year 1821, 
the Turks were driven from the Morea and the islands, with the ex- 
ception of the garrisons of several strong fortresses. But these por- 
tions of Greece, have since been repeatedly harrassed by the vindic- 
tive Turks, till lately, their contest with Russia, for their own exis- 
tence, has absorbed every other interest. 

27* 



318 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 



CHINA. 

67. At the commencement of this period, Yong-Tching, 
of the twenty-second dynasty, occupied the throne of China. 
Two emperors of this dynasty, which is that of the Tartars, 
had preceded him, viz. Chun-tsi, and Kang-hi. A revolution 
in China, which commenced in 1641, brought the Tartars a 
second time into power ; but they were not considered as set- 
tied, till 1649, which is properly the date of the twenty- 
second, or the present dynasty. The successors of Yong- 
Tchi ng, have been Kien-Long, and Kia-Khing. The name 
of the present emperor is not known to the author of this 
work. 

§ In the reign of Yong-Tehing, the Jesuits, who first penetra- 
ted into the empire, in 1683, were banished, and the christians were 
persecuted, not excepting those of the imperial family. In the reign 
of the same prince, also, an earthquake took place, at Pekin and its 
environs, such as had never before been felt in China. The first 
shocks were so sudden and violent, that in less than a minute, above 
100,000 inhabitants were buried in the ruins of houses, and a still 
greater number in the surrounding country, where whole villages 
and towns were destroyed. 

Kien-Long died in 1795, in the ninetieth year of his age, and in 
the sixty-second year of his reign. It is said to have been a 
peaceful and happy, as well as long reign. In 1793, the celebrated 
British embassy, under Lord Macartney, arrived in China, with a 
view to the establishment of a commercial intercourse between the 
two countries. An account of this embassy, has been written by 
Sir George Staunton. In the estimation of Europe, Kien-Long stood 
at the head of the sovereigns of half civilized nations. 

Kia-Khing died in 1819, at the time when the famous Russian 
mission, under Timkowski, was approaching the celestial empire. 
He was the seventeenth son of Kien-Long, and reigned happily. 
The Russian mission, took notice that the buttons, which are so con- 
spicuous in the Chinese official costume, disappeared from all the 
caps of the loyal Chinese and Mongul officers, and that they, as 
well as their countrymen, adopted a white dress. This, among them, 
is the mourning colour, for as good a reason, doubtless, as black 
among the Europeans, blue among the Persians, and violet among 
the Turks. 

PERSIA. 

68. Soon after the beginning of the present period, Persia, 
which was governed for a time by the posterity of Tamer- 
lane, and afterwards by the Sophis, had the famous Kouli 



PERSIA. 319 

Khan, or Nadir Shah, for its sovereign. He had been the 
general of Abbas III., his predecessor, whom it is supposed 
he poisoned, and thus ^supplanted the Sophia family. In 
1739, he invaded India, and conquered the Mogul empire, 
taking Delhi, acquiring immense wealth, and committing the 
most horrible massacres. This monster then took the title 
of Emperor of the Indies, and returning into Persia, attempt- 
ed to change the religion, and strangled all the priests, after 
which, in self defence, he was murdered in his tent, by his 
own officer. 

After his death, Persia was desolated by civil wars, be- 
tween various rivals for the throne ; but the country, after 
being exhausted by these events, settled itself under Kerim 
Khan, an able prince, of obscure birth, who died in 1779. 
On his death, Persia again fell into confusion, till the last of 
his family was overthrown, and the sovereignty regained by 
Aga Mahomed Khan, in 1794. He delegated the govern- 
ment to his sons. 

§ The origin of the Sophis, is connected with a revolution on ac- 
count of religion, in the end of the fifteenth century. Hadar, or 
Sophi, a religious enthusiast, restored or established the sect of Ali 
in Persia, whom he considered to be the successor of Mahomet, rather 
than Omar. The Persians liking a doctrine that distinguished them 
from their enemies, the Turks, and being at the same time exempted 
from the obligation of performing pilgrimages to Mecca, embraced 
it in great numbers ; and Ishmael, the son of Sophi, following the 
example of Mahomet, enforced his opinions by the sword. All Per- 
sia and Armenia submitted to his arms. His descendants ruled till 
the time of Kouli Khan. 

Persia has been often conquered, yet the form of its government, 
and the state of society, have continued nearly the same through 
almost two thousand years. In a late war with Russia, it has lost 
considerable territory. 

INDIA. 

69. The vast and populous country under the name of 
India, makes but an inconsiderable figure in history. Doubt- 
less, many subjects of an interesting nature might be found, 
could the modern historian have a fair opportunity of research ; 
but few have, as yet, appeared, and these in so detached a 
manner, that a regular account cannot easily be given of the 
events in Indian history. The mention of this country, sepa- 
rately from others, has accordingly been omitted till the pre- 



320 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

sent period. Indeed, it has little claim on our attention, in an 
outline of general history, till very modern times. The few 
details that can be afforded, both of its earlier and later histo- 
ry, will appear below. Like most other Asiatic countries, it 
has been often and easily conquered, but without mateiially 
affecting the form of its government, or its manners and cus- 
toms. Successive dynasties have ruled over most of the ori- 
ental nations, but they have left the latter where they found 
them. So far back as authentic records carry us, we find 
among the people, little or no advances made in civilization, 
refinement, or knowledge. They are the same in indolence, 
effeminacy, and luxury, that they were two thousand years 
ago ; not ignorant, yet without a spirit of enterprise ; accom- 
plished in certain arts, yet incapable of learning others. 

§ India was but little known to the ancients. Alexander the Great, 
first invaded, though he did not conquer it, except in part. The 
country was afterwards visited by Seleucus, to whose share it fell 
in the partition of Alexander's empire ; and Antiochus the Great, 
two hundred years subsequently, made a short expedition thither. 

The Arabians penetrated into Hindoostan, about 710, and founded 
an empire extending to the Ganges, which, in 1155, was usurped by 
the Persians. After this, followed the march of Genghis Khan, 
who is said to have given the name of Mogul, to India ; and subse- 
quently, the conquering career of Tamerlane, both of which have 
been elsewhere mentioned. The descendants of Tamerlane enjoy- 
ed no more than the northern parts, till after 1498, when sultan Ba- 
ber subdued almost all the country, except the Deccan, Grezerat, 
and Bengal. 

Aureng Zeeb, who reigned between 1660 and 1707, conquered 
Bengal, and the greater part of the Deccan. At his death, he left 
an empire of great extent, and producing a revenue of more than 
£35,000,000 sterling. But a succession of weak princes and wicked 
ministers reduced this vast empire, in the course of fifty years, to in- 
significance. In 1739, Hindoostan was invaded by Kouli-Khan, who 
annihilated the Mogul empire. It was, however, afterwards reviv- 
ed, for a time, but soon fell into decay, and can now be scarcely said 
to exist. 

The British are now the principal possessors of India. Their do- 
minions in India have been created, first, by the establishment of 
factories for trade ; 2d, by wars made upon the natives by the resi- 
dents of those factories ; and lastly, by the capture of the Portuguese, 
Dutch, and French colonies in India. 

The British Indian dominions, which were extensive before, and 
which began as early as 1757, have been greatly increased within 
the last thirty or thirty-five years. A statement, somewhat recent, 
makes the number of square miles of territory, under British juris- 
diction or influence, 776,000, and the population not less than eighty 



UNITED STATES. 321 

six millions. To the above it must be added, that their Indian do- 
minions have been lately increased by a portion of the Burman em- 
pire, in consequence of a war with the latter. 

The government of this immense country, is vested in a Governor 
General, and a council of four, appointed by the British crown, who 
reside at Calcutta. 

THE UNITED STATES. 

70. The United States of America, which, at the be- 
ginning of this period, were in a colonial condition, assumed 
before the conclusion of it, their separate and equal station 
among the nations of the earth. It was with them an era 
of great events, and the change from colonies to a state of 
independence, though it lay in the natural course of things, 
was equally unexpected and instructive to the world. 

The colonies enjoyed a degree of tranquillity from the 
peace of Utrecht, to the year 1744. In that year, a war 
breaking out between Great Britain and France, America was 
involved in it, the result of which was the capture of Louis- 
burgh, on the island of Cape Breton, a place of great strength. 
This conquest was effected principally by the troops of Mas- 
sachusetts. A small proportion of the soldiers was furnished 
by the other New England states. The place, however, was 
restored to France, by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. 

After the peace of Utrecht, the French had built Louisburgh, as a 
security to their navigation and fishery, and had fortified it at a vast 
expense. Twenty-five years had been spent upon the fortifications, 
and though not entirely completed, they were considered the strong- 
est in America. It was deemed indispensable to take this fortress, as 
it afforded a convenient resort to such privateers as disturbed the New 
England fisheries. Accordingly, efforts were made to engage the co- 
lonies in the enterprise, and circulars were addressed by the govern- 
ment of Massachusetts to the colonies as far south as Pennsylvania 
for their assistance. But New England alone undertook the expedi- 
tion. Massachusetts furnished nearly three fourths of the troops, who 
were placed under the command of General Pepperell. 

Their success was peculiar and almost unexpected. With some as- 
sistance from an English fleet, they brought the French to the neces- 
sity of surrendering the city of Louisburgh and the island of Cape 
Breton tc the British king, after a siege of forty-nine days. 

71. In 1746, a powerful French armament was sent against 
America with a view to revenge the loss of Louisburgh ; but 
by means of shipwrecks, sickness, and other disasters, it pro- 
videntially failed of its object. The peace of Aix-la-Cha- 



822 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

pelle now took place, which lasted eight years, or until 1756 
For several succeeding years, powerful efforts were made on 
the part of the Americans and British, against the places and 
forts occupied by the French, particularly Louisburgh, Ti- 
conderoga, Crown Point, Fort du Quesne, (Pittsburgh,) and 
Niagara. This war, which commenced in 1756, and ended 
in 1763, is commonly called the French and Indian war. 
Success eventually attended the Americans and British, and 
by the peace of Paris, in 1763, all the Canadas, together with 
Nova Scotia, and the island of Cape Breton, were confirmed 
to Great Britain. George Washington, the future deliverer 
of America, first came into public notice during these con- 
tests. 

The French armament consisted of forty ships of war, fifty-six 
transports, with three thousand five hundred men, and forty thousand 
stands of arms, for the use of the French and Indians in Canada. 
The consternation of the colonies, as might be expected, was great ; 
but Providence, by the means above mentioned, dispelled their fears, 
and blasted the hopes of their enemies. 

The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, which followed this attempt, 
left the respective parties, as to their rights and possessions, the same 
as they were at the commencement of the war. Great losses, how- 
ever, had been sustained by the colonies in their commerce, and their 
pecuniary concerns were in a very embarrassed state. The return oi 
this peace, and its continuance through eight short years, altered the 
aspect of the colonies much for the better. Commerce again flourished, 
population increased, settlements were extended, and public credit re- 
vived. 

The French and Indian war was occasioned by the alleged en- 
croachments of the French upon the frontiers of the colonies in Ame- 
rica, belonging to the British crown. Besides the encroachments that 
were made on Nova Scotia, in the north and west they were settling 
and fortifying Crown Point, and in the west, were not only attempt- 
ing to complete a line of forts from the head of St. Lawrence to the 
Mississippi, but were intrenching far on Virginia. 

By an understanding between England and the colonies, hostili- 
ties were carried on between the latter and the French during two 
years, without any formal proclamation of war. The Virginians, 
who were particularly concerned in the beginning of these hostilities, 
entrusted to George Washington the difficult and dangerous service 
of going to the French commandant on the Ohio, a distance of 
several hundred miles, through a wilderness, to demand of him tne 
reasons of his hostile conduct, and to summon the French to evacu 
ate their forts at the west. He was then but twenty-one years of 
age, and at that early period stepped forth the champion of his coun- 
try's rights. He executed his errand, but the result showed the ne- 
< amity of force, which wr s accordingly resorted to under the com- 



UNITED STATES. 323 

mand oi Washington. He met with partial success, but the superior 
number of the enemy obliged him at length, after surrendering a 
Tort he had taken, to retire to Virginia* 

This was as early as 1754, but in the spring of 1755 more vigorous 
exertions were made by the colonies against the enemy. Four ex- 
peditions were planned— one against the French in Nova Scotia ; a 
second against the French on the Ohio ; a third against Crown Point ; 
and a fourth against Niagara. The expedition against Nova Scotia, 
which consisted of three thousand men, chiefly from Massachusetts, 
met with entire success. The expedition against the French on the 
Ohio was disastrous in the extreme. It was led bv Gen. Braddock, 
a British officer, at the head of two thousand men. His rashness, 
hauteur, and ignorance of the mode of Indian warfare, cost him his 
own life, and that of hundreds of his brave companions* Refusing 
to take counsel of Washington, he suffered himself to be ambuscaded 
by a body of French and Indians, who would have destroyed his 
whole army, had it not been saved by the skill and intrepidity of 
Washington, his aid on that occasion. The expedition against Crown 
Point, though it failed as to •its main object, yet its results were 
cheering to the colonies after the gloom occasioned by Braddock's 
defeat. A body of the enemy which had landed at Southbay, now 
Whitehall, and which were marching towards Fort Edward to de- 
stroy the provisions and military stores there, were signally defeated 
by the Americans under the command of Gem William Johnson. 
The expedition against Niagara was eventually abandoned, on ac- 
count of the lateness of the season and other unfavorable circum- 
stances. 

After hostilities had been conducted in this manner for two years, 
war was declared in 1756 by Great Britain against France, and soon 
after by France against Great Britain, in turn. The operations of 
the British till the year 1758 were singularly unsuccessful, through 
the indecision of the commander-in-chief, the earl of Loudon ; but 
a change in the English ministry that year, which placed Lord Chat- 
ham at the head of the administration, materially altered the aspect 
of affairs. Of three expeditions which were planned and carried 
into effect in the course of the year, two, viz. those against Louis- 
burgh and Fort du Quesne, succeeded. That against Ticonderoga 
failed. 

The campaign of 1759 had for its object, the entire conquest of 
Canada. Accordingly, it was determined on the part of the English 
and the colonists to attack all the strong holds of the French in that 
country — viz. Ticonderoga and Crown Point, Niagara and Quebec. 
These were taken in due time, three armies having entered Canada 
by different routes, nearly at once. The conquest of Quebec was 
the most important and difficult enterprise undertaken during this 
war, and has been greatly celebrated through the heroism and death 
of each of the opposing commanders-in-chief, Wolfe and Montcalm. 
Wolfe died in the field before the battle was ended, but he lived long 
enough to know that the victory was his. The words " they fly " 
caught his ear, as he was sinking in the agonies of death. " Who 



324 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

fly," the hero asked. " The French," was the reply. " Then," said he, 
" I die happy." Montcalm, in talents, in military skill, and in personal 
yalour, was not inferior to Wolfe. He lived, after receiving a mortal 
wound, to be carried to the city, where his last moments were employ 
ed in writing, with his own hand, a letter to the English general, 
recommending the French prisoners to his care and humanity. 

72. We come now to the most important period of the 
American history, that of the Revolution, when the colonies 
passed from a state of dependence on the British Crown, 
into free and independent communities. The long che- 
rished democratic principles realized by the constitutions of 
most of the provinces, a consequent weaker political connex- 
ion with the mother country, and the feeling of growing 
strength, already tried in the seven years' war, were among 
the causes of the struggle after independence. Nothing 
Was Wanting but an occasion for a breach, and that could 
not long be wanting. • 

73* The origin of the dispute was not so much in any 
sensible oppression, as in a question of right. Had the 
British parliament a right to tax the colonies ? Parliament 
maintained the affirmative ; the colonies denied it, on the 
ground that they were not represented. Representation and 
taxation, according to their views, were inseparable. If their 
property could be taken without their consent, they had no 
safety, 

74. The dispute arose as early as 1764, occasioned by an 
act, the avowed purpose of which was to raise a revenue 
in America without her consent. The famous stamp act 
followed, March 22d, 1765. This act was peculiarly ob* 
noxious in its character, aside from the principle whioh it 
involved, as a revenue measure. The immediate conse- 
quence was a great commotion in all the colonies, especially 
in Massachusetts and Virginia, and a congress was convenec 1 
at New York in October, which published a declaration ol 
the people's rights. The stamp act was repealed March 19, 
1766 ; but the principle was at the same time confirmed, by 
the bill, declaring the supremacy of the parliament in all 
cases whatever. 

The stamp act came into operation on the first of November, 1765. 
In Boston and Portsmouth, the day was ushered in by a funeraj 
tolling of the bells. In the latter place, in the course of the day, a 
coffin, with appropriate decorations, and inscribed with the word 
Liberty, was carried to the grave. During the movement of the 
mourning procession^ minute guns were fired; and an oration uas 



tiNiTEt) STATES. 325 

pronounced in favour of the deceased. Similar expression* of griet 
and indignation, occurred in many parts of the land. In some places, 
the stamp officers were obliged to resign, or to secrete themselves, to 
escape the vengeance of the people. Stamps were not permitted to 
be landed, and Dusiness in many places was conducted wUhout them. 
At the same time, numerous associations were formed by merchants 
not to import goods until this odious act was repealed. In this 
measure they were sustained by the people, who submitted with the 
utmost cheerfulness to the necessary self-deniah 

75. In agreement with the British doctrine, the ministry 
soon after attempted to effect its object by means of indirect 
duties. These were laid on tea, paper, glass, and colours, by 
the revenue act, June, 1767. The proceeds of these duties 
were to form a civil list for America, which should be wholly 
at the disposition of the ministers, for conferring remunera- 
tions, pensions, &c. The opposition to this form of taxation, 
and to every form, being renewed, especially in Boston, 
which was the centre of the resistance, Lord North abrogated 
these duties, except the one on tea, in 1770. By this reser- 
vation the right of taxation was explicitly asserted ; but as 
the Americans, by voluntary agreement, would make use oi. 
no British commodities, the tea which was brought to thij 
country could not be sold. The East India Company conse- 
quently became embarrassed ; and after the repeal of the ex- 
port tax in England, attempted to gain the Americans by a 
cheaper price. But, nevertheless, measures were adopted to 
prevent the importation of tea, and a cargo of it was forcibly 
seized and thrown into the harbour in Boston, Dec. 26, 1773. 

76. The measures adopted by the Americans, impelled Eng- 
land to resort to severer acts. These consisted not only in 
shutting the harbour of Boston, but in regulations by which 
the charter of Massachusetts was annihilated. It was these 
regulations which created the general insurrection, since 
each colony now saw no security for its former constitution. 
The Boston port bill was passed, March 25th, 1774. The 
town was soon occupied by the British troops. •' 

By the " Boston port bill," that town was precluded from the privi- 
lege of landing and discharging, or of loading and shipping goods, 
wares, and merchandise. The bill which destroyed the charter of 
Massachusetts, made the appointment of the council, justices, judges, 
&c. dependent on the crown, or its agent. Another bill was after- 
wards passed, authorizing and directing the governor to send any 
person indicted for murder, or any other capital offence, to another 
colony, or to Great Britain, for trial. The indignation occasioned by 
these acts was extreme. As an expression of their sympathy witb 



'62b MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

the people of Boston in their distress, the house of burgesses in Vir- 
ginia ordered, that the day on which the Boston port bill was to 
take effect, should be observed as a day of fasting and prayer. 

77. Great harmony prevailed among the provinces, and a 
Congress, consisting of deputies from, eleven of them, was 
opened at Philadelphia, Sept. 5th, 1774, which resolved to 
suspend all commercial intercourse with England, expressing 
at the same time all dutifulness to the crown. England was 
thus brought to the alternative of making concessions or a 
civil war. It chose the latter ; and, notwithstanding the elo- 
quence even of Chatham and Burke, parliament proclaimed 
the provincials rebels. 

The name by which this congress is generally known, is " The 
Continental Congress." After the arrival of the delegates from 
North Carolina, twelve colonies were represented. Although the 
power of this congress was only advisory, their resolutions were ap- 
proved, not only by the people, but also by the authorities, whether 
established or provincial ; and exerted a commanding influence in 
consummating that union among the colonies, which had been in- 
creasing for a number of years. This congress finished their busi- 
ness, and dissolved themselves in less than eight weeks. It was re- 
commended by them, that another congress should be assembled in 
case of necessity. 

78. Hostilities began by the battle of Lexington, 19th 
April, 1775. New troops arrived from England in May. It 
was hoped that a few regiments would be sufficient to put 
down opposition — so profoundly ignorant was the British 
ministry of the spirit which had been aroused in America. 

The battle of Lexington commenced by an unprovoked attack, 
from a detachment of British soldiers, who had been sent to destroy 
the American military stores at Concord, on a few militia who were 
assembled at Lexington, on account of the alarm occasioned by this 
movement. Eight of these were killed, and several wounded. The 
detachment after this went forward, and effected their object ; but the 
news of the occurrence at Lexington, spreading with the utmost ra- 
pidity from place to place, brought together the militia in considera- 
ble numbers, who revenged the deaths of their countrymen, by firing 
upon the British, from behind walls, hedges, and buildings. The 
enemy, who lost nearly three hundred men, was astonished and mor- 
tified by the resistance it met with from the Americans, while the 
latter were greatly encouraged in their opposition to tyranny. The 
intelligence of this battle kindled the spirit of war through the length 
and breadth of the land. 

79. The war, thus rapidly commenced on the part of the 
colonies, was soon signalized by the surrender of Ticondero- 

fa and Crown Point, and by the memorable battle of Bun 
er's Hill An expedition led by Arnold and Montgomery 



UNITED STATES. 327 

against Canada, in Oct. 1775, which was at first successful, 
at length proved fruitless, and the forts which had been taken 
in the progress of the invading army, were, one after another, 
given up and lost. The war, in general, necessarily became, 
from its nature, a defensive war ; and who but the modern 
Fabius, was capable of waging it ? " The greatness of 
Washington was not founded on splendid talents, but on la- 
borious years — not on quick success, but on enduring perse- 
verance." 

The battle of Bunker's Hill, although the Americans were obliged 
to retire from the redoubt they had hastily thrown up, had all the ef- 
fect of a victory. It showed that America was invincible. It taught 
the people the importance of stricter discipline, and greater prepara- 
tions. This battle was fought the 17th of June, 1775, and cost the 
British, in killed and wounded, one thousand and fifty-four men. The 
Americans lost, in the whole, four hundred and fifty-three men. 

As military opposition to Great Britain was resolved upon, it be- 
came necessary to select a leader. This was done by the second 
continental congress, which met at Philadelphia the 10th of May. 
The choice unanimously fell on George Washington, who was at 
that time a member of the body. Several major-generals and brig- 
adier-generals, were then likewise appointed. The arrival of Wash- 
ington at Cambridge, to take command of the American army, dif- 
fused through it universal joy. He soon introduced order and system 
into the army, and manifested, in all his military operations, that 
wisdom and that caution, which were more important to America, 
than his known personal bravery. 

In the northern expedition, the attack on Quebec was unsuccess- 
ful; and, to the great loss and grief of the colonies, fatal to the brave 
Montgomery. Incredible hardships and difficulties had been previ- 
ously encountered by the army which Washington had despatched, 
under the command of Arnold. In the same year, 1775, Lord Dun- 
more, the royal governor of Virginia, obliged to retire from the soil 
by fear of the provincials, proceeded with an armed naval force to re- 
duce the town of Norfolk to ashes. The loss of property to the in- 
habitants was great. Royal government generally terminated this 
year throughout the country. 

In consequence of Washington's operations, in taking possession of 
and fortifying Dorchester heights, which commanded the harbour of 
Boston and the British shipping, the enemy suddenly evacuated the 
place. This gratifying event happened on the 17th of March, 1776. 
Washington and his army entered Boston immediately, with every 
form of victory and triumph. 

The same year, in the south, an unsuccessful attempt was made by 
Gen. Clinton, and Sir Peter Parker, to destroy the fort on Sullivan's 
Island, near Charleston, S. C. After an action of upwards of ten 
hours, the British were obliged to retire, having their ships greatly 
shattered, and with a loss of two hundred men killed and wounded. 



328 MODEHN HISTORY.— -PERIOD X. 

80. It was not long before the idea of an entire separation 
from England, suggested by the vindictive measures which 
that country had employed, found every where a hearty re- 
ception in America. In that event only, was aid to be hoped 
for in Europe. Accordingly, the thirteen United States were 
declared independent, 4th July, 1776. After this decisive 
step, but one happy blow was wanting to give the colonies 
allies in Europe. That was realized by the capture of Bur 
goyne and his troops, on the 16th Oct. 1777. This joyful 
event had been preceded by a period of gloom and disaster in 
the middle states, while Washington, with the shadow of an 
army, enfeebled, dispirited, and destitute almost of clothing 
and necessaries, was closely pursued by a powerful British 
force through the Jerseys — while the enemy had come in 
possession of the city of New-York, Long Island, Staten Isl- 
and, and Rhode Island — and while the inauspicious opera- 
tions at Brandywine and Germantown, filled every American 
with terror. This sad picture, however, was relieved by the 
firmness of Congress — by the uniform, cautious valour, and 
steady perseverance, of the commander-in-chief — and by his 
successes at Trenton and Princeton. Upon the capture of 
Burgoyne, the French court acknowledged the independence 
of the United States, and declared war against England. 
France had Spain and Holland for its allies ; and the war 
on their part became at first a contest for the dominion of 
the ocean. On this element the French contended with 
more glory than usual. But the fate of America, as the 
event has proved, was to be decided on the continent. 

The idea of independence had not been long broached among the 
people before the way, in some degree, was prepared to bring the 
subject before Congress. Accordingly, on the 8th of June, 1776, 
Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, made a motion before that body, to 
declare America free and independent. Some reasons existed for 
delaying the subject for a few weeks, at the expiration of which, viz. 
on the 4th of July, upon the report of a committee of which Thomas 
Jefferson was the head, the thirteen confederate colonies, by their 
delegates, dissolved their allegiance to the British Crown, and de- 
clared themselves Free and Independent ', under the name of the 
Thirteen United States of America. This was a decisive and bold 
step, and constitutes an era in history. It has been the means, in 
connexion with the eventual success of the struggle, of giving to 
several other nations liberty and independence. Mexico, and most 
of the states of South America, have followed this example. 

The period of disaster and gloom which followed in respect to 
American affairs, deserves a summary notice. Washington, in anti- 



UNITED STATES. 329 

sipation of tlie movements of the British, left Boston with his army, 
and proceeded to New-York, with a view to occupy the latter place. 
Here his army amounted to between seventeen thousand and eighteen 
thousand men, a part of whom were encamped near Brooklyn, on 
Long Island. The enemy soon after arrived by sea, with a superior 
force, and on the 27th of August attacked, with success, that part of the 
American army which was encamped near Brooklyn. The loss of a 
thousand of his best troops was most sensibly felt by the commander • 
in-chief. He soon after evacuated the city, upon which, on the 12th 
of October, the British army entered it. At White Plains, whither 
Washington had retired, he was attacked on the 28th of September, by 
Generals Clinton and Heister. The loss here was several hundred^ 
and about equal on both sides. 

It is to be remarked, that previously to these recent battles, many 
of the Americans, in this region, deserted the cause of their country, 
in consequence of offers or threats held out by his majesty's govern- 
ment, in several proclamations which were issued at this period. 
These occurrences produced a disheartening effect on the people. 

The strong places in the vicinity of New-York were now taken by 
or given up to the enemy, among which was Fort Washington, which 
surrendered with nearly three thousand men, after nearly a day's se- 
vere contest. The American army, now greatly reduced by the 
return of the militia, (for it was composed of the militia or troops en- 
listed for a year only,) by sickness, and other casualties of war, 
crossed the North River into New-Jersey. On the 22d November, 
the whole force under the command of Washington, did not exceed 
three thousand five hundred. With this small number, the American 
general fled before a superior force, under Lord Cornwallis ; and 
even this remnant of an army was diminished on its march to the 
Delaware by the expiration of the term of enlistment of the Jersey 
and Maryland brigades. On crossing the Delaware in the early part 
of December, General Washington had only about seventeen hundred 
men. 

Notwithstanding the general aspect of affairs, on the part of Ame- 
rica, was thus forbidding and gloomy, the continental Congress, so far 
from betraying symptoms of despair, manifested more confidence than 
ever in the cause of their country ; as a proof of which, we may notice 
the fact, that at this time they were calmly occupied in drawing up 
various articles of confederation, and perpetual union, among the 
states. These were adopted on the 4th of October. At the same 
time, also, the great mass of the American people remained firm and 
determined in the cause of independence. Congress having become 
sensible of the impolicy of short enlistments, and a reliance on the 
irregular services of the militia, determined by bounties of ready 
money, and promises of land, to raise eighty-eight battalions, to serve 
during the war. 

Washington, now aware of the necessity of some immediate favoura- 
ble turn in his military operations, not only to save Philadelphia, which 
the enemy evidently intended to possess, but to arouse the spirit of the 
nation, and to secure an army for the succeeding campaign, boldly 
2£* 



330 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X, 

resolved, even with his shadow of an army, to attempt a surprise oi a 
oody of Hessians, encamped at Trenton. This he completely effected 
on the morning of the 26th of December, after suffering great hard- 
ships in his march, and in crossing the Delaware, in a cold stormy 
winter night. Many of the Hessians were killed, and more than nine 
hundred taken prisoners. Having secured these prisoners on the Penn- 
sylvania side of the Delaware, and re-crossed to Trenton, where he 
was met by a superior force under Cornwallis, he escaped by a won- 
derful stratagem, marched to Princeton, and attacked a party of the 
British, of whom he killed sixty, and took three hundred prisoners. 
These successes alleviated the gloom which had settled upon the 
public mind. 

Notwithstanding all the exertions that had been made, the Ameri- 
can army amounted to little more than seven thousand at the opening 
of the campaign of 1777. The British, after an indecisive course, 
some time in the month of August took up their march to Philadel- 
phia, from the South, having sailed around into the Chesapeake. At 
Brandywine, on the 11th of September, the Americans met them, but 
were unsuccessful, having lost probably more than a thousand men 
in killed, wounded, and prisoners. On the 26th, the British entered 
Philadelphia without molestation. As, however, a part of their army 
was stationed at Germantown, six miles from that city, a battle 
occurred there on the 4th of October, but with defeat again on the 
part of the Americans. The plan of attack by Washington was 
judicious, and the commencement of the battle favourable, but failure 
finally ensued from the inexperience of a part of the troops, and the 
occurrence of a fog, which increased the darkness of the night. 

The capture of Burgoyne's army had a most important effect on the 
destiny of America. A part of his force, in pursuance of the plan of 
operations, which was to invade the states from the north, having 
been detached to seize a magazine of stores at Bennington, Vermont, 
was gallantly met and totally defeated, by a party of Vermont troops 
and some New-Hampshire militia. This loss seriously embarrassed 
the British commander : he resolved, however, to proceed, and meet- 
ing the American army under the command of General Gates, at Sa- 
ratoga, after a succession of contests, he was obliged to capitulate with 
his whole army, consisting of five thousand and seven effective men. 
This event increasing the probability that the American arms would 
finally triumph, decided France to espouse the cause of the United 
States, and to declare war against Great Britain, as already stated. 

81. The countenance and aid which France offered to the 
cause of liberty, filled America with rejoicing ; but Washing- 
ton, however much assisted by the French auxiliaries under 
Rochambeau, and La Fayette's generous enthusiasm, has the 
glory of having struck the decisive blow. He surrounded 
Cornwallis at Yorktown, who was forced to capitulate, Oct. 
19, 1781, with more than seven thousand prisoners of war. 
This event had been preceded by considerable fighting du 



UNITED STATES. 331 

ring two or three years, though no very vigorous measures 
had been taken on the part of the Americans, and also by 
numerous depredations on the part of the enemy. The 
financial state of the country had also been, in the meantime, 
peculiarly distressing. After the capture of Burgoyne, Eng- 
land could entertain no more hope of reducing America, and 
it required only a change of ministers to produce a peace, 
which was accordingly done. The independence of the 
United States was acknowledged by Great Britain, and pre- 
liminaries of peace were signed Nov. 30, 1782, which were 
changed into a definitive peace, Sept. 3, 1783. 

On the alliance of America with France, it was resolved in Great 
Britain immediately to evacuate Philadelphia, and to concentrate the 
royal force in the city of New York, which was accordingly executed. 
Washington, penetrating the enemy's design, marched in pursuit of the 
retreating army. On the 28th of June, the two armies engaged at Mon- 
mouth, and after a severe contest, in which the Americans, upon the 
whole, obtained the advantage, were separated only by the night. In 
the morning, it was found that the British general had left the field 
for New York. 

Hitherto the conquest of the states had been attempted by proceed- 
ing from north to south ; but before the close of the year 1778 that 
arrangement was changed, and the southern states became the prin- 
cipal theatre of the enemy's operations. Savannah, and with it the 
state of Georgia itself, soon fell into the power of the English under 
Col. Campbell, who was sent thither at the head of two thousand 
men. Nothing decisive occurred during the campaign of 1779, on 
either side. Actuated by motives of plunder, the British fitted out 
an expedition from New York to Virginia, which took possession of 
large naval stores, magazines of provisions, and great quantities of 
tobacco. A similar expedition, under the command of Gov. Tryon, 
was projected against several sea-port towns of Connecticut. New 
Haven suffered from pillage ; and East Haven, Fairfield, Norwalk, 
and Green Farms, were wantonly burned. 

During this campaign there was scarcely an important expedition 
attempted by the Americans against the English. Two only need be 
named, viz. one under Gen. Wayne, against Stony Point, on the 
Hudson, and the other under Gen. Sullivan, against the Six Nations, 
both of which were successful. The deficiency of exertion on the 
part of America during this campaign, was owing principally to two 
causes. One was, the failure of the French fleet in every scheme un 
dertaken in behalf of the Americans. This operated by way of dis- 
couragement, since much had been expected from that quarter. Ano- 
ther cause, still more strongly operating, was the daily depreciation 
of American money, consisting of bills of credit. It has commonly 
been called " continental currency." From the state of public finan 
ces, Congress seemed to be under the necessity of adopting some 
such expedient, and accordingly emitted bills of credit, representing 



332 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

specie, under an engagement of the country ultimately to redeem 
them, by an exchange of gold and silver. These, in the course ot 
five years, or up to the year 1780, amounted to the immense sum of 
two hundred millions. But long before they had reached that 
amount, they had begun to depreciate, till finally they became of little 
or no value. Under these circumstances, it was with the greatest 
difficulty that an army could be raised, and necessaries provided for 
its subsistence. This system produced many other evils, but they 
cannot here be enumerated. 

In 1780, Charleston, the capital of South Carolina, after a gallant 
resistance, fell into the hands of the enemy. The state was, in a 
measure, overawed by the British force which was kept there in dif- 
ferent garrisons, but the spirit of liberty often broke forth in attacks 
upon the enemy. After there was a sufficient concentration of force, 
by the arrival of Gen. Gates and his army at the south, the Ameri- 
cans ventured a general battle with the enemy, but were repulsed 
through the unpardonable failure of the militia. This occurred at 
Camden on the 16th of Aug. 1780. 

While the campaign of 1780 was thus filled with important events 
in the southern department, it passed away in the north in a series 
of disappointments and distress. The treachery of Arnold had at 
one time nearly proved fatal to his country. He himself escaped, 
but the victim of his measures, Major Andre, a British spy, who was 
engaged in the negotiation between Arnold and the enemy, expiated 
his crime on the gallows. 

General Greene having succeeded Gen. Gates in the southern army, 
soon after his appointment despatched Gen. Morgan against Tarle- 
ton, in South Carolina, between whom was fought the memorable 
battle of Cowpens, in which the Americans obtained a signal victory. 
This occurred on the 17th of Jan. 1781. On the 8th of March fol- 
lowing, General Greene and Lord Cornwallis joined battle at Guilford 
Court House, in which the Americans were repulsed. Several othe 
battles took place in the south, in which, although the Americans were 
generally defeated, the force of the enemy was so weakened, that it 
retired to Charleston, leaving the rest of South Carolina in the 
hands of the Americans. 

Lord Cornwallis had now directed his march towards Virginia, 
and having received considerable reinforcements, the expectation was 
indulged that this state would soon yield to his arms. The Marquis 
de la Fayette having been previously despatched to Virginia, to co- 
operate with a French fleet within the waters of that state, in the 
capture of Arnold ,who was committing depredations there, was soon 
called to oppose Cornwallis. Prudence forbade him from risking an 
engagement with the superior force of the enemy, and Cornwallis 
after having in vain sought to give him battle, retired to Yorktown, 
near the mouth of York river. 

It was at Yorktown where the scene of the revolution was substan- 
tially closed. Washington, joined by Count de Rochambeau, drew 
off his forces from New York, where he had at first designed to at- 
tack Clinton, and marched towards Virginia. Here he was joined bv 



UNITED STATES. 333 

the troops under La Fayette, and a French fleet commanded by Count 
de Grasse, and being in sufficient force to attempt the siege of York- 
town, on the 6th of October it was commenced in form. The French 
fleet had proceeded up to the mouth of York river, to prevent Corn- 
wallis either from retreating or receiving assistance. Seldom, if 
ever, during the revolutionary struggle, did Washington or his troops 
appear before the enemy with more cool determination, or pursue him 
with more persevering ardour, than at the siege of this place. The 
result we have already mentioned. Upon this event the Americans 
indulged in the most enthusiastic joy, and the names of Washington 
Rochambeau, De Grasse, and La Fayette, rang through the land. 

On the 3d of Nov. 17S3, a little more than two years after the bat- 
tle at Yorktown, the American army was disbanded, and the great 
Washington bid a final adieu to the partners of his toils and his vic- 
tories. The gratitude of America to her providential deliverer knew 
no bounds. 

82. The new republic at first languished under its liberty. 
The first constitution, which was formed during the war, cre- 
ated a federal government without strength and without 
credit. But the constitution of 1789, which is the present 
form of government, gave it a very desirable degree of soli- 
dity, and based the public credit on a system of finances for 
the union. Under this constitution Washington was chosen 
the first president, in which character he was no less essen- 
tial to the welfare of the country, than in that of a general, 
" The Union can, perhaps, be preserved only by having great 
men in the first offices." This is the judgment of the liberal 
and learned historian, Heeren. Commerce felt the first great 
influence of the new republic, and almost all the maritime 
nations hastened to form treaties with it. The consequence 
was, that wealth and prosperity poured in upon the country 
apace. Seldom can a nation so increase, because it is seldom 
so favoured by circumstances. America, preserving its neu- 
trality during most of the European maritime wars, had such 
a vast carrying trade, especially between the West Indies 
and Europe, that its commercial navigation was hardly sur- 
passed by that of the British. 

The evils existing under the early confederacy, after the termina- 
tion of the revolutionary struggle, were so great, that there was im- 
minent danger of losing all that had been gained. The powers of 
the government were in general small, and in respect to so vital a 
point as the payment of the public debt, contracted during the war, 
Congress could only recommend to the individual states to raise 
money for that purpose. In this and in other things there was by no 
means entire union among the states, and especially owing to mutual 
jealousies and the want of power, were they obliged to suffer from 



334 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

the regulations of foreign governments in respect to trade. This 
condition of things led to the consideration of a stronger bond of union, 
among these independent communities. 

That bond was found in the Federal Constitution, which was 
presented to Congress on the 17th of September, 1787, who shortly- 
after sent it to the several states for their consideration. It had been 
drawn up by commissioners from the states, who on the 19th of 
May assembled at the city of Philadelphia, with Washington at their 
head. By the terms of the instrument, it was to be carried into ope- 
ration by Congress, as soon as nine states should have ratified it. Its 
fate was at length settled by the adoption of it, on the part of eleven 
states. From this time the attention of all classes of people, Fede- 
ralists and anti-Federalists, (those in favour, and those against the new 
Constitution,) was directed to Washington, as their first president. 
He was accordingly elected to that office on March 3d. 1789. 

The acts of his administration were, as it might be expected, emi- 
nently wise ; though some of them were carried through, not without 
difficulty, owing to the spirit of party that had begun to arise. He 
was subjected at times to unjust censure, though the event proved, 
that the vast majority of his fellow citizens could not forget their 
obligations to so distinguished a benefactor of his country. After the 
first term of his office expired, he was unanimously elected president 
of the nation for a succeeding term, notwithstanding his wishes for 
retirement. Among the more important events that occurred during 
Washington's administration, we may summarily name the following. 
viz. the disturbances between the Indians and the whites on our fron- 
tiers — the difficulties growing out of the mission of Genet, the French 
envoy, who sought to entangle America into an alliance with the 
French republic — the suppression of the slave trade in American 
ports — the admission of three states into the union, Vermont, Ken- 
tucky, and Tennessee — the negotiation of Mr. Jay's treaty, by which 
the frontiers were secured against the remorseless savage — and the. 
insurrection in Pennsylvania, occasioned by duties laid on home- 
made spirits. 

83. John Adams, of Massachusetts, was chosen the suc- 
cessor of Washington in 1797. He retained the presidency 
during only one term. Some of the measures of his admi- 
nistration were peculiarly offensive to those who had been op- 
posed to the policy of Washington, and the federal party ; 
and the political strife which had been for some time begun, 
greatly increased, until Mr. Jefferson, the opponent of Mr. 
Adams, was placed at the head of the government. This 
took place in 1801. Under Adams's administration, the ag- 
gressions of the French republic were repelled with spirit — 
preparations were made for war — but, happily, at the very 
crisis, a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, September 
30th, 1800, under the auspices of Bonaparte. Mr. Jefferson, 



UNITED STATES* 



335 



after his first term of office had expired, was again elected 
for another term. The times of peace and prosperity, which, 
with few abatements, were enjoyed under the former admi- 
nistrations, continued till nearly the close of his. 

It was perhaps impossible for the United States always to 
continue on terms of amity with the belligerent powers of 
Europe. Disputes arose both with France and England, es- 
pecially with the latter, who saw in America a formidable 
rival. These disputes finally impelled the^ states to have re- 
course to the unexampled resolution of a voluntary suspension 
of their own commerce. On the 22d of December, 1807, 
Congress passed an act laying an embargo on all vessels 
within the jurisdiction of the United States. This was fol- 
!owed, March 1st, 1808, by an act interdicting commercial 
intercourse with France and Great Britain. This restrictive 
plan continued, in respect to France, until the 2d of Novem- 
ber, 1810, and in respect to Great Britain, with one short 
suspension, until April 4th, 1812, when an embargo was laid 
on all American vessels, preparatory to a war with the latter 
power. It was hoped, on the part of the American govern- 
ment, that a suspension of all commercial relations with the 
belligerents, would induce them to rescind those edicts by 
which they had annihilated neutral rights on the ocean ; but 
this failing ultimately in respect to Great Britain, war ensued 
between that power and the United States — a declaration of 
which was made by Congress on the 18th of June> 1812. In 
this contest, the young American navy gained a glorious 
distinction, the army did less, the capital itself became the 
spoils of the English, but New Orleans was defended with 
courage and success. The negotiations at Ghent led, in a 
happy hour, to a much needed peace, 14th December, 1814 
The war took place during the presidency of Mr. Madison, 
who was inducted into the office in 1809. Mr. Madison, like 
Mr. Jefferson before him, served through two terms of the 
presidential office, retiring in 1817, when he was succeeded 
by James Monroe. The principal events that marked the 
administrations of Jefferson and Madison, besides those above 
noticed, were, under Mr. Jefferson — the admission of Ohio 
into the Union, the conclusion of the war with Tripoli, the 
revolutionary projects of Col. Burr, and the purchase of Loui- 
siana; and, under Mr. Madison — the establishment of the Bank 



336 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

of the United States, and the admission of Louisiana and In • 
diana into the Union, 

A few details only can be given respecting the war with Great 
Britain. The principal grounds of war, as set forth in the presi- 
dent's message, were-— the impressment of American seamen by the 
British — the blockade of her enemy's ports, supported by no adequate 
force, in consequence of which the American commerce had been 
plundered in every sea, and the great staples of the country cut off 
from their legitimate markets — and the British orders in council. 
Both Congress and the country, during the whole period of the con* 
tention, were very much divided respecting both the justice and the 
expediency of it. The nation was not well prepared for the under- 
taking, and especially was the want of officers at first severely felt. 

The commencement of the war, in the operations against Canada, 
was marked by disaster. General Hull, who had been sent at the 
head of two thousand and five hundred men to Detroit, with a view 
to putting an end to Indian hostilities in that country, surrendered his 
whole army to General Brock, without a battle, and with it the Fort 
at Detroit. This event occurred on the 16th of August The battle 
of Gtueenstown, which soon followed, was bravely fought, and ap- 
peared at first to be successful, but by successive reinforcements the 
enemy at length gained the day* The brave British commander. 
General Brock, was, however, killed during the engagement. This 
battle was fought on the 13th of October, 1812. 

But while disaster attended the operations of the Americans on 
land, victory crowned the efforts of their infant navy. The charm 
of British invincibility on the ocean, was almost, for the first time, 
broken. Capt. Isaac Hull, of the frigate Constitution, obtained the 
first triumph over the enemy on his own peculiar element, in the 
capture of the British frigate Guerriere. This occurred about the 
middle of August, 1812. On the 17th of October another victory was 
obtained by Capt. Jones, of the sloop of war Wasp over the Fro- 
lick. Before the expiration of the month, Commodore Decatur, of 
the frigate United States, captured the Macedonian, a frigate of the 
largest class, mounting forty-nine guns, and manned with three hun- 
dred men. And, finally, just at the close of the year, a second victo- 
ry was achieved by the Constitution, then commanded by Com. 
Bainbridge, over the Java, a frigate of thirty-eight guns, bat carrying 
forty-nine. 

At the commencement of the year 1813, a battle was fought at the 
river Raisin, between a detachment of the north-western army un- 
der Gen. Winchester, and a superior force of British and Indians 
under Gen. Proctor, the result of which was fatal to the Americans, 
since, upon their surrender as prisoners of war, nearly all of them 
were inhumanly massacred by the Indians. 

During the winter, another naval victory was obtained by the 
Americans, in the capture of the sloop of war Peacock, by the Hor- 
net, under Capt. Lawrence. This, however, was followed on the 1st 
of June, by the loss of the Chesapeake, under the same officer, who 
had been promoted to the command of it, in an engagement with the 



UNITED STATES. 337 

Shannon, off Boston harbour. The Argus, also, was soon after cap- 
tured by a British ship of war. This, however, was but a temporary 
ill success of the American navy. No other considerable vessel, ex- 
cept the Essex, under the command of Com. Porter, after this, fell 
into the hands of the enemy ; while on the part of the Americans, 
beside victories in single ships, two several fleet engagements ended 
in the complete triumph of the American navy. These occurred, 
the one on Lake Erie, under Com. Perry, and the other on Lake 
Champlain, under Com. Macdonough. 

In the early part of the spring of 1813, a successful attack was 
made by the Americans upon York, the capital of Upper Canada, 
which fell into their hands. In this battle, the brave Gen. Pike per- 
ished. On the sea-board, during this year, the British shipping in 
our waters blockaded several important places, and made a number 
of predatory excursions, in which much property was plundered and 
destroyed. In the north-west, success attended the Americans un- 
der Gen. Harrison, and Detroit fell into his hands. This event gave 
security to the frontiers. A more extended plan of attack on Cana- 
da was now formed by the American army under Gen. Wilkinson j 
but, from various causes, very little was effected. During the re- 
mainder of the year, several events of importance occurred— as the 
capture of Washington, and the destruction of the -public buildings 
of the place, and the defence of Baltimore. But we can give no 
more details respecting this war, except to add, that the battle of New 
Orleans, under Gen. Jackson, occurred on the 8th of Jan. the succeed- 
ing year, after negotiations for peace had been set on foot with the 
promise of success. 

84. The war with England failed of its immediate object, 
but it showed us our strength and our weakness, and perhaps 
tended to consolidate our union. It caused us to feel the ne- 
cessity of a navy, and, connected with the previous prohibi- 
tions of commerce, gave an impulse to our manufacturing 
industry. With the return of peace, our trade was diffused 
over every sea. The presidency of Monroe continued through 
two terms, and was an era of good feelings. Five states were 
added to the union during his administration. But the period 
of internal concord and good will soon came to a close. Party 
altercations arose in the choice of Mr. Monroe's successor, 
John Q,. Adams, in 1825, and have continued with more oi 
less violence, under the administration of President Jackson, 
who was elected to the high office in 1829. The measures, 
however, of these officers have been approved by respectable 
majorities of the American people. It may be remarked, gene- 
rally, that amidst unexampled prosperity, party spirit has too 
often raged, not without danger to the republic, but love of 
country has in the end prevailed. Thus, we trust, it ever will 



S8 MODERN HISTORY. — -PERIOD X. 

be, through the favoring providence of God. He has been 
better to us as a nation, than either our deserts or fears would 
have led us to expect. 

Soon after the conclusion of the war, the attention of congress was 
turned towards the establishment of a national bank. The subject 
presented great difficulties at the time ; but the measure was carried, 
and a bill, incorporating the " Bank of the United States," received 
the signature of President Madison on the 10th of April, 1816. The 
capital of the bank was fixed at thirty-five millions of dollars, and its 
duration, twenty years. Great efforts have lately been made to obtain 
a recharter of the institution, but they have all hitherto failed. 

Soon after the accession of President Monroe, he made a tour 
through the northern and middle states, which, besides the great pub- 
lic objects he had in view, in respect to the defence of the Atlantic 
board, served very much to conciliate the affections of all classes of 
his fellow-citizens. 

Early in the presidency of Monroe, an expedition, which had been 
set on foot by a number of adventurers from different countries, against 
East and West Florida, was terminated by the troops of the United 
States. These adventurers claimed to be acting under the authority 
of some of the South American colonies, and had formed an establish- 
ment at Amelia Island, a Spanish province, then the subject of nego- 
tiation between the United States and Spain. Their avowed object 
being an invasion of the Floridas, and of course an invasion of a part 
of the United States, the American government deemed itself autho- 
rized, without designing any hostility to Spain, to take possession 
of Amelia Island, their head quarters. Accordingly, a naval force, 
with the necessary troops, was despatched under the command of 
Captains Henley and Bunkhead, to whom Amelia Island was surren- 
dered on the 24th of December, without the effusion of blood. The 
suppression of Galvezton, a similar establishment pn an island off 
the coast of Texas, followed soon after.* 

The states which were admitted into the union during the adminis- 
tration of Monroe, were Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and 
Missouri. Mississippi was received in Dec. 1817. Some parts of 
it had been early visited and settled by the French. They claimed 
the country until the treaty of 1763, when they ceded their posses- 
sions east of the river to the English. Illinois adopted a state con- 
stitution in 1818, and in the same year was admitted as a member of 
the union. The first settlements in Illinois were made by the French, 
and for a time, they were in a flourishing condition. Afterwards, 
however, they fell into decay. In 1762, all the country to the east of 
the Mississippi was ceded to the British ; Illinois of course passed 
with the rest. After the war of the revolution, Virginia and some 
other states claimed the whole country north and west of the Ohio, 
but they saw fit at length to relinquish their claims to the general 
government. Alabama was admitted into the union in the latter part 
of the year 1819. This country continued the hunting ground ol 
* Goodrich's History of the United States 



UNITED STATES. 339 

savages, until some time after the American revolution. In 1817 the 
eastern portion of the Mississippi territory, which included what 
are now the states of Mississippi and Alabama, was formed into a 
territorial government, and received the latter name. Maine was 
admitted as an independent state into the union, in the year 1820. It 
had been a part of Massachusetts, and after several ineffectual at- 
tempts to obtain a majority of its people in favor of a separation, the 
object was accomplished in the year 1819. The separation took place 
amicably. Missouri was declared by the president's proclamation, 
to be an independent state, and a member of the federal union, in the 
year 1821. Missouri with Louisiana remained in the possession of 
Spain through the war of the revolution, until the cession of the whole 
country to France in 1801, by which latter power it was ceded to the 
United States in 1803. The admission of Missouri into the union 
was attended with some difficulty, on account of a bill which was in- 
troduced into congress, providing for the interdiction of slavery in 
that state. Warm debates arose, and the matter was settled only- 
through a compromise, by which slavery was tolerated in Missouri, 
and forbidden in all that part of original Louisiana lying north ol 
36° 30' north latitude, and beyond the limits of the state. 

An Indian war of some importance was carried on in 1818, under 
the presidency of Monroe. It is called the Seminole war, as a tribe of 
Indians of that name were principally concerned in it. It ended in their 
complete discomfiture. They consisted originally of fugitives from 
the northern tribes, resident within the southern states, and were then 
living partly on the borders of Florida, but mostly within the bounda- 
ries of that country. They had made aggressions on the white habi- 
tants of the United States, and had been guilty of repeated murders. 
This state of things determined the government of the country to 
inflict an exemplary chastisement on the barbarous offenders. An 
armed force was sent for this purpose, and after pursuing the enemy 
into Florida, and taking possession of several Spanish forts, the dif- 
ficulty was terminated by their complete dispersion. Gen. Jackson 
was the leader in this war. He rendered a signal service to his 
country, but some parts of his conduct were deemed highly excep- 
tionable, by a portion of the community. His appeal to the people of 
West Tennessee, calling for volunteers instead of applying to the 
governor for a draft of the militia — his course in relation to the trial 
and execution of Arbuthnot and Ambrister, two Englishmen, who 
were charged with giving encouragement and aid to the Indians — ■ 
and his occupation of St. Marks and Pensacola — were subjects much 
commented upon in the public prints, and eloquently debated in the 
American congress. The general escaped the censure of that body, 
notwithstanding the efforts that were made to cast a stigma upon his 
conduct. 

In the year 1819, a convention was concluded between Great Bri- 
tain and the United States, some of the articles of which were, that 
the citizens of the United States have liberty, in common with the 
subjects of Great Britain, to take fish, on the southern, western, and 
northern coast of Newfoundland, &c. — that the northern boundaries 



340 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. 

of the United States should extend from the Lake of the Woods tc 
the Stony Mountains — and that the commercial convention between 
the two countries concluded at London, in 1815, should be continued 
for the term of ten years. 

In the year above named, (1819,) Spain, by its minister at Wash- 
ington, ceded to the United States, East and West Florida, with aL 
the islands adjacent. This country, which was discovered as early 
as 1497 by Cabot, was held first by the Spaniards, next by the En- 
glish, and then by the Spaniards again. Its cession to the United 
States was accompanied not without vexatious delays on the part ot 
the Spanish government. It was not until a forcible execution of the 
treaty which had been made, but not ratified, was about to be pro- 
posed by the United States, that the treaty was ratified by his Catho- 
lic Majesty. As an indemnity to the citizens of the United States, 
on account of Spanish spoliations and injuries, a sum not exceeding 
five millions of dollars was to be paid by the American government; 
out of the proceeds of sales of lands in Florida, or in stock, or money. 

During the administration of President Monroe, a territorial go- 
vernment was formed for the Arkansas, and for Florida, the former 
in 1819 and the latter in 1822. The Arkansas was the southern part 
of what in 1812 constituted the Territory of Missouri. A division 
of the territory was made in 1819, the northern district being called 
Missouri, and the southern formed into a territorial government by the 
name of Arkansas. 

In the second session of the seventeenth congress, President Monroe 
introduced to the notice of congress, the subject of the piracy prac- 
tised in the West Indies upon American seamen, and recommended 
the immediate organization of an efficient force to suppress it. Mea- 
sures were soon adopted by the government to put a stop to this in- 
famous business, and the object was promptly effected under Commo- 
dore Porter, who sailed with a competent naval force to the scene of 
the depredations. 

The year 1824 was signalized by the visit of the Marquis La 
Fayette to this country. He was accompanied by his son, and M. La 
Vasseur, his secretary. Landing at New York, he was received 
with the most enthusiastic feelings of admiration and gratitude. Du- 
ring his stay in this country, he visited almost every important part 
of it, and in every place he was welcomed, as emphatically the na- 
tion's guest. The important services which he rendered to the United 
States in the war of the revolution, were thus rewarded with the ho- 
mage of a great people ; while the American congress responded to 
the public demonstrations of respect, by voting him two hundred 
thousand dollars, and a township of land, as a compensation for his 
services and expenditures. In the autumn of 1825 he took passage in 
the ship Brandy wine for France, where he has since figured in many 
interesting scenes. 

The presidency of John Q,. Adams, which commenced in 1825, 
and continued for one term only, encountered a bitter storm of oppo- 
sition from the beginning. Party spirit too far gained the ascendancy 
to allow full justice to the measures of his administration. This may 



UNITED STATES. 341 

6e sougnt partly from the circumstances under which he came into 
office. The choice of president not being settled by the electoral vole, 
devolved on the house of representatives. Mr. Adams was chosen by 
this body, but inasmuch as Gen. Jackson had a plurality of votes in 
the electoral college, many conceived that injustice was done to the 
general, and to the expectations of the country, and that the election 
of Mr. Adams was effected by bribery and corruption. Notwithstand- 
ing the difficulty of his situation, he secured a large share of respect, 
not only personally, but as an executive officer. The agitating sub- 
ject of the tariff of duties on imports, was extensively discussed du- 
ring the term of his administration, and some of its principles were 
settled, at least, for a time. 

Andrew Jackson took the oath of office as president of the United 
States, on the fourth of March, 1829. The country was at that time 
in a flourishing condition, peace was enjoyed abroad, and the national 
debt had been greatly diminished. He entered upon the performance 
of his duties with energy and decision ; but the causes of collision and 
oarty alienation which had sprung up in connection with the election 
)f his predecessor, have continued at work to the present time, and 
presented serious obstacles to the execution c*f his plans. The cha- 
racter of his administration hitherto has been strongly marked, and 
he seems destined to achieve most of the objects which he has had at 
heart. 

President Jackson's cabinet consisted of Martin Van Buren as 
secretary of state, John D. Ingham as secretary of the treasury, John 
H. Eaton as secretary of war, John Branch as secretary of the navy, 
and John M'Pherson Berrien as attorney-general. This cabinet con- 
tinued but a little more than two years, when it was dissolved in a 
manner that occasioned great surprise throughout the country. 

A favorite measure with President Jackson, has been the removal 
of the Indians in the southern states, beyond the limits of the republic, 
to be congregated into a community by themselves, under the care of 
the general government. In the contests which the state of Georgia 
has had with the tribe of Cherokees within her borders, and with the 
United States, on the subject, Gen. Jackson has ever favored the pre- 
tensions of that state. On the 24th May, 1830, a bill for removing 
the Indians passed the house of representatives, by a vote of 102 to 97. 
Arising out of this controversy, history has to record the surprising 
fact, that three christian missionaries, Messrs. Butler, Trott, and 
Worcester were sentenced by the superior court of Georgia at Law- 
renceville, to four years imprisonment at hard labor, in the peniten- 
tiary, for residing in the territory occupied by the Cherokees, without 
taking an oath to support the constitution and laws of Georgia. It is 
consoling, however, to know, and it will appear on the page of history 
to the latest time, that the supreme court of the United States decided 
in the case of these missionaries, that the law of Georgia under which 
they were imprisoned, and by which the state assumed jurisdiction 
over the Indian territory, is contrary to the laws and treaties of the 
United States, and therefore null and void. 

In the early part of the year 1831, a treaty was made between the 
29* 



342 MODERN HISTORY. — PERTOD X. 

United States and the Creek Indians, by which the latter ceded to 
the United States, all their lands east of the Mississippi river. In 
the same year, the ratification of the treaties of commerce, navigation, 
and of the limits between the United States and Mexico, was ex- 
changed at Washington. In June, of the same year, a bill for the 
further relief of the surviving offices and soldiers of the American 
revolution, having passed both houses of Congress, received the sig- 
nature of the president. The same year was further signalized by the 
new tariff act, which passed the senate by a vote of thirty-two to 
sixteen, and also by the act which extended the charter of the Bank 
of the United States, but which, though passed by the senate, by a vote 
of 28 to 20, and the house of representatives, by a vote of 105 to 83, 
was returned by President Jackson to the senate with his objections 
to signing it ; and less than two thirds voting for its passage, was re- 
jected. 

On account of the laws respecting the tariff, difficulties of a serious 
nature arose between the general government and some parts of the 
union, particularly South Carolina. In the month of October, 1832, 
an act passed in the legislature of that state, requiring " a convention 
of delegates of the people of that state to assemble at Columbia, on 
the 3d Monday of November, then and there to take into considera- 
tion the several acts of congress of the United States, imposing duties 
on foreign imports for the protection of domestic manufactures, or for 
other unauthorized objects ; to determine on the character thereof, 
and to devise the means of redress ; and further in like manner to take 
into consideration such of the acts of said congress, laying duties on 
imports, as may be passed in amendment of, or substitution for, the 
act or acts aforesaid, and all other laws and acts of the government 
of the United States, which shall be passed or done for the purpose 
of more effectually executing and enforcing the same." 

The convention of delegates of the state of South Carolina thus 
assembled at Columbia, passed an Ordinance, (unless the acts of 
congress imposing duties on imports should be repealed,) declaring 
and ordaining " that the several acts and parts of acts of the congress 
of the United States, purporting to be laws for the imposing of duties 
and imposts on the importation of foreign commodities, and now 
having actual operation and effect within the United States, and more 
especially, 'An act entitled an act, in alteration of the several acts 
imposing duties on imports, approved on the 19th of May, IS2S, and 
also an act entitled an act, to alter and amend the several acts im- 
posing duties on imports, approved on the 14th of July, 1832,' are 
unauthorized by the constitution of the United States, and violate 
the true meaning and intent thereof, and are null and void, and no 
law, nor binding upon this state, its officers or citizens • and all pro- 
mises, contracts, and obligations, made and entered into, or to be made 
and entered into, with the purpose to secure the duties imposed by 
the said acts, and all judicial proceedings which shall be hereafter 
had in affirmance thereof, are and shall be held utterly null and void." 

Soon after the meeting of congress on that year, President Jackson 
issued his proclamation, stating his views of the constitution and laws 



UNITED STATES. 343 

applicable to the measures adopted by the convention of South Caro- 
lina, and to the reasons put forth to sustain them, declaring the course 
which duty would require him to pursue, and warning the people of 
South Carolina of the consequences which must result from the ob- 
servance of the dictates of the convention. 

This document was well received in most parts of the United 
States, as it addressed itself to the patriotism of the people, and 
gave a correct exposition of the principles of the constitution. The 
president soon after communicated a message to congress, laying 
before it the acts and proceedings of South Carolina, giving informa- 
tion respecting the measures which he had already taken for the 
collection of the revenue, and suggesting such further measures as 
he deemed necessary. r Following this communication, a bill for col- 
lecting the revenue, called the " enforcing bill," passed in the house 
of representatives, after an animated debate of several weeks. This 
occurred on the first of March, 1833, and on the eleventh of the same 
month, the state convention of South Carolina assembled, and in the 
course of a few days passed two ordinances. The first repealed the 
nullification ordinance of the preceding year, and most of the laws 
passed by the legislature, in pursuance thereof. The other was an 
ordinance to nullify the late act of congress, further providing for the 
collection of the national revenue. 



SOUTH AMERICA. 

85. The provinces of South America, which were colo- 
nized by Europeans, continued, with little variations in their 
circumstances, from the time of their settlement, to the con- 
vulsions attending the French revolution. Those convul- 
sions, inasmuch as they affected the parent countries, a^o 
reached them. Within the present century they have be 
come independent sovereign states, generally with republican 
governments, resembling that of North America. Brazil, 
belonging to the Portuguese, having ceased to be a colony, is 
styled by its ruler, an empire. The Spanish provinces had 
a long straggle for liberty and independence, which they 
have attained, so far as concerns the interference of the 
mother country. If our information be correct, all of 
them have not yet agreed on permanent forms of govern- 
ment. Seven states are already enumerated among the 
free governments of the South, viz., 1. Colombia ; 2. La 
Plata ; 3. Chili ; 4. Mexico ; 5. Peru ; 6. The Capitania of 
Guatimala ; 7. Bolivia, formed out of the provinces of Upper 
Peru. 

§ The struggle for freedom in the Spanish provinces, did not origi 



344 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

nate in the intention of an entire separation from the Spanish throne, 
but from resistance to the usurpation of Napoleon and his brother. 
The insurgents were, therefore, no more rebels, than the Spaniards 
themselves. But they were as unwilling to be ruled by Spanish 
Juntas, as by their viceroys, in whom they could not confide. Like 
the Spanish, they established Juntas of their own, during the im- 
prisonment of their lawful king. Meanwhile, after the erection of 
the regency in the mother country, and after its refusal to comply 
with their just demands, they would not recognize its authority, nor 
that of the Cortez assembled by it ; upon this they were declared 
rebels. After the accession of Ferdinand VII., they had gone too 
far to retreat. His violence and insincerity finished the rest. 

Distinguished Characters in Period X. 

1. Addison, an elegant English essayist and poet. 

2. Newton, a most profound mathematician and philosopher. 

3. Boerhaave, a skilful and learned Dutch physician. 

4. Pope, an eminent English poet. 

5. Swift, distinguished as a wit, poet, and prose writer. 

6. Montesquieu, a Frenchman, a great political philosopher. 

7. Edwards, an illustrious American metaphysician and 
divine. 

8. Hume, a Scotchman, an able historian, and an acute 
and skeptical writer. 

' 9. Voltaire, a French poet and writer of great celebrity. 

10. Linnaeus, a Swede, the father of botany. 

11. Rousseau, a renowned Swiss philosopher, and fine writer. 

12. Pitt, a distinguished statesman and orator. 

"1 3. Metastasio, the most illustrious poet of modern Italy. 

14. Euler, a renowned Swiss mathematician. 

15. Johnson, an eminent lexicographer, critic, and essayist 

16. Franklin, an American, a distinguished philosophei 
and discoverer of electricity. 

17. Gibbon, an eminent English historian. 

18. Burns, a Scotch poet, a great untaught genius. 

19. Burke, an Irishman distinguished for eloquence and 
political knowledge. 

20. Washington, an eminent statesman and warrior, and 
father of the American republic. 

21. Oowper, a celebrated English poet. 

22. Klopstock, a German poet of great repute. 

22 Heyne, an eminent German critic and scholar. 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 1345 

24. M. de Stael, a learned and accomplished French female 
writer. 

25. D wight, a celebrated American divine and belles-lettres 
scholar, 

26. Buonaparte, a renowned warrior, conqueror, and states- 
man. 

1. Addison, (Joseph,) " so great in prose, so little in poetry,"* was 
the son of a clergyman, and born in 1672. He was educated at Ox- 
ford, where he so cultivated and improved his mind, by the compo- 
sition of Latin verses, that he acquired an uncommon correctness 
of style, and elegance of diction. His merits, as a writer, procured 
for him public employment, and he even became, in 1717, secretary 
of state ; a place, however, to which he was unequal, as he possessed 
neither boldness nor eloquence. He was unable' to defend the 
measures of government in the House of Commons, and only wasted 
away his time in his office, in quest of fine expressions. 

Late in life, he married the countess dowager of Warwick and 
Holland ; but if this event added to his elevation, it diminished his 
happiness, for she ever remembered her rank, and trealed him with 
very little ceremony ; an emphatic warning against ambitious love. 
He died at the age of fifty-seven. 

The Spectator, of which the most admired pieces came from the 
pen of Addison, has immortalized his name. In that work, and in 
most of his other prose productions, he is remarkable for a delicate 
and gentle humour, and an entertaining seriousness. His style is 
admirable, for purity and ease ; and the idiomatic excellence of the 
English language, is seen in his pages, to the greatest advantage. 
Some have thought well of his poetry ; and his tragedy of Cato, ac- 
cording to the French notions, would be pronounced one of the best 
in the English drama. But others have a very different opinion of 
Addison's poetry, and at the present day, it certainly does not stand 
very high in public esteem. 

2. Newton, (Sir Isaac,) the most illustrious philosopher and ma- 
thematician that ever lived, was born in 1642, and died in 1727. 
The place of his nativity, was Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire. Particu- 
lar care was bestowed on his education by his mother, for he early 
lost his father. At the age of eighteen, he entered Trinity College, 
Cambridge, and there he began to show the astonishing strength of 
his mind in the mathematics. At the age of twenty-two, he discov- 
ered the method of fluxions, which he afterwards greatly improved. 
His next pursuit was the grinding of optical glasses, for the improve- 
ment of telescopes, and soon after, connected with his investigation 
of the prism, followed his new theory of light and colours. His great- 
est discovery, and the greatest that the world ever saw, viz., the prin 
ciple of gravitation, next succeeded. His rmmortal work, the Prin 
eipia, was published in 1687. The friendship of the earl of Halifax, 

* Edin. Review., 



346 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD X. 

now procured for him a very lucrative employment, in being made 
master of the mint. His reputation extended with every effort ol 
his genius, and he enjoyed numerous honours, and the favour o( 
princes. 

He began to be affected with disease, about the age of eighty. An 
incontinence of urine, and the excruciating pains of a stone in the 
bladder, were the melancholy presages of approaching dissolution. 
He, however, lived about five years from this time. For a few weeks 
before his death, the agonies which he suffered were very great yet 
he bore them with exemplary patience, and though, from the severe 
paroxysms which he endured, large drops of sweat ran down his 
cheeks, he preserved his usual smile of cheerfulness and serenity. 

The character of Newton, is represented as being amiable, and 
adorned with the virtues of a christian. Irreverence towards the 
Deity, or the holy scriptures, always drew from him the severest 
censure. The bible he made his favourite study. His person was 
of a middle stature, and his countenance, though venerable and 
pleasant, did not indicate that transcendant sagacity, which . he is 
known to have possessed. 

It is superfluous to comment on his intellectual superiority. A 
celebrated w riter has observed, that if the literati of all ages and na- 
tions could meet in one assembly, they would choose Sir Isaac New- 
ton for their president. In his researches, he proceeded on the 
method laid down by Bacon, but with a clearness and strength of 
comprehension in abstruse studies, even exceeding the father of ex- 
perimental philosophy. 

3. Boerhaave, (Herman,) was born near Leyden, in 1668. He 
was intended for the ministry by his father, but the circumstance, 
that in his twelfth year only, he cured a distressing complaint with 
which he was afflicted, and which baffled all the powers of his sur- 
geon, turned his thoughts to the medical profession. Still, however, 
he studied theology in connection with it. He stood at the head of 
his profession, and as a lecturer on physic and botany, he became 
renowned, not only in his own country, but throughout Europe, so 
that students resorted to him from all quarters. His powers of mind 
were vast, and his learning extended to almost every subject of hu- 
man investigation. He was a great and good man. His valuable 
works are in Latin, and all on medical, botanical, and chemical sub- 
jects. His death occurred in 1738. 

4. Pope, (Alexander,) who died in 1774, aged fifty-six years, was 
a native of London. After having been at school a few years, he 
went, at the age of twelve, to live with his parents at Binfield, in 
Windsor forest, and first discovered, or rather improved his taste for 
poetry, by reading the translated works of Virgil and Ovid; but es- 
pecially the poems of Spenser, Waller and Dryden. He early be- 
gan to try his strength in poetry, and so early, that to use his own 
expression, he " lisped in numbers." His first regular composition 
seems, however, to have been his Ode on Solitude, written when he 
was about twelve years old. Four years after this, when he began 
his pastorals, his merit introduced him into the society of the wits of the 



Distinguished characters. 347 

age ; aiid he became the wonder of the literary world, when, at less 
than the age of twenty, he published his Essay on Criticism. This is, 
perhaps, as faultless a piece of composition, as the history of youth- 
ful genius has ever recorded. It evinces all the mature reflection, 
and developed capacities of age. But the fame of the Essay was 
soon surpassed by the Rape of the Lock, which he produced at the 
age of twenty-four. The Temple of Fame, next engaged the pub- 
lic attention. His next great effort, was the translation of Homer's 
Iliad, from which he realized a fortune, receiving £6000, from his 
subscribers, and £12,000, from his bookseller. After this,' he wrote 
several other works, particularly the Dunciad, a work of the keen- 
est satire, and the Essay on Man, which, though beautiful in language, 
and elaborate in disquisition, shews the writer to have been skeptical, 
as to religion. 

Pope was bred a Roman catholic, but, in the latter part of his life, 
he attended the service of the English church. In his person, he 
was diminutive, and somewhat crooked — when tauntingly reminded 
of it, he would say, " God mend me." In disposition, he was fretful 
and easily displeased, and, to his no small reproach, it must be said, 
that he was capricious in his friendships. His manners were easy, 
and his wit fascinating. Many of the great and noble were his ad- 
mirers, but he made them feel, that he did not servilely adore supe- 
riority of rank. 

Puny and delicate as the constitution of this poet was, his life was 
prolonged to his fifty-sixth year, by means of peculiar care and tem- 
perance. 

5. Swift, (Jonathan,) was born in Ireland, in 1667. He was de- 
scended, however, from an ancient English family. In early life, he 
was poor, but his relatives furnished him with the means of pro- 
curing his education. So indifferent a scholar was he at the univer- 
sity, that he obtained his first degree only by special favour. This 
mortification of his feelings, had a most propitious effect on his lite- 
rary progress, for it stimulated him to a methodical and diligent ap- 
plication to his books, during several succeeding years. Swift, un- 
der the auspices of Sir William Temple, with whom he had formed 
an intimacy, might have risen in civil or military life; as the king, 
in one instance, offered to make him captain oftl$$rse; but his 
thoughts were directed to the church. A little after me year 1694, 
he took orders, and engaged in the duties of a parish priest. His 
hopes of preferment were, from time to time, disappointed. He had 
expected some fat benefice in the English church, and even looked 
to a bishoprick ; but he attained only the deanery of St. Patrick, Dub- 
lin. After the accession of queen Anne, he became deeply engaged 
in political controversy, and wrote some able political works. He 
died in a state of alienation and weakness, in 1745. 

The works of Swift are numerous, and highly respectable for the 
ability they display. He wrote in a pure and plain style, and had, 
as Johnson says, " an equable tenor of easy language, which rather 
trickles than flows." The effects of his writings were very decisive, 
at the time, and some of them are still read with great pleasure. His 



348 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

Gulliver's Travels, and his Tale of a Tub, have lost nothing of their 
popularity. 

Swift was an eccentric being, and little better than a madman. 
He delighted to differ from all other men, on those subjects, or in re- 
gard to those interests, in which all other men are agreed, Though 
married, he was never known to be in company with his Wife, ex- 
cept in the presence of a third person. He was strongly attached to 
her, and yet his strange cruelty broke her heart. Like some men, 
however, he was avaricious. " He made a rule to himself, to give 
but one piece at a time, and therefore always stored his pocket with 
coins of different value." But What he did give, was graced neither 
with tenderness nor civility. "When his friends, of either sex, 
came to him, in expectation of a dinner, his custom was to give 
every one a shilling, that they might please themselves with pro- 
vision. At last, his avarice grew too powerful for his kindness ; he 
would refuse a bottle of wine j ana, in Ireland, no man visits where 
he cannot drink." Whether he really believed in the truth of Chris- 
tianity, is, to say the least, doubtful. His professed dread of hypo- 
crisy, might rather be termed the fear of man, or indifference to re- 
ligion, when it induced him to read prayers to his servant, every 
morning, with such dexterous secresy, that Dr. Delany was six 
months in his house before he knew it. 

6. Montesquieu (Charles de Secondat) was born at Brede, near 
Bordeaux, 1689, of a noble family. He devoted himself early to 
literature, and first displayed strong powers c£ mind in his Per- 
sian Letters. His great work, that which has conferred on him an 
immortal name, is, his Spirit of Laws. In this production, he dis- 
plays astonishing depth of thought, vigour of imagination, and so- 
lidity of judgment, and deserves the honourable appellation of thf* 
Legislator of the Human Race. While he was engaged in thai 
work, he visited several countries for information, as Germany, 
Hungary, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, and England. In the last he 
resided two years, where he was greatly honoured. It was an ob- 
servation of his, " that England was the country where to think, and 
France where to live." 

7. Edwards, (Jonathan,) so advantageously known at home and 
abroad, for the power of his intellect, and the usefulness of his wri- 
tings, was a native of Windsor, Connecticut. He was born in 1703, 
graduated at Yale College, in 1720, where he spent two years, as a 
tutor j settled in the ministry at Northampton, 1727, whence he was 
removed ; appointed missionary to the Indians, at Stockbridge, in 
1751 ; and called to the presidency of Nassau Hall, in 1758. He had 
scarcely entered on the duties of that station, when he fell a victim 
to the small pox, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. 

President Edwards was one of the greatest and best men of mo- 
dern times. He possessed an acute metaphysical turn of mind, 
which he most usefully employed in the investigation of divine 
truth. His treatise on the Will, is deservedly ranked as one of the 
ablest productions of the human mind. This work did that for the 
moral nature of man, which Locke's Essay on the Understanding. 



£>tSTiNGL T lSHE£> CHARACTERS. 349 

did for man's intellectual nature. It settled several controverted 
subjects, which had perplexed the divines and philosophers, who 
went before him. Edwards, as a metaphysician, stands by the side 
of Locke, Bacon, and Aristotle; while, as a christian, he was pre- 
eminent in conscientiousness, humility, fear of God, and faithfulness 
to the spiritual interests of men. There is an awful power in his 
sermons. His Treatise on the Affections, is an invaluable book, 
which no christian, probably, ever read without profit. 

8. Hume (David) was designed, by his family, for the law, but 
the turn of his mind led him to literary pursuits. For this purpose, 
he retired to France, and, though he possessed slender means, he 
was able, by the most rigid economy, to pursue his studies in that 
country. Here he wrote his treatise of Human Nature. In 1742, 
the first part of his Essays appeared, His Political Discourses, and 
liis Inquiries concerning the Principles of Morals, followed, in 1752. 
At different periods afterwards, the several portions of his English 
History were given to the public. These works were little noticed 
at first, unless his History be excepted, but some of them gradually 
grew into reputation, and he realized, from the latter works particu- 
larly, a handsome reward. This, together with the avails of other 
employments, made him, in his own view, very opulent, as he pos- 
sessed a revenue of £1000 a year. He was born at Edinburgh, 1711, 
and died at the same place, 1776. 

Hume, doubtless, is an able writer, ingenious, subtile, and acute ; 
but the sophistry of his arguments, on the subject of morals and re- 
ligion, is unworthy of a man of his penetration. He knew better 
than to use the fallacious language with which he has often clothed 
his thoughts, and by means of which he has confounded truth with 
error, and right with wrong. 

9. Voltaire (Marie Francis Arouet de) was a Parisian by birth. 
He died in 1778, at the age of eighty-four. For a long period, he 
was a sort of dictator in the republic of letters on the continent. 
By his free remarks on government and religion, he contributed, 
perhaps more than any other man, to lay the foundation of that 
state of things which afterwards existed in France, known under the 
name of the Revolution* 

In early life, he evinced superior powers of mind, and especially 
a sprightly imagination. He wrote verses, he says, before he left 
his cradle. His fondness for satire, directed against the government, 
procured his imprisonment in the bastile, till he was liberated by 
the interference of the duke of Orleans. After this event, he devoted 
himself more entirely to the composition of poetry. His principal 
efforts were directed towards the drama ; and his Alzire, Mahomet, 
and Merope, placed him at the head of the dramatic poets of France. 
His Henriade, an epic poem, he had previously published in Eng- 
land. Encouraged by the Prussian monarch, he spent some time at 
the court of Berlin; but he at last fixed his residence in a village on 
the borders of France, named Ferney. The boldness and effrontery 
of his muse, had rendered a residence in the French capital vexa- 
tious, and even dangerous to him, and hence he willingly left lvs 
_2£L 



350 MODERN HISTORY, — PERIOD X. 

country at different times, and at last retired to a remote corner 
of it, so that he might pursue his studies in quiet. Here he con- 
tinued long to direct the taste and literature of the age. He died at 
Paris, while visiting that city ; and according to some accounts, he 
departed in great horror, from reflections on the irreligious tenden- 
cy of his writings. The blasphemous atheist often, indeed, ap- 
peared in his works. 

The following particulars respecting Voltaire, are given from a 
contemporaneous account. Many others might be added. " The 
most piercing eyes I ever beheld," says Dr. Moore, " are those of 
Voltaire, now in his eightieth year. His whole countenance is ex- 
pressive of genius, observation, and extreme sensibility. In ihe 
morning, he has a look of anxiety and discontent, which gradually 
wears off, and after dinner, he seems cheerful ; yet, an air of irony 
never entirely forsakes his face, but may always be observed lurking 
in his features, whether he frowns or smiles. By far the greater part 
of his time is spent in his study, and whether he reads himself, or 
listens to another, he always has a pen in his hands to take notes, or 
make remarks." 

10. Linnseus (Charles Von) was the son of a Swedish clergyman, 
born in the province of Smaland, 1707. He practised physic with 
such popularity and success, that at the age of thirty-four, he was 
nominated professor of physic and botany in the university of Up- 
sal, where he had been educated. His sovereign duly noticed his 
services, and besides other favours, conferred on him the honour 
of nobility. With an unparalleled ardour after knowledge, Linnaeus 
undertook to explore the inhospitable deserts of Lapland, and through 
ten degrees of latitude, he exposed himself, generally on foot, to every 
sort of fatigue. He afterwards visited other countries. He died in 
1778, having been seized with an apoplexy two years before. 

To his sagacity and discernment, science is indebted for the useful 
and familiar division of plants, of animals, &c. into classes. To the 
most extensive knowledge, he united the most indefatigable industry, 
and before his publication of his Genera Plantarum, he most minute- 
ly examined the characters of more than eight hundred plants. 

11. Rousseau (John James) was born in Geneva, in 1712. He 
was of a weakly constitution, but his mind was strong and active, 
and the early reading of Plutarch and Tacitus expanded his ideas, 
and inspired him with courage. His life was somewhat eventful, 
though we cannot dwell on the particulars. The strangeness and 
inconstancy of his character, subjected him to no inconsiderable ca- 
lamities ; and, while by nature he was formed to enjoy the pleasures 
of the world in perfection, he endured self-inflicted tortures to such 
an extent, as to leave the balance of pleasure very little, if at all, in 
his favour. He had a perpetual hankering after some unattainable 
state of voluptuous virtue. Though equally skeptical with Hume 
and Voltaire, he quarrelled with the one, who was his protector in 
England, and he incurred the persecution of the other, for maintain 
ing the immoral tendency of the stage. (Strange to tell, he had 
written for the stage himself j but he was a creature of inconsistency.) 






DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 351 

Some of his opinions were so obnoxious, that the popular indigna- 
tion was aroused against him, and he was obliged to flee from place 
to place on the continent, and, in fact, he found no asylum till he 
reached England. At length, however, he returned to Geneva, and 
spent the last years of his life in the company of a few friends,' and 
resigned himself to peaceful studies. He died of an apoplexy, in 
1778, aged sixty-six years. 

His works show him to have been a man of transcendent genius, 
but convict him of the utmost eccentricity, joined with licentious- 
ness and skepticism. He may be called the Diogenes of modern 
times. His literary career commenced at the age of thirty-eight, 
by a prize essay, in which he maintained the superiority of savage 
nature to the comforts of domestic and social life. This opinion he 
defended, for a long time, against all Europe. His New Heloise, and 
his Emilius, moral romances, attained to a great celebrity. His Con- 
fessions, a work published after his death, is one of the most singu- 
lar productions of the human mind. 

12. Pitt (William) was earl of Chatham, and is commonly known 
by that name. He was born in 1708. At the age of twenty-seven, 
he was elected a member of parliament, and soon began to distin- 
guish himself as an eloquent and well-informed speaker. He enlist- 
ed early in the ranks of opposition, and in his speeches displayed 
such acuteness, vehemence, and depth of argumentation, as asto- 
nished the house, and marked him as worthy of the highest offices 
of the state. Wealth now poured in upon him, from private bene- 
factions, and from his public employments. In 1756, he received 
the seals of secretary of state for the southern department ; but his 
continuance in office was of short duration. His popularity, howe- 
ver, with the mass of the nation, recalled him to the secretaryship 
in 1757. This restoration was the beginning of a new era of splen- 
did conquests, and of national glory. At the accession of George 
III., his resignation took place, accompanied not only by a nation's 
regrets, but by the most substantial testimonials of his worth, on the 
part of the government. He deprecated, with all his eloquence, 
the measures relating to the American war, in the house of lords. 
His constitution, however, was, at this time, so enfeebled, that on 
one of these occasions, as he arose to speak, he fell into a fit, and 
died in a few days. 

As a statesman and orator, he stands, perhaps, at the head of the 
men of his profession, in modern times. It is said, that Walpole, 
the minister, surrounded with power, and the unshaken support of a 
decided majority, never heard his voice, in the house of commons, 
without being alarmed and thunder-struck. 

13. Metastasio (Pietro Bonaventura) early began the exercise of 
the poetic art. At the age of ten, he often collected little audiences, 
who listened with attention and admiration to the sweetness of his 
extemporary verses. He found a patron in the celebrated Gravina; 
and without neglecting the muses, he first studied the law ; but at 
last assumed the clerical habit. Gravina, at his death, left the poet 
his whole fortune, worth 15,000 crowns, which the latter dissipated 



352 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X, 

in two years by his convivial and hospitable habits. He now wrote 
for the stage, at the solicitation of Bulgarella, the celebrated singer, 
and soon found himself the object of general admiration. A very 
large portion of his life, he spent at Vienna, enjoying the patronage 
of the sovereigns of Austria. He died at the age of eighty-four. 
Rome was the place of his birth, Vienna of his death. 

His works consist of twenty-six operas, eight sacred dramas, be- 
sides masques, sonnets, and other poetical miscellanies. They have 
been translated into various languages, and possess a high reputa- 
tion. The sweetest pictures of virtue and morality are delineated in 
his writings ; nor is he wanting in flights of sublimity. It is said, 
that Metastasio believed in no poetic inspiration, or propitious sea- 
sons for the composition of poetry, and that he trusted to no such 
thing in himself, but always set himself down calmly to his prescrib- 
ed task, and completed it as he would any other piece of business. 

14. Euler (Leonard) was born at Basil, 1707. His father intend- 
ed him for the ministry, but the genius of his son was bent to philo- 
sophical pursuits. In 1727, he went with the Bernouillis to Peters- 
burg. Here his publications ranked him among the greatest of phi- 
losophers. In 1740, he gained, with Maclaurin and D. Bernouilli, 
the prize of the academy of Paris, on the nature of tides. In 1741, 
he removed to Berlin, at the invitation of the king of Prussia, and 
assisted that monarch in the establishment of an academy of scien- 
ces. Here he produced his theory of the motions of the planets and 
comets, that of magnetism, &c. He died suddenly, while convers- 
ing with a friend, on the new planet, and as he was playing with 
one of his grand- children, at tea time. He was attacked by a fit of 
apoplexy. " I am dying," were his last words, and in a few hours 
after, he expired, aged 76 years. 

His mental powers were astonishing. While his fellow academi- 
cians asked four months to complete an important calculation, he 
finished it in three days, but so intense had been his application that 
it produced a fever, by which he lost the sight of one of his eyes. 
In one night, he calculated in his head, the six first powers of all the 
numbers above twenty, which he repeated the next day most correct- 
ly to his astonished friends. His erudition was immense. He read 
all the Latin classics, and had the history of all ages and nations, 
even to the minutest facts, ever present to his mind. Indeed, so re- 
tentive was his memory, that he could repeat the whole of the 
^Eneid. 

In society he was never absent like Newton or Adam Smith ; but 
like Hutton and Hume, he was thoughtless and playful in his hours 
of relaxation, and entered into all the trifles and frivolous anecdotes 
with which many choose to kill time while in company. 

15. Johnson, (Samuel,) surpassed by no one in literature, was born 
at Litchfield, 1709. He was educated at Oxford in part, the insol- 
vency of his father obliging him to leave the university premature- 
ly. Involved in poverty, and with unpromising prospects before 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 353 

him, he tried various expedients to obtain a livelihood, but abandon- 
ed them successively, till in company with his pupil Garrick, he 
went 'to London in quest of employment, in 1737. From this period 
till 1762, he was engaged in literary labours, under the pressure of 
poverty and disappointment. A part of the fruit of these labours 
were his immortal works, the English Dictionary and the Rambler. 
He completed his Dictionary, in the space of seven years, and re- 
ceived for it £1575; but owing to the urgency of his wants, the 
money had been advanced during the composition of the work. 
During this period he was once arrested for a debt of five guineas, 
from which he was relieved by the kindness of Richardson. His 
services to literature were not, however, to pass unrewarded ; for, in 
1762, he was presented by the king with a pension of £300 per 
annum, as the grant expresses it, for the moral tendency of his 
writings. The Lives of the Poets, he began in 1777, and complet- 
ed in 1781. This is a noble model of that description of writing, 
and embodies some of the choicest criticism in the English language. 

The inflictions of disease now began to be felt, and Johnson con- 
templated, not without gloomy apprehensions, the end of his earthly 
being. His fear of this event was excessive, for his temperament 
was deeply melancholic, and he did not at first perceive the true 
ground of confidence for sinful men. At least, his mind was not 
satisfied on this subject. But as he approached the tomb, darkness 
lied from his soul. He was soothed and cheered, he saw the proper 
ground of confidence, and departed with the faith and consolation 
of a christian. 

Johnson's works are numerous ; none are indifferent, and some are 
of the highest order of literary excellence. His powers of conversa- 
tion were admirable. The particulars of his life, character, opinions, 
connexions, &c. have been minutely recorded by Strahan, Mrs. Piozzi, 
Boswell, and others. 

16. Franklin (Benjamin) was born at Boston, Mass., 1706. In 
hi 5 youth he was apprenticed to an uncle in the business of print- 
ing ; and eager after knowledge, he read attentively, in the night, 
the works which he had printed in the day. In this way he early 
amassed a valuable stock of information, and as he possessed a re- 
flecting and philosophizing, and withal a practical sort of mind, he 
turned his knowledge to the best account. After he commenced 
business for himself in Philadelphia, he soon rose in public esteem, 
so that he was called to offices of trust in the commonwealth, and 
finally, in the contention of the colonies with the mother country, he 
acted a most conspicuous and useful part. He was a member of the 
American congress during that eventful period. Several times in 
the course of his life, he went to Europe, where he was received 
with the distinction due to his pre-eminent worth as a statesman and 
philosopher. As a public negociator, he effectually secured the 
honour and the interests of his country. He died governor of Penn- 
sylvania, full of years and glory, 1790, aged eighty -four years. His 
discoveries in science have associated his name with that of Newton. 
30* 



354 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

He is the father of that branch of philosophy which explains the 
laws of the electric fluid ; and the utility of "the lightning rod, will 
forever point him out as a temporal benefactor of the human race. 
His political reflections have placed him by the side of the greatesi 
legislators of antiquity 

17. Gibbon (Edward) was born at Putney, 1737, of a respectable 
And ancient family. He acquitted himself poorly at the university, 
and it would seem, from his own account, that he was not much in 
the fault. " The fellows," he says, " were easy decent men, who 
supinely enjoyed the gifts of their founder ; their days were filled 
by a series of uniform employments ; the chapel and the hall, the 
coffee-house, and the common room, till they retired weary and well 
satisfied, to a long slumber. From the toil of reading, or thinking, 
or writing, they had absolved their consciences." The student with 
such examples before him, might well be excused for indolence. 
Gibbon afterwards, when at Lausanne, paid much attention to classi- 
cal literature, and acquired such a perfect knowledge of the French 
language, that he could both speak and write it with as much facility 
as his own. A portion of his printed works is in French. 

The great work which has immortalized Gibbon, is his Decline 
and Fall of the Roman Empire. It was in the midst of the ruins 
of Rome, that he conceived the idea of this magnificent topic. This 
history cost him twenty years of labour. His resources for it he 
derived, in a considerable degree, from his own library, which con- 
sisted of ten thousand volumes. It is an elaborate and splendid 
production, and generally accurate. But his account of the causes 
of the progress of Christianity, is highly exceptionable, and he ap- 
pears throughout the work, a thoroughgoing skeptic and unbeliever. 
His sneers at the holy religion of the Saviour, very much detract 
from the value of the work. He received from his booksellers, 
eight thousand pounds for his history. 

Among his miscellaneous works, are a volume or two of letters, 
highly spirited and entertaining, and rich with the stores of an 
elegant, cultivated, and playful mind. These, however, are also 
tinctured with infidelity. He wrote memoirs of himself. He ac- 
knowledges that from the Provincial Letters of Pascal, he "learned 
to manage the weapon of grave and temperate irony, even on sub- 
jects of ecclesiastical solemnity." In describing the characteristics 
of his intellect, he says, " Wit I have none ; my imagination is 
rather strong than pleasing ; my memory both capacious and re- 
tentive. The shining qualities of my understanding are extensive- 
ness and penetration, but I want both quickness and exactness." 
He died of a dropsy, in 1794. 

18. Burns (Robert) was born, 1759, at Ayr, in Scotland. Though 
a ploughman originally, he rose to high poetical fame. He has been 
called the greatest untaught poet since Shakspeare. His poems, 
which are in the Scotch dialect, possess uncommon beauty, and an 
elegant simplicity. He no sooner appeared in print, than he was 
noticed and drawn from the plough, to associate with men of letters 
and opulence. By the exertions of his friends, a handsome sub- 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 355 

scription of nearly one thousand one hundred pounds was raised 
for him, and a place in the excise was obtained, and a farm rented, 
where he might exercise his genius, and live in comfortable affluence. 
But the change ruined him. He became a sot, and indulged in 
licentious pleasures, till his constitution gave way, and the tomb re- 
ceived him. His age was thirty-nine. 

19. Burke (Edmund) was the son of a respectable attorney, at 
Carlow, in Ireland, where he was born, 1730. He took his bache- 
lor's degree at Trinity College, Dublin, where, it is said, he was not 
much distinguished. In 1753, he came to London, and entered at 
the Middle Temple. With all his powers of elocution, he paid no 
serious attention to the law, but devoted his time principally to 
literature and politics. His style and arguments as a writer, soon 
attracted notice, and his Essay on the Sublime, procured for him 
distinction. He therefore became a public man, and in 1765, was 
introduced into parliament. He then joined to the character of a 
most elegant writer, that of a most eloquent speaker. The American 
war, he denounced with great vehemence and justice, and was so 
happy at length as to witness its termination. When the French 
revolution broke out, he became alarmed at the progress of licen- 
tious principles, and with a view to counteract them in England, he 
published his celebrated Reflections. His Anti-Gallican zeal brought 
on a rupture between him and his former associates — Mr. Fox and 
others. From this time, though he affected to be as fond of liberty 
as ever, he favoured the administration of Mr. Pitt, and the court 
rewarded him with a large pension for his aMe services. By many, 
in his high- wrought enthusiasm in favour of the war against France, 
he was considered as the oracle and bulwark of the country. Some 
time before his death, Mr. Burke retired from public life, but though 
loaded with honours, he sunk, three years after, a melancholy victim 
to the recent loss of his only and dearly beloved son. His death 
occured in 1 797. 

As an author, his merits are universally acknowledged. He was 
copious, elegant, and forcible. His pieces are numerous. His Re- 
flections were so interesting in the public opinion, that 18,000 copies 
were sold in a few weeks. 

20. Washington, (George,) who has filled the world with his own, 
and his country's glory, was born 1732, in the county of Fairfax, in 
Virginia, where his father was possessed of large landed property. 
Washington was educated under the care of a private tutor, and 
after making rapid progress in mathematics and engineering, he em- 
braced the military profession. Here he displayed his great talents, 
particularly his wisdom and caution, and showed himself master of 
the knowledge of military stratagems. Eminent also was his per- 
sonal valour, and he proved he could fight, whenever he calculated 
upon the prospect of decisive advantage, or certain victory. He had 
greatly distinguished himself in several expeditions in his native 
state ; before he was called to the command of the American army, 
in the war of the Revolution. How ably he sustained his country's 
cause, and to what a successful termination he brought the great 



356 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

struggle, our readers need not be informed. As a military captain, 
he ranks among the greatest, whether of ancient or modern times. 
But in some respects, he is beyond a comparison with the most ce- 
lebrated heroes. He had no stain of an unhallowed ambition. At 
the close of the war, America was in his power, but instead of a 
dictator, he became one of her most obedient sons. Military com- 
mand he assumed as a duty, and whenever an opportunity offered, 
he hastened to resign it, that he might retire to the shades and peace 
of private life. 

Washington was the first president of the United States, and was 
inaugurated into that high office, in 1789. Having served during 
two presidential terms, he declined the honour which his country- 
men would doubtless have again conferred upon him, and sought 
the gratifications of his farm at Mount Vernon. The All-wise Dis- 
poser did not suffer him to enjoy many years in his peaceful retire- 
ment. He was called away from life, rather unexpectedly, after a 
few days illness, 14th December, 1799. " He was buried with due 
national honours. America, in a public mourning, deplored in him 
the loss of her father, and of her friend, and a new city was erected 
on the borders of the Potomac, which, in becoming the capital of 
the United States, records to distant times, in bearing his name, the 
services, the patriotism, and the glories of her great and illustrious 
founder." 

Besides the qualities which distinguish the warrior and statesman, 
Washington was endowed with every virtue of humanity. His pas- 
sions were naturally strong, but he attained to a wonderful command 
of them. He was modest, condescending, and affable, and excellent 
in all the relations of private and domestic life. His punctuality and 
method in managing his multifarious concerns, are a model to every 
one. And his exemplary conduct, as a Christian, and his calmness 
in death inspire the belief that his memorial is on high. 

21. Cowper, (William,) who died in 1800, was son of Dr. Cow- 
per, chaplain to George II., and rector of Berkhampstead, Herts. He 
was in his eighteenth year, when he left Westminster school, and as 
he was destined for the law, he entered at the Inner Temple, and at 
the age of thirty-one, was apprenticed clerk in the house of lords. 
But weakness of nerves, and the most distressing diffidence, unfitted 
him for public employment of any kind. He soon fell into a re- 
ligious melancholy, which arose to such a height, that in a fit of des- 
peration, he attempted his own life, but was providentially saved 
from so awful an end. He, however, attained at length the cheering 
and serene hope of religion. He became an author, not until he was 
fifty years of age. His first volume of poems, appeared in 1782, 
and in 1785, his second volume, which raised towards him the gene- 
ral voice of approbation. He afterwards executed a valuable trans- 
lation of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, in blank verse. 

About this time, (1787.) a similarity of literary undertakings, 
brought Cowper and Hayley the poet, into an intercourse of friend- 
ship, which continued to the last period of life. Hayley has com- 
memorated the genius and virtues of his friend, in an interesting and 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 357 

elegant account of his life and poetic labours. In this account, many 
of Cowper's letters are embodied, which, together with a volume or 
two, since published, place him at the head of English epistolary 
writing. In 1794, the king, as became the sovereign of an enlight- 
ened nation, honourably bestowed upon the poet a pension of three 
hundred pounds per annum. But the bounty came too late to be 
much enjoyed. Cowper was again sunk into dejection and religious 
melancholy, which continued, with few intervals of reason and hope, 
till he ceased to be an inhabitant of this world. He died at the age 
of seventy. 

The Task, is Cowper's most celebrated work, and abounds in 
beauties of every kind. It exhibits religion, particularly, in a most 
engaging form. 

22. Klopstock (Frederick Theophilus) was born at Quedlinburg, 
in 1724. He studied theology at Jena, where he wrote a great part 
of his Messiah, which he published in 1747. His name is immor- 
talized chiefly by this poem. Though at the time of its publication, 
it was censured by some, it was admired by more, and Bodmer, and 
the Swiss in general, were loud in its praises. Klopstock was in- 
vited into their country, whence he was called to Copenhagen, by 
the most flattering promises, which were amply fulfilled. He died 
in 1803. His funeral was conducted with extraordinary pomp. It 
was attended by the senate of Hamburgh, where, at the time of his 
decease, he was residing as Danish legate. The diplomatic body, 
also the clergy, men of letters, and merchants, honoured his remains 
by their presence. The whole constituted a procession of seventy- 
six coaches. At Altona, it was joined by fifty more carriages, to 
the village of Ottensen, where he w r as buried, with every ceremony 
expressive of profound regard. 

As a writer, he is characterized by a fervid imagination ; but though 
rich in imagery, and lofty in sentiment, he is frquently obscure and 
turgid. Besides the Messiah, he was the author of three tragedies, 
called the Death of Adam, Solomon, and David. 

23. Heyne (Christian Gottlieb) was born in Silesia, 1729. He 
succeeded Gesner, in 1763, in the professorship of Rhetoric, at Got- 
tingen, where also he became secretary to the society of Sciences. 
He drew up a catalogue of the library at Gottingen, which made 150 
folio volumes. King George III. placed his three younger sons un- 
der his care, and they all treated him with the greatest respect. 
He died suddenly, in 1812. As an editor of the classics, he is just- 
ly celebrated, and his critical skill has been the admiration of the 
learned world. He is the first of his class. From poverty and ob- 
scurity, he arose to comfort and fame, and he is an encouraging in- 
stance of the rewards which often attend diligent and well-directed 
mental efforts. 

24. Stael, (Anne Louisa Germaine Necker,) a baroness, was the 
daughter of the celebrated M. Necker, and born at Paris, 1766. She 
received a liberal education, and early displayed extraordinary ta- 
lents. Her understanding was of a masculine character. Perhaps no 
female of ancient or modern times, has equalled her in native strength 



358 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 

of intellect, especially as manifested in an elegant and profound phi- 
losophy. In 1788, she married baron de Stael, a Swede, by whom 
she had four children, two of whom only survived her. She began 
her literary career, 1789, in Letters on the Writings and Character 
of Rousseau, and soon afterwards took an active part in the French 
Revolution. At Paris, she engaged in political intrigues, to which 
she had a great propensity. The consequence was, that she offend- 
ed Buonaparte, who banished her from the capital. From this, she 
went to Germany, next to Italy, and twice visited England. She 
died in 1817. Her works are highly finished productions, among 
which may be particularly noticed, her Corinne, or Italy, a novel, 
and her book on The Influence of Literature upon Society. She 
seems to have been a votary of the new philosophy, so called. 

25. Dwight (Timothy) was born at Northampton, Mass., on the 
14th of May, 1752. He was a grandson, on the mother's side, of 
the illustrious Edwards. His great capacity was early displayed, 
and to his excellent mother he was peculiarly indebted, by her pre- 
cepts and example, for the moral and intellectual qualities with 
which he was so richly gifted. At the age of seventeen he took 
the bachelor's degree at Yale College, and two years afterwards, he 
was elected a tutor of that institution. In the tutorship he continu- 
ed six years, after which he was variously employed for several 
years, residing for the most part of the time in his native place. In 
1783, he was settled in the Christian ministry, over the parish of 
Greenfield, in the town of Fairfield, Con. Here he continued twelve 
years, and acquired a high reputation as an eloquent preacher, and 
faithful pastor. His fame also, as a. teacher of youth, (for he had 
previously been much engaged in that business,) was greatly ex- 
tended, by the academy which he established and superintended in 
that place. During this period he published his Conquest of Canaan, 
and his Greenfield Hill; the one an epic, in eleven books, which was 
completed in his twenty-fourth year, the other a descriptive and 
didactic poem, in seven books. 

In 1795, he was elected to the presidency of Yale College, which 
station he retained till his death, in 1817. Under his auspices, that 
institution flourished in a most remarkable degree; every department 
was improved ; the standard of literary attainments was greatly 
raised; extensive religious reformations took place; and the num- 
ber of students, by the time of his death, had increased nearly 
three-fold./ 

His death, which, under the visitation of a protracted and most 
severe disease, took place before he had reached the ordinary bounds 
of human life, gave a shock alike to the republic of letters and to 
the church of God. It was lamented as the fall of one of the great- 
est, best, and most useful men that have adorned the annals oi' this 
country. 

Since his death, his theological lectures, under the title of Theology, 
have been published in five octavo volumes, and have passed through 
several large editions, both in the United States and Great Britain. 
No American work, it is believed, has ever been more popular in *he 



DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 359 

latter country, than this. His Travels also, have been extensively 
circulated at home and abroad. 

26. Buonaparte (Napoleon) was a native of Corsica, where he 
was born, in 1769. His education was chiefly military, though the 
wonderful powers of his mind, enabled him to appear with advan- 
tage on almost every subject which engages human attention. The 
times in which he entered on the stage of action, were big with 
events, and afforded him rare occasions for the display of his talents, 
and for the gratification of that inordinate ambition which was so 
natural to him. The revolution in France was beginning to bear 
down all the land marks of former ages, and Buonaparte embraced 
the opportunity of playing his part on that imposing theatre. By 
a masterly management, and by a series of successes, he rose in the 
military profession, till he was placed at the head of it, and till he 
eventually placed himself at the head, not only of France, but oi 
almost all the nations of continental Europe. From the time he 
was appointed to the command of the army of Italy, in 1796, to 
near the termination of the campaign against Russia, he met with 
an almost uninterrupted series of brilliant successes and victories, 
dictating peace to one nation after another, till the idea of an uni- 
versal empire seemed likely to be realized. From that period, 
though he gained two or three important victories, he met in gene- 
ral with sad reverses; but it was not until nearly the whole o' 
Europe was allied against him, that he was crushed. Twice he 
abdicated the throne : in the former instance, retaining the sove- 
reignty of the island of Elba, whither he retired for a time, only 
again to seize on his dominion : in the latter instance, after his de- 
feat in the battle of Waterloo, fleeing to a British fleet with a view 
to protection. He was, however, exiled to St. Helena, and continued 
there, guarded by a body of British troops, till his death, which oc- 
curred on the 6th May, 1821 ; having been kept in confinement be- 
tween five and six years. 

Buonaparte has received, and will continue to receive the applauses 
or execrations of mankind, according as they view his mighty 
achievements, connected with the good which has incidently grown 
out of them, or with the evil which they directly produced, and 
which the author did not care to avert from the world. 



GENERAL VIEWS: 

OR A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE PECULIAR INSTITUTIONS 
OF THE MIDDLE AGES, AS THE FEUDAL SYSTEM, CHI- 
VALRY, &c; ALSO OF THE MANNERS AND CHARAC- 
TER OF THE GOTHIC NATIONS ; LEARNING AND THE 
ARTS; DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS ;. INCIDENTS 
AND CURIOUS PARTICULARS; AND THE PRESENT 
STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS IN RESPECT TO AG- 
RICULTURE, ROADS, CONVEYANCES, INTERCOURSE, 
EDUCATION, MANUFACTURES, &c; AND FINALLY, OF 
THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 



The Feudal System. 

Sect. 1. A peculiar system of policy prevailed among all 
the nations of Europe, at an early period. Singular as it 
seems, and different from the establishments of the present 
times, it was the general state of society, among the ancestors 
of modern Europe. This was the Feudal System. 

The Feudal System, means that tenure on which the 
owners of land held their possessions, viz., an obligation to 
perform military service, whenever required by the chief to 
whom they owed allegiance. Such is i's nature; its origin 
and history, its principle and its effects will be soon pointed 
out. 

§ It was on the following plan, that the feudal policy was ar- 
ranged: — every freeman or soldier, upon receiving an allotment of 
conquered lands, bound himself to appear in arms against the com- 
mon enemy, whenever his leader should call upon him for this pur- 
pose. This military service was the condition upon which every 
one received, and the tenure by which he continued to hold his lands. 
It was not at first considered either a degradation or hardship. The 
same service which a vassal owed to his lord, was due from the lord 
to his king. The king required those among whom the conquered 
lands were distributed, to repair to his standard, with a number of 
followers, in proportion to the extent of their respective estates, and 
to assist him in his expeditions. This service was due to the king; 
but when obedience was refused, it could be enforced, not by civil 
regulations, but only by war Under such a system, the nobles or 



FEUDAL SYSTEM. 361 

barons, enjoyed a subordinate sovereignty, in their own dominions ; 
while their vassals or dependants, were in complete subjection to 
their will. 

2. The origin of this institution lies in a remote antiquity 
Some writers have attributed it to the kings of the Franks, 
who, after the conquest ciGaul, are supposed to have divi- 
ded their lands among their followers, on the condition of 
military service. But we must look for it to a remoter source. 
It is consonant with the usages of all warlike, barbarous na- 
tions, among whom we remark a strict subordination of the 
members of a tribe, to their chief or leader. This subordi- 
nation affords the clue to the general policy, and so far as the 
history of it can be traced, it is a fact, that Julius Caesar 
noticed it among the Gaulish nations, before the Christian era. 

§ With the Gauls, this subordination was peculiarly strong, and 
subsisted not only between the soldiers and their commander, but 
between the inferior towns or villages, and the canton or province 
to which they belonged. 

When in peace, every man cultivated his land, free of all taxation, 
and subject to no other burden, than that of military service, requi- 
red by his chief. When the province was at war, each village, though 
taxed to furnish only a certain number of soldiers, was bound to send, 
on the day appointed for a general muster, all the males capable of 
bearing arms, from whom the rated number was selected by the chief 
of the province. 

This relation between soldiers and their commander, sub- 
sisted among the Franks, as well as among the Gauls. It 
subsisted among the Romans also, who, to check the inroads 
of the barbarian nations, and to secure their distant conquests, 
were obliged to maintain fixed garrisons on their frontiers. 
To each officer in those garrisons, it w T as customary to as- 
sign a portion of land, as the pledge and pay of his service. 
These gifts were named benficia or fiefs. 

§ W r hen the Franks overran Gaul, a great part of the land was 
found in the hands of the Romans, held by this tenure, as the rest 
was found so held by the Gauls. The conquerors, accustomed to 
the same policy, would naturally adopt it, in the partition of their 
new conquests, each man being bound to service, on receiving his 
share of the land. 

The fiefs were at first revocable by the sovereign, and reverted to 
him on the death of the vassal. But the possession of fiefs, under 
tfie imbecile Merovingian kings, at length obtained independency 
and security of property. 

It was a consequence of a fief becoming hereditary, that it should 
be capable of being given out in portions, and that the vassal him- 



362 GENERAL VIEW'S. 

self, holding his lands of the sovereign, by the tenure of military 
service, should be able to create a train of inferior vassals, by giving 
to them parts of his estate, to be held on the same condition, of fol- 
lowing his standard in battle, rendering him homage as their lord, 
and paying, as a symbol of their subjection, a small annual present, 
3. The principle of policy upon which this singular estab- 
lishment was founded, was self-protection. The new settler? 
in a country, wished to secure themselves, not only against 
the attacks of the inhabitants whom they had expelled from 
their possessions, but especially against the inroads of fresh 
invaders. But unfortunately for the peace of society, it was 
attended with many evils, especially after the land had be- 
come unalienable property. 

The effects, therefore, of the feudal system, demand some 
notice in this place. It was natural, in those disorderly times, 
when the authority of government, and the obligation of 
general laws, were extremely weak, that the superior or over- 
lord should acquire both a civil and criminal jurisdiction over 
his vassals. Such power, in their hands, must have been an en- 
gine of oppression. They moreover exercised the privilege of 
coining money, and carried on wars against their private 
enemies. So situated, they disdained to consider themselves 
as subjects ; and the consequence was, that a kingdom was 
broken into as many separate principalities, as it contained 
powerful nobles ; and the occasions of war thus became innu- 
merable. 

§ Every country in Europe was wasted, or kept in continual alarm, 
by the feuds of the barons, and in every country, vast multitudes ot 
castles and places of strength, were erected for the security of des- 
potic chieftains, against domestic invasions. 

In the reign of Stephen of England, when the feudal system was 
at its height, not less than one thousand castles, with their depen- 
dencies, had been erected in the southern part of the Island. Pri- 
vate retaliation and revenge were the only law in the minds of proud 
and ferocious chieftains. The edicts of kings and magistrates Mere 
trampled on. A baron who was provoked by injury, met his adver- 
sary at the head of his vassals, in hostile array, and sought redress 
only by his sword. The most numerous and useful part of the com- 
munity, the common people, were no better than slaves, and though 
not chained by the leg, as was the fact with slaves among the Ro- 
mans, yet they were transferred from one lord to another, like cat- 
tle, and the implements of husbandry. They were styled serfs or 
villeins, a name implying their servitude and degradation. 

In this state of things, neither the innocent could be protected, nor 
the guilty punished, by the regal authority. A general anarchy pre- 



CHIVALRY. 36S 

vailea ; the feelings of the people became familiarized to violence 
and blood, to despotism and injustice ; intellectual and moral im- 
provement was suspended, the arts and sciences were banished, the 
light of Christianity was obscured, and only the stern and rough 
virtues were nourished. Never was there a period in the annals of 
Europe so filled with atrocious actions, as that which intervened 
from the seventh to the eleventh century, the era of the prevalence 
of the feudal system. 

At the commencement of the twelfth century, this unhappy state 
of things began to abate, and government, laws and manners, exert- 
ed a degree of influence on the minds of men. Chivalry produced 
a propitious effect, and a variety of other causes, operated to check 
the licentiousness of the barons, and to soften their ferocity. Per- 
haps no one cause was more efficacious, than the establishment of 
standing armies, in the fifteenth century. This engine, wielded by 
kings, crushed the power of the nobles, and reduced them to order 
and obedience. 

The first monarch who adopted this measure, was Charles VII. of 
France, in the year 1445 ; but so opposed was it to the genius of feudal- 
ism, that it required the greatest boldness to carry it into execution. 
Charles, however, did not shrink from the attempt. He retained a 
large body of forces in his service, and appointed funds for their 
regular payment. The principal nobility soon repaired to his stan- 
dard ; and as the feudal militia were only occasionally called out, 
they were in time regarded with contempt by regular soldiers. This 
example was followed by the politic Henry VII., of England. 

Chivalry. 

Sect. 1. Nature, Origin, and First Appearance. — 
Chivalry, or knighthood, was an institution common to Eu- 
rope, during the middle ages, having principally for its ob- 
ject, the correction of those evils that were peculiar to the 
state of society which then existed. The feudal system at 
that time prevailed, the disorders flowing from which, con- 
nected with the ignorance and barbarism of the people, ren- 
dered some such institution as chivalry, necessary, provided a 
better could not be found. Considered in this aspect, chival- 
ry was co-existent with feudalism. It was designed as a cor- 
rective of feudal despotism, injustice, and licentiousness. It 
sought to support the weak, to protect the oppressed, to re- 
strain the lawless, to refine the rude, to avenge wrongs, and, 
especially, to maintain the rights, and defend the purity of 
the female sex. In its elements, it combined bravery, honour, 
courtesy, love, and religion. 



364 GENERAL VIEWS. 






§ In the origin of the term chivalry, or knighthood, reference was 
had to the nature of its duties, which were performed on horseback. 
Hence, the languages which were formed on a Latin basis, derived 
their phrases descriptive of military duties on horseback, from cabai- 
lus, a horse ; cabillarius, a horseman ; and cabillare, to ride — the 
letter b, being pronounced like v, in the south of Europe. In all 
languages of Teutonic origin, the same circumstance was expressed 
by words literally signifying service. The German knight, the Sax- 
on cniht, are synonymous with the French cavalier, the Italian ca- 
valiere, &c. The word, rider, also designated the same person. 

Chivalry was, in many respects, a beautiful and beneficial form ol 
manners, though in others, it was highly objectionable, as will ap- 
pear in the sequel. We must not, however, confound the extrava- 
gant knight-errantry of the old romances, or even the natural chi 
valry common to most nations, with the gallant and Christian chi- 
valry of Europe, which constituted a military barrier against oppres- 
sion. That was, in some degree, a moral institution, which sought 
to make travelling safe, and the intercourse of society refined and 
liberal, though it would have been more moral, had it not itself em 
ployed violence. 

Chivalry had its origin in that state of society in which 
the feudal system arose ; and regarded particularly in a mi- 
litary light, we find it a part of the earliest condition of most 
of the European world. Its foundation, in fact, was the an- 
cient character of Europe, and it grew into the form and con 
sistency which it at length assumed, from the following prac- 
tices common among the early Europeans, particularly the 
Germans, viz. from receiving their weapons in an assembly 
of the nations associating in clans, protecting and revering 
women, and performing acts of service when affection and 
duty commanded them. 

The exact time when these elements were framed into 
that system of thought and action, which we call chivalry, 
it is impossible to tell. Knighthood was certainly a distinc- 
tion of society hefore the days of Charlemagne. But it want- 
ed religion. When it began to be marked by religions rites. 
it formed a regular institution. Its union with religion, took 
place somewhere between the ninth and eleventh centuries. 
Its character was raised and perfected by the crusades. 

§ Religious rites were not used in the days of Charlemagne, for he 
girt the military sword on his son, Louis the Good, according to the 
rude principles of ancient Germanic chivalry ; and a century after- 
Wards, we read of the English Edward theElder, clothing Athel- 
stan, in a soldier's dress of scarlet, and fastening around him a gir- 
dle, ornamented with precious stones, in which a Saxon sword, in a 



CHIVALRY. 



365 



sheath of gold, was inserted. In the century following, however, 
during the reign of Edward the Confessor, we meet with the story 
of Hereward, a very noble Anglo-Saxon youth, being knighted by 
the abbot of Peterborough. He made confession of his sins, and 
after he had received absolution, he earnestly prayed to be made a 
legitimate knight. 

Knighthood was always, and essentially, a personal distinction, 
and in this respect, different from nobility. The nobility of Europe 
were the lords of particular districts Of a country, and although ori- 
ginally they held their dignities only for life, yet their title soon be- 
came hereditary. 

Every person of noble birth, was required, when twelve years old 
to take a solemn oath, before the bishop of his diocese, to defend the 
oppressed, &c. This was ordained at the Council of Clermont, in 
the eleventh century ; thus giving a public and sacred sanction to 
the humanities of chivalry. But besides the nobility, others might 
be promoted into the order, by meritorious valour. 

Almost the whole of Europe was affected with the chival- 
nc spirit. It flourished most, however, in France, Spain, and 
Germany, and more early developed itself as a fixed princi- 
ple of action, in these countries than in others. England, at 
length, was not undistinguished for its chivalry. 

2. Degrees of Chivalry. — There were three degrees in 
the chivalry of Europe : — knights bannarets, knights, and 
esquires. 

A soldier must have passed through the ranks of esquire, 
and knight, before he could be classed with the knights ban- 
narets. That high dignity could be possessed only by a 
knight, who had served for a length of years in the wars, and 
with distinction, and who had a considerable retinue of men- 
at-arms, and other soldiers. 

§ The privileges of a knight bannaret, were considerable. He did 
not fight under the standard of any baron ; but he formed his sol- 
diers under his own. The baron and bannaret, as soldiers, were of 
equal authority. 

The second and most numerous class of chivalric heroes, 
consisted of knights. A general qualification for knighthood, 
was noble or gentle birth, which, in its widest signification, 
expressed a state of independence. 

§ There was no fixed amount of estate necessary for knighthood. 
It was, however, a costly dignity, and many were obliged to forego 
it, on account of its expenses. 

Though it was often bestowed as an ornament of custom on the 
nobility and gentry of a state, it never altogether lost its character of 
being a reward of merit. Men-at-arms, and other soldiers, were often 
exalted to the class of knights. 
31* 



366 GENERAL VIEWS. 

The last class of chivalry, the squirehood, was composed 
of a body of efficient soldiers, inferior in rank to the knight, 
and superior to the men-at-arms. Many of them, on various 
accounts, remained in this station, during all their military 
career. 

§ It was a maxim in chivalry, that a man had better be a good 
esquire, than a bad knight. Military honours could be reached by 
the squirehood, as well as by the knighthood of a country. 

3. Education of a Knight. The education of a knight 
in the family of a feudal lord, generally commenced at the 
age of seven or eight years. The place of education was 
sometimes a school appointed by the nobles of the country, 
but most frequently the nobleman's own castle, or that of 
some brother nobleman, served. 

§ The duties of the boy, for the first seven years of his service, 
were chiefly personal. He learned the dignity and beauty of obedi- 
ence, being made to feel it a privilege to attend the lord and his 
lady in the hall, and follow them in their exercises of war and pas- 
time. The intellectual and moral education of the boy was given 
by the ladies of the court. 

From the lips of the ladies, the gentle youth learned both his 
catechism and the art of love. He Was directed to regard some one 
lady of the court as the type of the future mistress of his heart ; 
she was the object of all his hopes and wishes ; to her he was duti- 
ful, faithful, and courteous. 

The ingredients of religion, loVe, and War, were strangely com- 
bined in chivalry. Surrounded by noble females and valorous 
cavaliers, the first impressions of the future knight were on these 
subjects ; and he Was taught to regard chivalry and its honours, as 
the most noble object of ambition. 

The military exercises of the youth were not many ; and 
they were important only as they were the earliest ideas of 
his life. During the first seven years, he was called a valet 
damoiseau, or a page- — in the old English ballads a child. 

§ During this period, he was taught to leap over trenches, to launch 
or cast spears and darts, to sustain the shield, in his walk to imitate 
the measured tread of the soldier, and in mock battle to fight against 
stakes or his youthful companions. 

At the age of fourteen, he received the title of armiger, or 
esquire ; and though he was then authorized to carry arms, 
yet his personal domestic service continued for some time. 
His education was not completed, till the age of twenty -one. 

§ The esquire prepared the refection in the morning ; and at 
dinner, he. as well as the pages, attended at the table, and presented 
to the lora and his guests the water used for washing. The knight 



CJMtVALftY. 367 

and the squire never sat before the same table, not even in the case 
of father and son— ^so strict was the principle of chivalric subordinat- 
ion. The squires often made the beds of their lord 3. Each one 
had his respective duties— one was the squire of the chamber, or 
the chamberlain, and another the carrying squire. But their many 
duties cannot here be described. Spenser, in the following stanza, 
beautifully paints the domestic squire discharging some Of his 
duties. 

" T here fairly them receives a gentle squirej 

Of mild demeanor and rare courtesy 

Right cleanly clad in comely sad attire ; 

In word and deed that show'd great modesty, 

And knew his good to all of each degree, 

Hight reverence. He them with speeches meet 

Does faire entreat, no courting nicety, 

But simple, true, and eke unfained sweet, 

As might become a squire so great persons to greet." 

In the life of a squire, the anxieties of love, and military exercise^ 
were commingled. Chaucer delightfully paints the softer employ- 
ment. 

" Singing he was or floyting all the day, 

He was as fresh as is the month of May, 

tie could songs makej and well endite, 

Just and eke dance, and well pourtraie and write 5 

So hote he loved, that by nighterdale* 

He slept no more than doth the nightingale." 

Me practised every mode by which strength and activity could 
be given to the body. He learned to endure hunger and thirst, heat 
and cold, in their extremes, and to plunge all covered with dust into 
the running stream. He accustomed himself to wield the sword, to 
thrust the lance, to strike with the axe, and to wear armour. But 
no exercise was more important than that of horsemanship. Of the 
true knight, it could be Said, 

" Wei could he sit on horse and fair ride." 

4. Inauguration of a Knight. The full dignity of 
knighthood, was seldom conferred on a squire before the age 
of twenty-one. The ceremonies of inauguration were so^ 
lemn. The preparation consisted in prayer, confession, and 
fasting — was accompanied by clothing him with a white 
dress, which was considered symbolical of the purity of his 
new character : and by throwing over him a red garment, 
which was to mark his resolution to shed his blood in the 
cause of heaven. These and other rites were a necessary 
preliminary. 

* Night-time* 



368 GENERAL VIEWS. 

A church, or hall of a castle, was generally the place of 
inauguration. The candidate first offered his sword to the 
priest, who blessed it. Before it was returned to him, he took 
hi* oaths of chivalry. 

§ He solemnly swore to defend the church, to attack the wicked, 
to respect the priesthood, to protect women and the poor, to pre- 
serve the country in tranquillity, and to shed his blood, even to the 
last drop, in behalf of his brethren. 

The young warrior having kneeled with clasped hands 
before the supreme lord in the assembly, (a purely feudal 
ceremony,) and having declared that his only object is to 
maintain religion and chivalry, was now invested with all 
the exterior marks of the order. The knights and ladies of 
the court attended on him, and delivered to him the various 
pieces of his harness. 

§ The armour varied at different periods and in different countries, 
but some matters were of permanent usage. The spurs were al- 
ways put on first, and the sword was belted on last. 

The concluding sign of being dubbed or adopted into the 
order of knighthood, was a slight blow given by the lord to 
the cavalier, and called the accolade, from the part of the 
body, the neck, whereon it was struck. The lord then pro- 
claimed him a knight, in the name of God and the saints 

§ The ceremonies of inauguration, which have been concisely des- 
cribed, were gone through when knighthood was conferred on great 
and public occasions of festivity, but they often gave place to the 
power of rank, and the necessity of circumstances. Princes were 
exempted from the laborious offices of page and squire. Men who 
were distinguished soldiers were often adopted into chivalry on the 
eve of a battle, as it was considered that a sense of their new 
honours would inspire their highest gallantry. 

5. Equipment of a knight. The horse of the cavalier 
was his peculiar pride, and skill in the management of the 
animal was a distinction deemed worthy of every effort. The 
knight bore about with him a variety of the instruments of 
death. His chief offensive weapon was the lance. His other 
offensive weapons were a sword, (a favourite weapon,) dag- 
ger, battle-axe, and maces. His defensive armour was also 
various. He had his shield, helmet with its visor and beaver, 
and body harness made of plates of steel, to which different 
names were given according to the different parts of the body 
which it covered. A long flowing robe, reaching down to the 
heels, constituted the dress of the knight. 



CHIVALRY. 369 

Some of the defensive armour was so constructed, that it could 
be rolled up, and carried by the squire on horseback. It was too 
rigid, heavy, and cumbersome to be worn for a long time together, 
though the knights were often subjected to that inconvenience. 
When they were completely armed, no weapon could reach the bo- 
dy. It was not often that a knight could be killed, except by being 
unhorsed. In that event, a thin dagger, which was worn by each 
assailant, was employed. This could be thrust into the body between 
the plates. 

It is only in romance, that we read of swords cutting through that 
solid front of iron, by which a knight was protected. The only way 
in which death could be inflicted, when he was mounted, was, by 
thrusting a lance through the small hole in the visor. Such a mode 
of death was not very common, for the cavalier always bent his face 
almost to the saddle-bow, when he charged. He might, however, 
be unhorsed, in the shock of meeting. In that case, he was at the 
mercy of the foe, who was in the better condition. 

The horse of the knight was defended by mail, or plate, agreeably 
to the fashion of the age. His head, chest, and flanks, were either 
wholly or partially protected, and sometimes, on occasions of pomp, 
he was clad in complete steel. 

6. The Chivalric Character. — In the character of a true 
knight, were combined many virtues and noble endowments. 
It necessarily included, also, some prominent defects. Com- 
panionship in Arms, was a sacred principle, and a knight 
would fly to the relief of his companion in arms, even were his 
services demanded by a female, at the time. His valour was 
connected with modesty, and both were, in the highest de- 
gree, conspicuous. In chivalric war, much humanity was 
displayed, though in contentions of a different kind, it was 
unhappily suppressed. As a knight fought for the church, he 
was intolerant, and towards infidels and heretics he ceased to 
exhibit his wonted forbearance. His sense of honour was 
keen, and his independence was consistent with discipline 
and submission. His whole course was dictated by a regard 
to religion. His devotions were frequent. Religion entered 
into all the observances of chivalry, but it was only the religion 
of the times — a form rather than spirit — too corrupt to be a safe 
guide. The knight, finally, was characterized by a very re- 
markable fidelity to obligations, by generosity, and by courtesy. 

§ Companionship in arms, was the strongest tie in chivalry : 

" From this day forward ever mo, 
Neither fail, either for weal or wo, 
To help other at need. 
Brother, be now true to me, 
And I shall be as true to thee. 



370 GENERAL VIEWS. 

Such a thirst for renown in arms, for the display of valiancy, had 
a knight, that he would sometimes attempt the very height of he- 
roism, and engage in the execution of impossibilities. It was this 
passion, which dictated many of his vows. Certain young knights 
of England, during the French wars of Edward III., each bound up 
one of his eyes with a silk ribbon, and swore before the ladies and 
the peacock, that he would not see with both eyes, until he had ac- 
omplished certain deeds of arms in France. 

The valiancy of chivalry was finely chastened by humility : 

" And of his port, as meek as is a maid.' 

Every hero, as well as Chaucer's knight, demeaned himself in all 
things, as if God solely had controlled ; and in the divine name, used 
his arms, without vaunting or praising himself; for praise was regard- 
ed as blame, in the mouth of him who commended his own actions. 

The clemency of chivalry was often shown, especially in sparing 
inferior people. As a knight could gain no honour in slaying an un- 
armed peasantry, so he seldom attacked one of this class ; and even 
an enemy of his own order, if prostrate and supplicating, was not often 
despatched. 

Still, he was ruthless towards the infidel and heretic. He knew 
' no other argument than the sword, to gainsay the infidel, and he 
was ready, at all times, to " thrust it into the belly of a heretic as tar 
as it would go." 

Of his moral virtues, perfect fidelity to a promise was very con- 
spicuous ; for his nobleness disdained any compromise with conve- 
nience or circumstances. However absurd the vow, still he was 
compelled to perform it, in all the strictness of the letter. 

Knights were renowned for their courtesy; and this principle, like 
every other blessing of modern times, had its origin in the Christian 
religion. The world thought, that courtesy and chivalry accorded 
together, and that villanous and foul words, were contrary to an 
order which was founded on piety. A knight was always spoken ol 
as gentle. The following anecdote curiously marks this quality of 
chivalric manners. The wife and. sister of Du Gueselin, were once 
living in a castle, which was attacked by a force of Normans and 
Englishmen. The success was great and important ; but public in- 
dignation was excited against the invaders, because they had trans- 
gressed the license of war, in being guilty of the uncourteous action 
of surprising and disturbing ladies while they were asleep. 

•7. Every day life of the Knight. — The military and mo- 
ral qualities of knighthood, were fostered by all the circum- 
stances of chivalric life, even those of a peaceful nature. 
Their common life was one of amusement and revelry, in 
which the images of their favourite pursuits were easily re- 
called to their minds. They passed most of their hours of 
peace, in the diversions of falconry and chess-playing, in lis 
tening to the minstrels, who sung the feats of chivalry, in read 



CHIVALRY. 371 

mg romances, and in conversation, which turned almost 
wholly on love and war. Entertainments, also, at each 
other's castles, were frequent; in these, the utmost merriment 
prevailed. 

§ The minstrel's lay, the poetry of the troubadour, the romance of 
the learned clerk— all spoke of arms and amours — of the duties and 
sports of chivalry. Every baronial knight had his gay troop of min- 
strels, that accompanied him to the field, and afterwards chanted in 
his hall the martial deeds which had renowned his family. 

At their entertainments, the knights were wont to repose on 
couches, or sit on benches. The guests were placed two by two, 
and only one plate was allotted to each pair ; for to eat on the same 
trencher or plate with any one, was considered the strongest mark 
of friendship or love. Peacocks and pheasants were the peculiar 
food of knights, on great and festival occasions. 

8. The Chivalric lady-love. The females of chivalry, 
possessed a distinct and peculiar character. The lady, like 
the knight, was regularly trained up to become, at length, the 
mistress of his affections. She was commonly educated in 
the castle of some knight or baron, her father's friend. One 
of the first duties or accomplishments which she learned, was 
that of courtesy, and condescension to her inferiors. In those 
days, her mental education was not of a high polish. Some 
knowledge of medicine was deemed desirable, as chivalry re- 
quired her to take care of her wounded knight. Her dress 
was required to be plain, except on festive occasions. 

§ The only tasks on her intellect, were to repeat the prayers of the 
church, to sing a brief piece of poetry, or the longer romaunt. She 
could also play on the harp. Sometimes the graver sciences were 
introduced into female education. There were solitary instances, in 
which might be applied what was sung of Felice, the daughter of 
the ear] of Warwick. 

" Busy they (her masters) were that maiden to leer, 

And they lered her of astronomy 

Of armsmetrick, and of geometry ; 

Of sophistry she was also witty, 

Of rhetorick and of other clergy ; 

Learned she was in musick, 

Of clergy was her none like." 

In that singular system of manners which we call chivalric, love, 
next to religion, was the most influential principle. In many instan - 
ces, it was doubtless the most influential. The true knight was a 
more perfect personification of love, than poets and romancers ever 
dreamed. The fair object of his passion, reigned in his heart, with 
absolute dominion. 

Every gallant spirit of "gentle" Gower's days, the reign of Ed- 
ward III., said of his mistress. 



372 GENERAL VIEWS. 

" What thing she bid me do, I do, 
And where she bid me go, I go." 

Chivalric love, had both its absurdities and impieties. Knights 
were not satisfied to fight in defence of the ladies, and to joust ir 
their honour, but from the extravagance of their love, each knight 
maintained at the point of his lance, that his mistress surpassed all 
other ladies in beauty. 

Chivalric love, became a foe to the distictions of wealth and rank, 
and many a knight, whose whole fortune lay in his prowess, gained 
the hand of high born beauty. 

In chivalry there was always a generous consideration foi 
woman. Hence proceeded the honorable maxim, that it was 
not just or courteous to take ladies in war. 

§ In the wars of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the emperor 
Conrad, as an offended sovereign, had refused all terms of capitula 
tion to the garrison of Winnisberg ; but as a courteous knight, he 
permitted the women to depart with such of their precious effects as 
they themselves could transport. The gates of the town were 
thrown open, and a long procession of matrons, each bearing a hus- 
band or a father, or brother, on her shoulders, passed in safety 
through the applauding camp. 

9. Tournaments and Jousts. Tournaments and jousts, 
were both the offspring and the cherisher of chivalry. No 
amusement or exercise was so delighted in by gallant knights 
and beauteous ladies, by kings, the nobility, and the gentry, 
as these images of Avar. They were often splendid beyond 
description, especially at coronations, the marriage of princes, 
and important victories. 

Tournaments were military exercises, performed by two 
parties of cavaliers, with hurtless weapons. 

§ If the occasion was high and solemn, it was announced at the 
courts of different sovereigns, by heralds, sent by the king who pro- 
posed to hold the martial exercise ; and all those who valued their 
knighthood, together with respected dames and maidens, were invi- 
ted to repair to the appointed city, and prove their chivalry. Not 
knights alone, but kings and princes, pricked over the plain in gal- 
lant and graceful array ; for though they were not expected to stoop 
to many knightly observances, they were eager to prove their chi- 
valric character, by deeds of valour. For this they overlooked the 
pride of station 

Not every knight might tourney. He must have been guilty oi 
no unchivalric deportment. He must never have blasphemed God, 
or offended the ladies ; must never have been false, ungrateful, or 
deserted a brother-in-arms in battle. The rules of tourneying, how- 
ever, were sometimes evaded. Young knights, particularly, often 
concealed their names, and came in disguise. 

The place of combat was, the lists, a large space, surround 




Chivalry — a Tournament. P. 372, 




Washington talcing the oath of office. 
Scene— Front of the old Federal Hall, JSew-York, P. 334, 



CHIVALRY*. 373 

ed by ropes or railing, in single or double rows. Sometimes 
there was a wooden division in the lists or area, to prevent 
the horses of the adverse knights from careering against one 
another. 

The ladies were the supreme judges of tournaments ; but 
they generally deputed their power to a knight, who was cal- 
led on this account, the Knight of Honour. They some- 
times proposed the rewards, such as a diamond, ruby, &c. 
But the meed of renown was oftener military. 

§ When the knights reached the lists, their arms were examined 
by the constable, in order that only hurtless ones might be used. 
But, notwithstanding this regulation, there existed a strong disposi- 
tion, in many instances, to convert tournaments into real battles. 
Victory at a tournament was scarcely less glorious than victory in 
the field. The ladies, the minstrels, and the whole assembled mul- 
titude, acclaimed the conqueror. The practice of converting the 
elegant tournament into a deadly fray, occasioned an oath to be im- 
posed on all knights, that they would frequent tournaments, solely, 
to learn military exercises. 

The chivalric bands were so well poised, that one encounter seldom 
terminated the sport. The lances were broken, horses and knights 
overthrown, and the tide of victory flowed to either end of the lists. 
The air was rent with names of ladies. Each knight called upon 
his mistress to assist him, thinking that there was a magic in beauty, 
to sustain his strength and courage. Death sometimes, though not 
often, ensued. It was on the whole a hazardous and dissolute amuse- 
ment. The revelry which followed, lasted often two or three days. 
The court of Rome was justly hostile to tournaments, and thunder- 
ed its denial of christian sepulture to those who fell in a tilting 
ground ; but still the practice went on. 

Of jousts, there were two sorts ; the joust to the utterance, 
and the joust of peace. The former expressed a single com- 
bat between two knights, who were generally of different 
nations. In strictness of speech, the judicial combat was a 
joust to the utterance ; and so was every duel, whether lawful or 
unlawful ; but with such jousts, chivalry has no direct con- 
cern, though the absurd and iniquitous practice of modern 
duelling, grew out of its principles. 

§ The joust was not so favourite an amusement as the tournament, 
for baronial pomp was not necessary to its display ; often was it held 
without a store of bright ladies distributing the prize. 

The joust of peace often took place at the conclusion of a 

tournament. A knight who had acquired honour, would 

ride about the lists, and call on the surrounding cavaliers, by 

their valiancy, and for the love of the ladies, to encounter him 

32 



374 GENERAL VIEWS. 

in three strokes of the lance. The joust was more frequent- 
ly held at a place expressly appointed for the occasion. The 
mode of combat was always specifically described. 

Jousts possessed a more martial character than tourna- 
ments. Such usually was the dexterity of the combatants, 
that the encounter of the lance was seldom fatal. 

§ Through the long period of the middle ages, tournaments and 
jousts were the elegant pastimes of Europe and Greece. Knight- 
hood had its triumph over classical institutions, when the games of 
chivalry were played in the circus of Constantinople. In the West 
they survived chivalry itself, whose image they had reflected and 
brightened, for changes in the military art, did not immediately af- 
fect manners ; and the world long clung with fondness to those 
splendid and graceful, though dissipating shows which had thrown 
light and elegance over the warriors and dames of yore. 

10. Orders of Knighthood. Chivalry had its various 
orders, or associations of cavaliers, formed for specific purposes, 
generally of a benevolent character. Ten of them remain 
to the present time. Most of the present orders are otherwise 
than of a chivalric origin. The orders of chivalry were of 
two general descriptions, viz. religious and military. They 
extended over various countries, particularly the Holy Land, 
England, Spain, France, and Italy. Some of the religious 
orders were those of the Templars, St. James, Oalatrava, 
Alcantara, the Lady of Mercy, and St. Michael. In the re- 
ligious orders, the cavaliers were bound by the three great 
monastic vows, of chastity, poverty, and obedience. 

The military orders, were imitations of the religious. Those 
of the Garter, tli3 Golden Fleece, and St. Michael, in France, 
were clearly of chivalric origin. Many others that now ex- 
ist, cannot boast cf such a descent. All these institutions had 
particular rules by which they professed to be governed, but 
they varied with the spirit of the times. They need not 
here be recited. 

§ Our limits will not permit us to describe the character and pro- 
gress of chivalry in the several countries in which it flourished, or 
to detail the exploits of renowned individuals. It belongs to this 
work to sketch only the general features of the system, which lias 
been done. It remains now to notice the merits and effects of 
chivalry. 

11. Merits and Effects of Chivalry. Chivalry wns, in 
many respects, a whimsical institution ; but it well suited the 
period in which it rose and flourished, and seems to have 



CHIVALRY. 375/ 

been needed in those ages. It was probably the best system 
that could have been adopted to aid the improvement of so- 
ciety, at a time when Christianity was so deeply corrupted. 
The principles of this religion, as it was then understood and 
practised, were incorporated in it ; and much of the good 
which it included, was the fruit of the Gospel. Its theory, 
however, was in several respects indefensible, and its practice 
was i arely ever so good as its theory. Still we find much to 
admire in chivalry, considering the character of the nations 
among whom it prevailed. 

§ " The patriarchal system of manners, shaped and sanctioned by 
Christianity, formed the fabric of chivalry ; and romance, with its 
many coloured hues, gave it light and beauty. The early ages of 
Europe gaily moved in all the wildness and vigour of youth ; imagi- 
nation freshened and heightened every pleasure ; the world was a 
vision, and life a dream. The common and palpable value of an ob- 
ject, was never looked at, but every thing was viewed in its connec- 
tion with fancy and sentiment. Prudence and calculation were not 
suffered to check noble aspirations ; duties were not cautiously re- 
garded with a view to limit the performance of them ; for every 
principle was not only practised with zeal, but the same fervid wish 
to do well, lent it new obligations. From these feelings proceeded 
all the graceful refinements, all the romance of chivalry." 

This institution fostered civilization, and was therefore needed in 
a barbarous age. It refined the manners, and added harmony to 
social intercourse, where otherwise little but rudeness and misrule 
would have prevailed. It contributed to the safety and order of 
society, inasmuch as it thinned the ranks of robbers and ruffians. 
It infused kind and beneficent feelings into the bosom, and enjoined 
external propriety of conduct, and courtesy of behaviour. It culti- 
vated a humanity which was not limited by kindred or country. 
As chivafry was spread over Europe, it formed mankind into one 
band, one order of men. The features of war were softened by its 
influence. It taught the warrior gentleness and clemency. A nice 
sense of honour and a scrupulous regard of truth were fostered by 
its maxims. It was a principle, as well as a feeling and a love in 
chivalry, to guard and cherish woman, and many of its amenities 
proceeded from her mild influence. In fine, it corrected the peculiar 
evils of the feudal system, haughtiness, tyranny, oppression, and 
misrule. 

Notwithstanding these beneficial effects of chivalry, it must be 
acknowledged that other effects attended it, which may well qualify 
the language of praise. Still we are willing to believe, that it did 
more good than mischief, in a secular view. It has, however, been 
more condemn 3d than lauded, and every one knows the exquisite 
ridicule which has been thrown upon it, or rather upon its extra*a 
gancies, by the inimitable author of Don Quixote. It resulted « 



376 GENERAL VIEWS. 

some degree in looseness of morals, in respect even to the intercourse 
of the sexes; the purity of which it so highly professed to regard 
and defend. Instances of gross violence and injustice in the con- 
duct of knights, too oftdn appeared ; and it nourished feelings of re- 
sentment and the love of war. While it stript war of many 
features of savageness by the civilities and courtesies with which it 
surrounded it, it at the same time nourished that proud and sensi- 
tive spirit, falsely called honour, which suffers no wound, without 
seeking redress in the private duel. 

These, it is thought, are mostly exceptions to its general spirit and 
tendency ; and as to individual persons, it is doubtless too true, that 
recreant knights may be found, on the same principle, that false pro- 
fessors may be found of the only true religion on earth, viz., the im- 
perfection of human nature. 

A witty old English author says, that " errant knight 3 were arrant 
knaves." And another remarks, that "their horses gman under the 
burden, not of weapons, but of wine ; not with lances but cheeses ; 
not with swords, but with bottles ; not with spears, bv.twith spits." 
This is spleen. 

It is difficult to define the precise period of the duration of 
chivalry. It was a light which was kindled in a dark age, 
and it went out when that age was beginning to be brightened 
with superior luminaries. Viewing the subject in its great 
and leading bearings, chivalry may be said to be coeval with 
the middle ages o* Europe, and all its power ceased when 
new systems of warfare were matured, when the revival of 
letters was complete and general, and the reformation of re- 
ligion gave a new subject for the feelings and thoughts of 
men. 

Romances. 

A peculiarity of the middle ages, connected with chivalry 
and subservient to it, was the production of Romances. These 
were books which describe an extravagant kind of chivalry, 
and were then read with singular avidity, and indeed con- 
stituted the principal reading of the people. They were so 
called, from the language in which they were written ; Ro- 
mance, a mixture of the Gallic and Latin. They first ap- 
peared about the middle of the twelfth century, and their ori- 
gin is to be traced to the Provencal Troubadours, a sort of 
story tellers and bards in Provence. In these productions, it 
has been observed, appeared the first dawnings of modern 
literature. 

§ The more ancient romances did not record contemporary events, 
since fiction or exaggeration hero would have been detected. Theii 



PILGRIMAGES. 377 

subjects were an ideal chivalry. They depicted not only knights, 
setting forth to redress all manner of wrongs, but magicians, dra- 
gons and giants, invulnerable men, winged horses, enchanted armour, 
and enchanted castles ; adventures which nobody could really be- 
lieve, but the possibility of which, owing to the ignorance and su- 
perstition of the times, might have been admitted by the readers. 

Among others of the early romances, the following were celebra- 
ted, viz: — the Seven Champions of Christendom, Sir Launcelot, 
Amadis de Gaul, Charlemagne and his Twelve Peers, King Arthur 
and the noble knights of the Round Table. From these sprung a 
progeny no less wild and extravagant, till in a subsequent era, at a 
considerable distance, a revolution occurred in this species of wri- 
ting. Romances of a new order, appeared in the Astraea of Durfe, 
the- Grand Cyrus, the Clelia and Cleopatra, of Mad. Scuderi, and 
others, which, though leaving out the dragons and necromancers, 
were still unnatural, and too marvellous for belief. Both classes of 
these productions, partook of a moral and virtuous turn, and highly 
extolled heroism, generosity, and piety. The familiar novel of mod- 
ern ages, was the last form of the Romance. 

These books, as an author has observed, "composed upon the 
striking subjects of gallantry, war, satire, and history, first awaken- 
ed Europe from its ignorance and lethargy, amused the minds of 
men with grotesque and lively images and descriptions, and first 
taught them to think, reflect, and judge upon subjects of imagina- 
tion." Much of the popular literature of Italy, consisted of roman- 
ces j and the chief topics of them were the exploits, both in arms 
and amours, of Charlemagne and his Paladins. In England, so much 
was thought of romances, that Caxton, the father of English print- 
ing, could exhort, " Read the noble volumes of St. Graal. of Laun- 
celot, of Perceforest, of Gawayn, of Tristem, of Galaod, of Perce- 
val, and many more. Then shall you see manhood, courtesy, and 
gentilness." 

Pilgrimages. 

The pilgrimages so common to the people of Europe, be 
fore and at the time of the crusades, were journeys under 
taken to some holy place, in order to adore the relies of some 
deceased saint. They were considered meritorious acts, a re- 
ligious discipline of great importance. It was about the mid- 
dle ages of the church, that pilgrimages began tc be made, 
but their reputation was highest after the end of the eleventh 
century, when almost every one was inclined to visit places ef 
devotion, not excepting kings and princes, and even bishops 
did not hesitate to absent themselves from their churches, on 
the same account. The places most visited, were Jerusalem, 
Rome, Tours, and Compostella. 

§ Jerusalem, as the resort of pilgrims, was far the most famous 
32* 



378 GENERAL VIEWS. 

and all the wars of the crusades were occasioned on account of that 
place. As to Compostella, we find that in 1428, abundances of li- 
censes were granted by the crown of England, to captains of Eng- 
lish ships, for carrying numbers of devout persons thither, to the 
shrine of St. James, provided, however, that those pilgrims should 
first bind themselves by an oath, not to take any thing prejudicial to 
England, nor to reveal any of its secrets, nor to carry out with them 
any more gold or silver, than what would be sufficient for their 
reasonable expenses. 

In almost every country where popery has been established, pil- 
grimages have been common. In England, the shrine of St. Tho- 
mas-a-Becket, was the chief resort of the pious, and in Scotland, St. 
Andrew's, where, as tradition informs us, was deposited a leg of the 
holy apostle ! In Ireland, pilgrimages have been continued, even 
down to modern times. 

Manners and Character of the Gothic, or Scandinavian 
Nations. 

The brevity of the plan of this work, will not admit a separate ac- 
count of the manners and character of the various nations, whose 
history it narrates. The genius and national character of the Ro- 
mans, during the long period in which they were masters of the 
world, have been exhibited to some extent in the political history of 
that people. The manners and character of the present nations of 
Europe, and of nations decended from them, in other parts of the 
globe, except the particulars included in the account of chivalry, 
the feudal system, &c. already given, must be learned from more ex- 
tended works. But in regard to those barbarous nations of the north, 
who conquered the Roman empire, and from whom many of the 
present European communities are descended, it is proper that some- 
thing should be said in these General Views. The manners and in- 
stitutions of these tribes, are curious objects of inquiry, from their 
influence on the constitutions and national character of most of the 
modern kingdoms of Europe. The inhabitants of these kingdoms 
are a mixed race, compounded of the Goths and of the nations whom 
they subdued, and consequently the manners, laws, and institutions 
of the conquerors and the conquered, would naturally affect and 
modify those of one another. 

The Gothic, or Scandinavian nations, were the Goths, 
properly so called, the Gepidae, the Lombards, the Heruli, 
and the Vandals. Other barbarous tribes from the north of 
Asia or Europe, were the Huns, Alains, Bulgari, Suevi, 
Burgundians, Franks, Alemani, Normans, Saxons, &c. The 
parts which these various nations acted, in the political histo- 
ry of the world, have been described in the proper place. 
Their manners, character, &c. particularly those of the Scan- 



GOTHIC NATIONS. 379 

dinavian tribes, may be learned, in part, from the following 
brief account. 

(1.) Some characteristics were common to them all. What- 
ever difference of manners and customs there may have been 
among the various tribes of Scandinavian origin, the promi- 
nent features of their character, appear to have been the 
same. They were formed by all their habits and education 
for a brave and conquering race. The corrupted Roman 
world could not but fall before a people, whose bodily frame 
was invigorated by the climate which they inhabited, and 
inured to danger and fatigue, whose habitual occupation was 
war, and whose religion taught them that the loss of life in 
battle, was a certain passport to the halls of Odin. 

§ The Scandinavian and Scythian nations, probably had the same 
origin, inasmuch as they agreed in manners and institutions. The 
characteristics of the Scythians, as given by Herodotus, may be ap- 
plied to the Scandinavians. Their life was spent in hunting, pastu- 
rage, and predatory war. They entertained a high respect for their 
women, despised learning, and for many ages had no other records 
than the songs of their bards. 

The theology of the Scandinavians, was a proper index of their 
manners. One of their leading articles in religion, was to be intre- 
pid in fight. As, moreover, they believed the world to be the work 
of some superior intelligences, so they held that it was regulated 
and fixed by an unalterable destiny. These notions had a won- 
derful effect on the national manners, and on the conduct of in- 
dividuals. The Scandinavian had no other delight, than what war 
afforded ; he entertained an absolute contempt of danger and of 
death : and the larger the number of his enemies slain in battle, the 
more highly was he esteemed by others, and himself. The solace of 
his departing spirit, was a recital of his acts of carnage. 

His God was Odin, a God clothed with every terror, and delighting 
in war, revenge and slaughter. From him and Frea, the heavenly 
mother, sprung various lesser divinities ; as Trior, who perpetually 
wars against Loke and his evil giants ; and the virgins of the Val 
halla, whose office it is to minister to the departed heroes. The 
joys of paradise are fighting, perpetual carnage, and drinking beer 
out of the skulls of their enemies. Of these joys, the cowardly are 
never suffered to partake. 

There was a great similarity between the manners of the Scandi- 
navians, and those of the ancient Germans. The latter, however, 
seem to have sprung from a different origin. The Germans as well 
as the Gauls, were branches of the Celtae, a great original nation, 
who inhabited most of the countries of Europe, south of the Baltic^ 
before they were invaded by the Scandinavian tribes. The religion 
of the Celtae, differed in some respects from that of their northern 
neighbours, though it was founded on the same principles. Tt was 



380 GENERAL VIEWS. 

the Druidical system. They usually performed their devotions m 
sacred groves, woods or forests. Of their sacrifices, horses were ac- 
counted the most acceptable, but their altars, like those of most bar- 
barous nations, were sometimes sprinkled with human blo<">d. 

The warriors of Scandinavia, upon their settlement in tne provin- 
ces of the Roman empire, soon lost much of tlieir native ferocity and 
barbarism. Sometime previously to this change in their condition, 
they had nominally embraced Christianity, and their morality had 
become respectable. The Gothic conquerors of Rome, generally 
spared the noble works of art, and Theodoric the Great, at the head 
of the Gothic monarchy in Italy, was an excellent sovereign, mild, 
indulgent, prudent, and enlightened. Under this monarch, and even 
under Alaric, Amalasonte, and Totila, the Romans were treated with, 
an indulgence which they could scarcely have expected. Their 
government was monarchical ; at first elective, afterwards heredita- 
ry, in the sense that the sovereign on his death bed appointed his 
successor. 

(2.) A few things may be noticed as applicable to particu- 
lar tribes. There were some diversities of character and in* 
stitutions, that throw additional light on the genius and man- 
ners of modern civilized nations. 

§ The Goths, properly so called, appear to have been famed, even 
in the earliest ages, for their hospitality and kindness to strangers. 
They encouraged the study of philosophy, above all other barbarous 
nations : and Horace has bestowed some warm encomiums on the 
virtue of their women. Poligamy, however, was universally coun- 
tenanced among them ; and tlieir martial disposition, induced them 
to commit many unwarrantable depredations on the territories of 
their neighbours. Their principal weapons consisted of bearded 
lances, and missile hatchets. Their government was monarchical. 

After the Goths, upon their conquest of the Roman empire, be- 
came divided into Ostrogoths and Visogoths, their policy somewhat 
varied. The former enforced, in their new dominions, the obser- 
vance of the Roman laws. The latter adhered to a code compiled 
by their own sovereigns, and founded on their ancient manners and 
usages. From this code may be gathered much information respect- 
ing their national character and genius. 

The following are a few particulars, imparting this information. 
"It is enacted by laws of the Visogoths, that no judge shall decide 
in any law suit, unless he finds in that book, a law applicable to the 
case. All causes that fall not under this description, are reserved 
for the decision of the sovereign. The penal laws are severe, but 
tempered with equity. No punishment can affect the heirs of the 
criminal. Death was the punishment of the murder of a freeman, 
and perpetual infamy of the murder of a slave. Pecuniary fines 
were enacted for various subordinate offences, according to their 
measures of criminality. An adulterer was delivered in bondage to 
the injured husband ; and the free woman who had committed adul- 
tery with a married man, became the slave of his wife. No physi 



LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 381 

cian was allowed to visit a female patient, but in the presence of her 
nearest kindred. The lex taliationis was in great observance for 
such injuries as admitted of it." 

The Heruli appear to have had some laws peculiar to themselves; 
for among them, when persons had attained to a certain age, they 
were placed on a pile of wood, put to death, and their bodies re- 
duced to ashes. When a man died, his wife was obliged either to 
strangle herself on his tomb, or become an object of universal con- 
tempt; and human sacrifices were frequently offered to appease the 
gods of the country. The generality of the people were distin- 
guished for courage, swiftness, and activity ; but their manners were 
greatly corrupt, and every kind of impurity was practised without 
shame or control. Their government is said to have been monar- 
chical ; but it appears that their kings possessed a very small share 
of authority, and differed but little, in any respect, from their 
subjects. 

The Huns, though not of Scandinavian origin, but from the 
vast deserts bordering on the north of China, were a hardy, warlike, 
and ferocious people, who at first subsisted entirely on roots or raw 
meat ; lived constantly exposed to the air in the woods, or among 
the excavations of the mountains; were accustomed even to eat 
and sleep on horseback; and professed the utmost contempt for 
raiment, houses, and other conveniences of life. They were desti- 
tute equally of religious and civil institutions, and abandoned them- 
selves without restraint to the gratification of their unruly passions. 
Hence we find them making frequent incursions into the Roman 
empire, in defiance of the most solemn oaths, and even occasionally 
turning their arms against their own eountrymen for a pecuniary 
reward- Their distinctive character and institutions were lost, after 
they were subdued by Charlemagne, and dispersed among othei 
nations. 

Learning and the Arts. 

Sect. 1. The interesting topics embraced in this article 
may be treated synch ronically, or according" to certain eras. 
Including literature, science, philosophy, and the fine arts, 
such as painting, sculpture, and architecture, they are too 
numerous and extensive to be treated particularly according 
to the different states or nations, in so compendious a work as 
the present. The mere sketch here to be presented, will in- 
clude three eras. 1. From the close of the Augustan age 
to the destruction of the Western Roman empire, or the com- 
mencement of the dark ages. 2. From the commencement 
of the dark ages to the revival of learning in the 15th cen- 
tury. 3. From the revival of learning to the present time. 



382 GENERAL VIEWS. 

§ The Augustan age of literature may be considered as extending 
a few years into the period assigned as the commencement of mo- 
dern history; for Livy, Ovid, and Phaedrus lived and wrote till after 
the Christian era. 

2. In the First Era, we have to notice the gradual and 
very perceptible decay of literature, and polite learning. Im- 
mediately succeeding the Augustan age, there were many 
persons of superior erudition and intellectual powers, but 
whatever pertains to taste and elegant literature, began 
visibly to decline. A pompous, affected, and false style 
of writing, soon prevailed in the room of the classic beau- 
ties of the age of Cicero, Virgil, Horace, and Tibullus. 
No works so finished as those of these masters, were pro- 
duced after the Augustan age ; and though there were 
writers whose endowments and genius were quite equal 
to those of tte above named, yet their deficiency in taste, is 
too certainly indicated by luxuriance of ornament, and by 
continual efforts after brilliancy of thought and expression. 
In science and philosophy, the decline is not so perceptible 
at first, as it was towards the middle or conclusion of the 
era. Perhaps at first, if there was any difference, science 
and philosophy were more indebted to some of the writers 
succeeding the Augustan age, than to any who flourished 
during that age. 

§ In poetry, Lucan, Juvenal, and even Martial, have a native power, 
but little, if at all inferior to that of Virgil, Horace, or Ovid, how- 
ever they may fail as to purity of style compared with the latter. 
Yet in general, it must be allowed that the writers who figured 
in polite literature, during this era, were deficient both in art and 
genius, as is evident from the works of Statius, Siiius Italicus, and 
Valerius Flaccus. Affected obscurity, bombast, and new-coined 
words, are too heavy a tax for the few occasional felicities of repre- 
sentation found in these authors. 

In physical science, Pliny the Elder, was a great name ; in moral 
philosophy, Seneca and Marcus Antoninus, shine with a supcrioi 
lustre. These writers, with Plutarch the biographer, and Tacitus 
the historian, and a few others, were men of great power, though 
the faults of their style are to be regretted. The Natural History 
of Pliny, is a most valuable repository of the knowledge at that time 
possessed, in physics, ceconomics, and the arts and sciences. 

3. The princes who succeeded Augustus, were no enemies 
to literature, and some of them were not only patrons of 
learning, but were learned themselves. They were, however, 
despots, and despots of a different stamp from Augustus. 



LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 383 

Generally, they favored a literature which harmonized with 
despotism; and genius being indulged at the risk of life, was 
cramped within narrow bounds. Eloquence was abandoned 
to pedants. Sophists at length occupied the chair of phi- 
losophy. 

§ Towards the conclusion of this era, learning, taste, and genius, 
greatly declined. Very few of the later writers observed, or seemed 
to comprehend, the perfect models of the Augustan age. A small 
number of poets, as Ausonius, Prudentius, and Claudian, wrote 
elegant and harmonious verses, but they exhibited no commanding 
genius, and depicted no powerful passions. We look in vain in 
them for the happy invention and artificial conduct of an interest- 
ing fable, or a just and lively representation of the characters and 
situations of real life. Seldom do they contain any thing sublime 
or pathetic. A few philosophers, philologists, and historians, ap- 
peared between the age of Constantine and the destruction of the 
empire, but no names are peculiarly distinguished. We read of 
some great names as connected with the defence of Christianity, 
though the style of writing prevalent at that time, and especially 
among that class of authors, was very faulty. There were hardly 
any vestiges of the ancient classic taste, towards the close of the 
empire. 

4. Seminaries of learning, at Rome and in Italy, were first 
endowed from the public treasury by Vespasian. The prin- 
cipal school next to that of Rome, was at Milan. In Greece, 
the schools of Athens continued to flourish for a considerable 
time, and when the seat of the Roman empire was transfer- 
red to Constantinople, that city included, for more than a 
thousand years, most of the literature and books that existed. 
Previously to that time, and during the decline of the empire, 
the destruction of books was extended and increased, in the 
midst of the turbulence and rapine of the civil contests for 
the imperial throne. 

Until the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, the Jews had 
schools in Judea, particularly at Bethhoron Jerunia, and Ti- 
berias. In the schools of Egypt, the chief of which was 
Alexandria, were taught the Greek philosophy, mathematics, 
Jurisprudence, medicine, magic, and astrology. 

§ The despotism, disorders, civil commotions, and unparalleled suf- 
ferings of the Roman people in the latter stages of their political ex- 
istence, together with the destruction of libraries and books, could 
not but prepare the way for the melancholy era which followed in 
regard to the debasement of the human intellect. 

It may be remarked, that the arts declined with literature and 
science— the cultivation of them being neglected amidst the troubles 



384 GENERAL VIEWS* 

of the times. The Romans, as they were never eminent in any of 
the arts dependant on design, employed Greek artists, for the most 
part. But little encouragement was given to architecture, or to the 
labours of the chisel and pencil, in the latter periods of the empire. 
All things were tending towards a state of ignorance and barbarism 
among the nations, 

5. In the Second Era, which begins and ends with the 
dark ages, as they have been commonly called; we have to 
remark an extraordinary depression of the human mind 
during a long period. The time that intervened between the 
fall of the Western empire of Rome, and the era of the re- 
vival of learning, was nearly one thousand years, during 
which, the world presented a sad scene of ignorance, barbn 
rism, and misrule. There were, however, some intervals of 
light, as in the times of Al Raschid, when Arabian literature 
flourished, and of Henry II., w T hen in England, Henry of 
Huntingdon, and some others, studied and wrote. At Con- 
stantinople, there was throughout the whole period, a degree 
of refinement and knowledge. The central portion of the 
era was the darkest, including the ninth, tenth and eleventh 
centuries. The classic authors ended with the former part 
of the era, as also the spoken Latin tongue. 

The civilized nations bound up together in one mighty 
and unwieldy community, had been prepared by a variety of 
causes, for the catastrophe which awaited them. The nor- 
thern invaders did not originate ; at most, they only hastened 
this catastrophe. As much of ignorance and ferocity as they 
brought with them, they became, upon their settlement in the 
south of Europe, as reputable, at least, as the native citizens 
themselves. Considering their previous habits and temper, 
they did more than could have been expected, to preserve 
learning and the arts for a time, in the dominions which they 
conquered. Without the agency of the northern invaders;, 
darkness and barbarism would have covered the world, so? 
long as such abuses of human rights, and especially of the 
divine system of the Gospel, were suffered to exist. Still: 
the conflict of arms, and the overturning of the empire, could 
not but have given a shock to learning and the arts. 

§ " In the revolution of ten centuries," says Gibbon, " not a single 
discovery was made to exalt the dignity, or promote the happiness; 
of mankind. Not a single idea has been added to the speculative 
systems of antiquity. Not a single composition of history, philoso-r 



LEARNING AND THE AUTS* 385 

phy or literature, has been saved from oblivion by the intrinsic 
beauties of style or sentiment, of original fancy, or even of suc- 
cessful imitation." " Of the writings of antiquity," says the same 
author, " many that existed in the twelfth century are now lost : the 
literature of the Greeks had almost centered in the metropolis : and 
without computing the extent of our loss, we may drop a tear over 
the libraries that have perished in the triple fires of Constantinople." 

The ignorance and infelicities of the dark ages, cannot perhaps be 
easily overrated, Those times, compared with our own, enjoying as 
we do the meridian light of knowledge and religion, must have been 
indeed undesirable. But there is a side to the picture, which is not 
altogether cheerless. There Were some bright and joyous scenes ; 
and the relish of life in certain portions of the community, must have 
been strong, if we may judge from the noble works of gothic archi- 
tecture which were then erected — from the convivialities of baronial 
halls— from the gayeties of chivalry— and from the inspiring strains 
of the troubadours. The love of a sort of intellectual display, was 
indeed mingled with grosser propensities. But this is the most 
favourable aspect of the dark ages. 

Christianity, properly understood, and exercising its due influence 
on the understanding and character, must be a warm friend of know- 
ledge and literature ; but the spurious Christianity believed and acted 
Upon in the dark ages, was hostile to some of the noblest produc- 
tions of the human mind. The temples of the heathens, with the 
public libraries they contained, were the objects of vengeance and 
destruction. The classics were regarded as sinful books. In addition 
to these causes, the devastations of the northern conquerors, notwith- 
standing the commendable moderation which characterized them 
generally — and the plunder of Milan, which, next to Rome, Was the 
chief repository for books in Italy — necessarily reduced the number 
of manuscripts, and so far injured the interests of learning. 

After the commencement of the sixth century, scarcely any 
writers or men of genius worthy of notice appeared. The scien- 
ces suffered great decay. Taste was fast extinguishing. A sort of 
attention was paid to learning during these times, but with little or 
no effect. The common course of studies in all the schools was 
grammar, logic, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astrono- 
my. The first three were called Trivium, or trifling studies : the 
last four Quadrivium or high studies. A vain and ideal philosophy 
had begun Universally to infect the minds of men. 

When we come to the more palpable darkness of the present era, 
We find that literature, science, and taste, were words but little known 
and used, Many of the clergy, whose profession should have se- 
cured to them a competent degree of knowledge, did not under- 
stand the breviary, which they were obliged daily to recite ; some 
of them could scarcely read it. The human mind, in general, 
neglected, uncultivated, and depressed, sank in the most profound 
ignorance. Charlemagne, and after him Alfred the Great, by their 
superior genius, endeavoured to dispel this darkness, and to give 
33 



386 GENERAL VIEWS. 

their subjects a short glimpse of light. But the ignorance of their 
respective times was too powerful for their efforts and institutions. 
The darkness returned and prevailed throughout Europe more or 
less, till about the middle of the fifteenth century. 

The scarcity of books in those times, and the nature of theii 
subjects, as legends, lives of the saints, &c. evince the singular 
dearth of learning. What of learning was cultivated, was confined 
to a few ecclesiastics. The monks of those religious houses whose 
rules did not prohibit the reading of the classics, turned their atten- 
tion to procuring and copying manuscripts. Most of these indeed 
were worthless ; but truth obliges the historian to add, that some of 
the abbots, and even the monks, employed themselves in procuring 
or copying the choicest works of Greece and Rome. Cassiodorus, 
to use the words of Gibbon, " after passing thirty years in the 
honours of the world, was blessed with an equal term of repose in 
the devout and studious solitude of Squillace." To this place, the 
monastery of Monte Cassio, in Calabria, he carried his own extensive 
library, which he greatly enlarged by manuscripts bought in various 
parts of Italy. His fondness for literature spread among the monks ; 
and he encouraged them to copy manuscripts. What he did there 
seems to have been imitated in the other monasteries of that part of 
Italy ; for fifty religious houses there are mentioned, which after- 
wards principally supplied the libraries of Rome, Venice, Florence, 
and Milan, with books. 

The only national exception to the profound ignorance of the 
middle portion of the dark ages, were the Arabians. That part of 
Europe which they held, viz. Spain, was much more enlightened 
than any of the other states. The caliph Al Raschid rendered 
Bagdad illustrious, by the successful cultivation of the arts and 
sciences. At the same time the Moors of Cordova emulated their 
brethren of the East in pursuing a similar course. The sciences to 
which the Arabians were devoted, were principally medicine, geo- 
metry, and astronomy. In the end of the 10th century, they intro- 
duced into Europe the use of figures instead of letters. 

The arts, like literature and science, were low in this era of igno- 
rance. This was the case even with the mechanic arts during 
much of the time. The fine arts, particularly sculpture and paint- 
ing, were preserved from absolute extinction, only by the existing 
remains of ancient art. Charlemagne, in his time, seems to have 
been solicitous for the improvement of music, and the Italians are 
said to have instructed his French performers in the art of playing 
on the organ. The musical gamut was invented in the 11th centu- 
ry. Architecture was cultivated in a style termed the Gothic, which, 
notwithstanding its barbarous proportions, possesses a beauty pecu- 
liar to itself. 

In the 12th century there was the dawn of literature in England 
under William of Malmsbury, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Henry of 
Huntingdon, Giraldus Cambrensis and others. It was, however, a 
transient dawn, and darkness again succeeded. The barbarism and 
subtleties of the schools triumphed over the better principles and 



LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 387 

the more correct taste which had begun to prevail. The great 
teachers and patterns of logic and scholastic divinity, were charac- 
terized by the high-sounding epithets of divine, angelical, irrefraga- 
bJe, &c. The most eminent among these teachers, otherwise called 
schoolmen, were Lanfranc, Abelard, Petrus Lombardus, Thomas 
Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. Their great business seems to have 
been to make innumerable nice and metaphysical distinctions, 
founded neither in nature nor good sense, and to draw conclusions , 
which had no moral end whatever. Their speculations were found-' 
ed on the philosophy of Aristotle, and the folly lasted long after 
the light had shone on other departments of human investigation. 

6. In passing to the Third Era, which commences 
with the revival of learning during the 15th century, we 
notice a favourable change, though not at first strongly 
marked. It is difficult to fix upon the exact point where the 
darkness ended, and the light began. The transition was 
too gradual to admit of nice discrimination. Occasionally, 
a distinguished individual appeared towards the conclusion 
of the era of darkness, and some nations were in advance of 
others as to the cultivation«of learning. In the middle of the 
13th centmy, Roger Bacon arose ; and as Wickliffe at the 
distance of a century and a half from the Reformation has 
been called its "morning star," so may Bacon, preceding the 
revival of learning by nearly the same distance, be entitled 
to a similar distinction. He was the morning star of the 
restoration of letters in Europe. To his original genius and 
vast scholarship, the advancement of science in subsequent 
times is singularly indebted. His own age was too unen- 
lightened to appreciate his merits or to profit by his discove- 
ries. In the 14th century also, men of genius arose in Italy, 
who were devoted to classical learning and the cultivation of 
their native tongue. The works of Dante, Petrarch, and 
Boccacio have fixed the standard of the Italian language. 
In the same age also, flourished the English Chaucer and 
Go\ver,and the accomplished James I. of Scotland, allof whom, 
by their learning, genius, and taste, were fitted to give a cha- 
racter to the time in which they lived. Spain also at this 
period began to emerge from ignorance and barbarism. 
Although on some accounts we might be tempted to fix on 
the 14th century as the era of the revival of learning, we 
are on other accounts led rather to fix on the period com- 
monly assigned, viz. the 15th century. 

A few nations only felt at this time the spirit which has 



388 GENERAL VIEWS. 

been described, and that to a very small extent. It was, 
moreover, poetry only that then attained a degree of splen- 
dour. There was but little advancement in general literature 
and science. Miracles and fables were woven too much into 
the texture of history, though we find much curious informa- 
tion in the writings of Walsingham, Everard, Duysburg, 
and particularly Froissart. France and England, though 
they contained a few learned men, were in general extremely 
barbarous. Few books, and scarcely any classics, were found 
in either of these countries. During nearly a hundred years 
from the time of Petrarch, little advance was made ; but a 
concurrence of circumstances, favourable to the development 
of the human intellect, took place, which eventually altered 
the whole aspect of affairs. Every subsequent age has felt 
the effects which in the middle of the 15th century proceeded 
from a taste for classical learning, from the dispersion of the 
Greeks on the fall of Constantinople, and especially from the 
noble invention of the art of printing. These were the 
principal causes which renovated the intellect of Europe. 
General literature and the fine arts first felt their influence ; 
and after the dominion of Aristotle was broken by the great 
Sir Francis Bacon, in the beginning of the 17th century, 
discovery succeeded discovery, and the most astonishing 
efforts of genius were put forth in science and philosophy. 
Improvements in knowledge have been making ever since, 
till, at the present time, both Europe and America enjoy the 
clear and full light of an intellectual sun. 

A volume would scarcely suffice for a satisfactory account of the 
particulars, by which the above might be profitably illustrated and 
expanded. The few notices that follow are all that the design of 
this v^prk can admit, and can furnish only a very slight sketch of the 
revival of learning, of the intellectual advancement since made, and 
of the present state of literature, science, philosophy, and the fine arts. 

Long before the fall of Constantinople, the love of classical litera- 
ture had been gradually reviving ; — that event increased it by com- 
pelling a great number of learned Greeks to seek a shelter in Italy. 
But it could not be gratified, till the manuscripts, which lay buried 
and neglected, were brought to light. The discovery of manuscripts, 
therefore, was a most important step in the restoration of learning. 
In some former centuries classical manuscripts had been looked up, 
and particularly by Pope Silvester II., in the tenth century. Petrarch 
and Boccacio, in the fourteenth century, were zealous and successful 
labourers in this field. But no man, during the first half of the 
fifteenth century, devoted himself with so much industry to the 
search of manuscripts, or made so good a use of them, as Poggio 



LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 389 

His youth was spent in travelling, to attain what seemed to be the 
sole object of his life. To these names may be added those of the 
Medici family ; also Emanuel Chrysoloras, who was one of the first 
that introduced a knowledge of the Greek language into Italy ; and 
Theodore Gaza. At this important era there arose also a succession 
of enlightened and munificent popes, who gave every encouragement 
to learning and the sciences. Among these Leo X., soon after the 
beginning of the sixteenth century , was the most conspicuous. It 
was during his pontificate, that a perpetual indulgence was granted 
for rebuilding the church of a monastery, because it possessed a 
manuscript of Tacitus. 

As a neglect of the standard works of Greece and Ptome was one 
great cause of the decline of learning, and of the bad taste and bar- 
barism of the middle ages ; so a renewed attention to those works 
was one great cause of the restoration of learning, taste, and refine- 
ment. From an accurate knowledge of the masterpieces of antiqui- 
ty, two great advantages resulted, viz. the scholar acquired the rich 
stores of ancient thought and eloquence, and he learned the art, by 
imitating such perfect models, of expressing his own ideas with per- 
spicuity and elegance. In the exercise of the new studies, the Italians 
were the first, and the most numerous; and there soon shone among 
them an illustrious constellation, having Ariosto and Tasso foremost 
in the train. It was not long before these improvements were re- 
ceived in other countries, and spread their influence over France, 
England, Spain, and Hungary. In France, Amyot and Marot, the 
one in prose, the other in verse, wrote with a sweetness and simpli- 
city unknown before ; and the poetry of Malherbe glowed with all 
the fire of genius. The last writer is more commonly considered as 
the father of French poetry. In England, Henry VIII., and his 
minister, Wolsey, gave considerable countenance to letters, and the 
English writers and scholars who had the greatest influence in re- 
storing elegant learning, were, Sir Thomas More, Linacre, Lily, 
and Hector Boece. 

In the former part of the present era, criticism, poetry, and history, 
as well as classical studies, made a rapid progress in most of the 
kingdoms of Europe. Criticism and general learning were advanced 
by the researches of Scaliger, Erasmus, and others on the continent. 
Poetry attained to considerable distinction. Dramatic composition 
began to be regular towards the conclusion of the 16th century. 
Some finished epics were produced in Italy, particularly the Orlando 
Furioso oi Ariosto, and the Jerusalem Delivered of Tasso. Lyric 
poetry was cultivated in Italy, France, and England, but not with so 
much success. In history, Machiavel particularly excelled, though, 
like Tacitus, he was fond of those ambiguous expressions, dry phrases, 
and abrupt turns, which, under the appearance of brevity, border on 
obscurity and bad taste. The French De Thou wrote accurate his- 
tory in the purest latinity Science and philosophy, however, did not 
keep pace with literature. Aristotle, whose works were the great 
text-book of knowledge, and whose logic was the only weapon oi 
truth in the middle ages, reigned over the schools till the 17th cen- 
33* 



393 GENERAL VIEWS. 

tury. A few, nevertheless, arose in the 15th and 16th centuries to 
dispute his authority, among whom were Copernicus, Luther, Ramus, 
Bruno, Campanella, and others. But legislatures and inquisiiious 
were against them. In regard to Ramus, it may be remarked that in 
an edict of the French parliament, he was gravely pronounced to be 
" insolent, impudent, and a liar, and he was solemnly prohibited from 
copying, or even reading his own works !" 

Soon after the commencement of the present era, the fine arts passed 
suddenly from obscurity to splendour. Statuary and painting were 
at their lowest ebb in the middle ages. They had revived a little in 
the 13th and 14th centuries. A few painters in those ages imitated 
nature with some fidelity, but they were altogether destitute of grace 
or elegance. Bouchet, a Greek by birth, was the first architect, 
Nicolas the first sculptor, and Cimabue the first painter, that re- 
covered the antique style from the ruins of Rome and Greece. But 
these attained only to mediocrity. Towards the end of the loth 
century, however, in the great age of Leo. X., Raphael and M. An- 
gelo carried the art of painting to perfection. The masterpieces ol 
antiquity were their models. And Angelo and others at the same 
time carried also statuary and architecture to perfection. In painting, 
these artists were followed by names of great distinction, as those 
of Titian, Giorgione, Corregio, and others. Italy most excelled in 
the production of painters, but Germany, Flanders, and Switzerland, 
were not undistinguished. The most eminent of the schools were 
those of Rome, Florence, Lombardy, and Flanders. These several 
schools were characterized by peculiar attributes, which it is here un- 
necessary to describe. 

In that which may be considered the middle portion of the present 
era, viz. the 17th century, the human mind put forth its mightiest ef- 
forts, and the most profound researches were made in science, phi- 
losophy, and literature. The foundation was then laid for the im- 
provements that have since been realized, in every department of 
study and intellectual effort. That period was distinguished through- 
out for inventive genius, originality of thought, depth of investiga- 
tion, and solid acquisitions. Philosophy had been trammelled by the 
schools till the beginning of the 17th century, when Bacon, Lord 
Verulam, disenthralled the human mind, and taught the sure method 
of advancing knowledge, by experiment and the observation of na- 
ture. He sketched the outline of one grand and comprehensive plan, 
that should include in it the endless varieties of our knowledge, and 
guide our inquiries in every branch. The progress of philosophy was 
not, however, rapid at first. Much of theorizing remained even in 
Gassendi and Des Cartes, the latter of whom, according to Le Grand, 
found out more truths than all the philosophers who went before him. 
But Newton at length arose, who, imbibing most deeply the spirit ot 
the Baconian philosophy, completely dispelled the illusions which 
Bacon before him had detected and exposed. Before the light of his 
investigating intellect the dreams of more than 2000 years utterly 
vanished. Locke, the contemporary of Newton, applied the same 
xiode of inquiry lo the study of the mind, and overthrowing the sys 



LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 



391 



terns of the old philosophers, met with nearly the same success as 
his compeer in physics. 

On ihe continent, a century anterior to the time of Bacon, Coper- 
nicus published his system of the planets, (the true system,) which the 
Kormsh church, in the plenitude of its wisdom, condemned. Galileo, 
nearly a century before the time of Newton, constructed telescopes, 
and discovered the satellites of the larger planets. But the same 
church saw fit to imprison the illustrious astronomer. Kepler, about 
the same time, and contemporaneous with Bacon, discovered the 
laws ol the planetary motions. But Kepler, as well as Tycho Brahe 
before, and Huygens after him, by not observing the method of science 
fell into error. Instead of following, Tycho Brahe anticipated na- 
ture, in taking it as a certain fact that the earth must be at rest. 
Kepler imagined that the planets must he^six in number, because of 
certain properties of numbers. Huygens suffered himself to be im- 
posed on in a similar way. The' discoveries in astronomy in that 
age led to improvements in navigation, and a great advancement in 
geometry in all its branches. In Scotland, logarithms were invented 
by Napier, in 1614, by which calculation was abridged and the ac- 
quisition of science facilitated. Many instruments, besides the tele- 
scope already mentioned, connected with the advancement of know- 
ledge, were invented in the middle portion of the present era. In 
Italy, Torricelli invented the barometer, by which the weight of the 
atmosphere is determined. The same instrument was invented also 
in France, by Pascal. Before this time (1610,) the thermometer 
was invented in Holland, as also the miscroscope in 1619. England 
claims the invention of the micrometer in 1640, and the air-pump 
was invented by Guericke, at Magdeburg, in 1654. In the 17th cen- 
tury also, several learned societies were instituted, as the Royal So- 
ciety in England, and the Royal Academy of Sciences in France, 
which have greatly contributed to the advancement of learning and 
the useful arts. Indeed, the useful and mechanic arts were very 
much multiplied during the century spoken of. Hundreds of con- 
veniences and luxuries, which were unknown to antiquity, sprung 
into use ; though many others which distinguish modern times, owe 
their origin to an earlier period. A spirit of adventure and settle- 
ment in distant regions eminently prevailed, and the globe was cir- 
cumnavigated by English, Dutch, and Spanish sailors. The sphere 
of knowledge by these means was immensely enlarged. 

The progress of literature, in the middle portion of the present era, 
was no less remarkable than that of science and philosophy. Nu- 
merous were the productions of taste and genius, and many of them 
sustained the highest reputation. Minuteness of detail is precluded 
here ; it can only be remarked in general, that Shakspeare, Milton, 
Dryden, and Addison, in England, and Corneille, Pascal, Moliere, 
Racine, and La Fontaine, during the Augustan age, in France, pro- 
duced works which will be as lasting as the languages in which they 
are written. 

In this part of the present era the fine arts continued to be cultiva- 
ed with success. It cannot be expected that the old school of paint- 



392 GENERAL 7IEW3. 

ingj with Raphael and Angelo at its head, will ever be surpassed id 
the essential perfections of the art. The second Roman school 
flourished at this time, which included the Caraccis — three brothers 
Guercino, Albano, Lanfranc, Domenichino, and Guido. 

The last portion of the present era. comprising the eighteenth cen 
tury, and the nineteenth thus far, is perhaps less distinguished than the 
portion of it just reviewed, for profound attainments and original 
works in science and literature. This seems to arise rather from the 
force of circumstances, than from any other cause. Many subjects ot 
investigation had been forestalled, yet great improvements have been 
made in every department of knowledge, nor have discoveries been 
wanting ; and where the genius of former ages has not exhausted re 
search, research has been made. Within this period some sciences have 
been created, and others have been greatly advanced. By a course 
of observation agreeably to the Baconian philosophy, the great prin- 
ciples of chemistry, botany, electricity, galvanism, mineralogy, geol- 
ogy, statistics, in many respects geography, and perhaps one or two 
other sciences, have been fixed on a new and firm basis. Both the 
science and the practice of astronomy have been carried to a very 
high pitch, by the talents and ingenuity of many eminent persons in 
France, Britain, Germany, Italy, &c. Five planets have been added 
to those formerly known as belonging to our solar system. But it 
would be endless to specify particulars in respect to the advancement 
of knowledge. , 

In polite learning, the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have 
been greaily distinguished. The Augustan age of English literature 
is said by some to have begun with the eighteenth century under 
Queen Anne, and to have continued, without any visible decline, till 
the accession of George III., a period rendered glorious by the names 
of Addison, Swift, Congreve, Rowe, Steele, Prior, Pope, Young, 
Watts, Thomson, and many others. But ever since the accession 
of George III., though the period has been more particularly fruitful 
in scientific and philosophic research, there has been an illustrious 
train of fine writers, with Johnson and Burke at their head ; and 
though poetry declined in the latter part of the eighteenth century, a 
new school has arisen since the commencement of the present cen- 
tury, including several names, both in Great Britain and in the United 
States, destined to immortality. In our own country literature has 
made a rapid progress during the last twenty or thirty years, as is 
also the case with every branch of learning. In lexicography we can 
boast a standard work, (Webster's Dictionary,) which, it is believed, 
for extent of learning, and accuracy of thought, is superior to any 
other publication of the kind in the English language. In periodical 
literature, both countries,.Great Britain for a long time, America more 
recently, have made the most laudable efforts ; and indeed this is a 
form in which the mind of all intellectual nations now chooses to ex- 
hibit much of its wealth. It is needless to speak of continental 
Europe in respect to polite learning, since it is impossible to particu- 
larize. France and Germany have more especially excelled in works 
of laste and imagination, as well as in the departments of science and 



LEARNING AND THE ARTS 393 

philosophy. Other nations on the continent, however, have a share 
in the glory of these noble pursuits. 

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the fine arts have 
been cultivated with much success. Architects, painters, and sculp- 
tors, have generally received a patronage worthy of their merits. 
Hogarth, Reynolds, Mengs, Cipriani, West, and David, in painting, 
and Canova, Flaxman, and Chan trey, in sculpture, are great names. 
American talent has been conspicuous in the former art. Within the 
period here spoken of, there have been numerous inventions and dis- 
coveries, many of which are exceedingly important. By means of 
them, the conveniences and comforts of life have been almost indefi- 
nitely extended and multiplied. On these objects the human intellect 
has been most vigorously and happily employed. The numerous in- 
ventions which are designed to aid the various branches of manu- 
factures, and the application of steam to the same and to many other 
purposes, are the glory of the age. A very few of the more important 
discoveries and inventions are the following, viz. : inoculation, and 
much more recently vaccination, spinning machines, stereotype print- 
ing, lightning rods, life-boats, and life-preservers, the cotton-gin, en- 
graving on steel plates, steam engines, steam-boats, and locomotive 
engines. 

To concentrate and give effect to individual labors, societies, in 
more modern times, have been formed in all parts of the world ; and 
on these now depends, in a great degree, the further improvement of 
mankind in knowledge. Thus in England there is the Royal Society 
which has been already mentioned, the Antiquarian Society, the 
Royal Academy, the Society of Arts, and the Board of Agriculture. 
In France there is what is now called the Imperial or Royal Institute ; 
and at Berlin, Madrid, Vienna, and Petersburg, there exist royal so- 
cieties like those of London. America also has its literary associa- 
tions, and there are others m India, and even Turkey — all laboring 
for the promotion and propagation of knowledge. 

The power of association for such a purpose, as well as for its great 
collateral object, viz. religion, was scarcely realized until compara- 
tively of late years. It is a distinguishing feature of the age, and will 
doubtless be increasingly relied upon in future time. Multitudes of 
students and readers have been brought into being by these means, 
especially in connection with the periodical press. The extent to 
which newspapers have been published in the United States, and 
Great Britain, particularly the former, show how much may be calcu- 
lated upon for the diffusion of knowledge, on that means alone. More 
probably than two millions of prints of that kind are put into circula- 
tion every week in these two countries. With every deduction on 
account of the light character of many of these vehicles of intelligence 
the amount of information which they diffuse cannot but be consider- 
able. That information, it is to be noted, operates, particularly in 
the United States, on the great mass of the people. It cannot be de- 
nied, however, that these papers, in many instances, have produced 
a degree of political animosity, that endangers the stability of free 
institutions. It becomes important, therefore, that they should be 



394 GENERAL VIEWS. 

controlled in their character, by the good sense of the community, as 
enlightened by early moral and religious instruction. The periodical 
press, as it might and ought to be conducted, would be of incalculable 
advantage, in respect both to the intelligence and morals of the com- 
muni.y. 

On the whole, as we have now the advantage of looking over the 
entire history of human genius, we arrive at the following result. " In 
several of the fine arts, in which chiefly the taste and imagination are 
concerned, such as poetry, rhetoric, statuary, and architecture, the 
ancients, according to the general opinion, have equalled, if not sur- 
passed, any of the moderns. The ancients nobly distinguished them- 
selves also in those more vigorous exercises of the understanding 
which are demanded by pure mathematics ; in proof of which it is 
sufficient to quote the name of Euclid and of Archimedes. But it 
was reserved for the moderns to invent a calculus — a new and more 
profound arithmetic, which was called for by a more exact acquaint- 
ance with nature herself, and was to be applied to that more improved 
state of natural science which is peculiar to later times ; we allude 
to the doctrine of fluxions, or to the differential method of Newton 
and Leibnitz, since cultivated and applied to physical astronomy with 
great success by the French, and especially by La Place. In most of 
those branches of knowledge, however, which rest on the basis of ex- 
periment and observation, the ancients almost entirely failed. The 
case is, that to form theories, or systems of science and philosophy, 
from a hasty view of facts and appearances, is an easy task, since 
this can be done without the labour of close and patient thinking : and 
if antiquity be in truth, as Bacon represents it, but the childhood and 
youth of the world, it is nothing more than we might expect, that, at 
that period of its existence, imagination should prevail over reason ; 
and that the calmer and more successful exercises of the latter should 
not unfold themselves till a maturer age." 



Discoveries and Inventions. 



1. A passing notice only can be taken of the discoveries and inven 
tions which have characterized modern ages, as a full and adequaft 
account of them would require volumes. Many of them are alto 
gether new and original ; others are essential improvements of th 
works of antiquity. Those of a mechanical character, will clairv 
principal attention in this place, since some that pertain to scienct 
and philosophy, are naturally included in the consideration of those 
subjects. Somewhat of a chronological order will be observed. The 
following are a few of the many inventions and discoveries that ar* 
presented in modern history. 

2. Corn Mills. In remote antiquity, corn was rather pounded 
than ground ; and the hand-mills of which we read in scripture 
were probably not unlike the pestle and mortar still in use. Ira 



DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS H95 

provements were made in these machines, till, in process of time, 
shafts were added to them, and they were driven by cattle. The first 
mention of public water-mills which occurs in the Roman laws, dates 
m the year 398, A. C, when some enactments were made, which 
shew they were then considered as a new establishment. These 
mills were situated on the aqueducts which supplied Rome with water 
and as these were cut off when the city was besieged by the Goths, 
536, Belisarius, who commanded the garrison, caused boats to be 
moored in the Tyber, on which he erected mills, which were driven 
by the current. Hence the origin of tide mills. Wind-mills, which 
for a long time were so constructed, that they could work only when 
the wind was in one quarter, are not spoken of till the time of the 
first crusade. 

3. Clocks and Watches. — The art of constructing mechanical 
docks was unknown to the ancients. It was not until late in the 
fifth century of the Roman era (293 B. C.) that the first sun-dial was 
introduced into Rome. At a later period, a machine was invented 
at Alexandria, termed a water-clock, which was simply a conical 
glass, with the scale marked on the sides ; and which, being per- 
forated at the base, denoted the hour, as the liquid, with which it 
was filled, subsided. To this may be traced the origin of the hour 
glass, still in use. 

The inventor of clocks moved by machinery, is not certainly known. 
Several names of the ninth century have been mentioned, but there 
<s reason to believe that the origin of the present invention is not 
older than the eleventh century. About that time, clocks moved by 
weights and wheels, certainly began to be used in the monasteries 
of Europe. The writers of the thirteenth century, speak of them 
as being well known ; still they were for a long time confined to mo- 
nasteries. It was not till towards the close of the fifteenth century, 
that they began to be used in private houses ; and about the same 
time, mention is first made of watches. These were originally 
formed in the shape of an egg, or at least of an oval, and catgut 
supplied the place of a metal chain. The first watch is said to have 
been made in Germany. In England, watches appear not to have 
been in general use, until about the time of Queen Elizabeth. 

The invention of pendulum clocks, is due to the ingenuity of 
the seventeenth century, and the honour oi the discovery is disputed 
between Galileo and Huygens. The most ancient, now existing in 
England, is that of Hampton Court palace, the date of which is 1540. 

4. Linen used as clothing. — Although linen was known in an- 
cient times in the East, and was introduced into Rome m the second 
century, it was not used in Europe, in the form of a garment, till 
sometime in the third century. It was earlier adopted for the table 
than for the person. The emperor Alexander Severus, is said to have 
been the first European, who wore a linen shirt. But inasmuch as 
the web was usually interwoven with threads of gold, it was too 
rough to be much of a luxury. The manufacture of this article 
made but little progress in Europe, during the middle ages. It was 
confined both then, and for a long period afterwards, to private families, 



396 GENERAL VIEWS. 

among whom it was made for domestic use ; and its scarcity as an 
article of apparel, has been considered as one chief cause of that 
cutaneous disorder, formerly called leprosy. About the middle of 
the twelfth century, linen was so little known, that woollen shirts 
were generally-worn in Milan ; and flannel, or rather linseywolsey, 
formed the usual underclothing of ladies. Linen was first imported 
into England from Flanders. 

& Glass Windows.— The, Venerable Bede tells us, that artificers, 
skilled in making glass for windows, were first brought into England 
from the continent, hi 674, and were employed in glazing the church 
of the monastery at WearmoUth. . But the art was not generally 
practiced^ and the luxury of such windows Was slowly adopted, for 
it was not until a century after the Norman conquest ( 1 160, or 1170) 
that they began to be used in private houses, and even then, few 
could support such a style of magnificence. The manufacture oi 
glass was not commenced in England, until the middle of the six- 
teenth century. 

6. Glass Mirrors. — There is no positive evidence that glass mir- 
rors were known before the year 1279. At that time, an English 
Franciscan monk speaks of them, in a work on optics^ but also men- 
tions that they were covered on the back with lead. It may be in- 
ferred that this invention cannot be much older, from the circum* 
stance that glass mirrors were scarce in France, even in the four- 
teenth century. Various methods were adopted to perfect the art, 
before that which is now in use. 

7. Mariner's Compass. — The date of the invention of the mari- 
ner's compass, is near the commencement of the fourteenth century. 
Gioia, of Amalfi, in Naples, a celebrated mathematician, from his 
knowledge of the magnetic powers, was the author or improver ot 
this important contrivance. The polarity of the magnet had been 
known in Europe, as early as the thirteenth century, but the com- 
pass was not used in sailing, till the time of Gioia. It is said that 
the Chinese^ as in Several other inventions or discoveries, lay claim 
to a knowledge of the compass long before ; but we may well be in- 
credulous in regard to most of their pretensions of this sort, since 
they are so much in accordance with that vanity, which derives 
their national existence from ages long preceding the scriptural ac* 
count of the creation. By this discovery, the dominion of the sea 
has been opened to man, and he is also put in full possession of the 
terrestrial globe* by being enabled to visit every part of it. The art 
of steering by this instrument, was gradually acquired. Sailors un- 
accustomed to quit sight of land, durst not launch out and commit 
themselves to unknown seas. The first appearance of a bolder spi 
r"'t may be dated from the voyages of the Spaniards to the Canary 
Islands. 

8. Gunpowder.— -It is said that the Chinese claim acquaintance with 
gunpowder from the remotest era of their history; but however 
that may be, it is certain, that several centuries of the Christian era 
had passed away before it was known in Europe. Some have 
thought that the knowledge of it was obtained in Europe through 



DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 397 

the Saracens, as early as the latter part of the seventh century ; but 
it has more generally been supposed, that Friar Bacon was the first 
European who possessed the secret of the composition of gunpow- 
der, and that he was the inventor. He certainly so far alludes to it 
as to say, that from saltpetre and other ingredients, a fire may be 
made that shall burn at any distance. Bacon died in 1294. 

9. Fire-arms.— It is generally admitted that artillery was used by 
Edward III., at the battle of Crecy, 1346 ; and though Froissart 
does not mention the circumstance, we have the decisive testimony 
of Petrarch, that these guns were common before the year 1344. 
The invention of portable fire-arms would appear to have originated 
in Germany, from the old names by which the different kinds were 
distinguished. These names were either German, or immediately 
derived lrom that language. They were, however, too long and 
heavy at first to be conveniently fired from the hand alone. When 
used, they were placed on a prop, with a fork at the upper part, be 
tween which the piece was fixed, by means of a hoop projecting 
from the stock. They were first used at the siege of Parma, in 1521. 

The first muskets were discharged by means of a match applied 
with the hand ; but this was afterwards adjusted to a cock for greater 
security and precision m shooting* There were other improve- 
ments, but flint locks do not seem to have entirely superseded the 
match-lock in the continental armies, until towards the close of the 
seventeenth century. The first gun-lock was invented in 1517. The 
term fire-lock, was given to the invention, which is still in use, and it 
was applied to the gun itself, in order to distinguish it from that 
which was fired by a match-lock. 

10. Paper made of cotton or linen rags. — Letters were written, 
or ideas transmitted, on a variety of substances, previously to the 
time when the art of making paper from cotton or linen rags was 
discovered. Sometimes a hard and solid substance was used, as 
stone, metal, or wood. Of these, wood was the most generally used, 
in various forms and modes, which cannot be here described. The 
leaves of trees also were employed ; hence the meaning of leaf, as 
applied to a book. This mode of writing was superseded by the 
use of the bark of trees, liber, hence the Latin name for a book. 
Linen cloth also was employed by the Egyptians and Romans. 
Leather, or skins prepared in the present manner, seems to have been 
often used by the Jews, on which to write portions of the Bible. 
Skins of animals rudely prepared, was another material, which 
originated with the lonians. A more common material was parch 
ment, which was a certain preparation of the skins of animals. 
Most of the ancient manuscripts now extant, are written on parch 
ment. Papyrus was also celebrated as a substance for writing up- 
on ; hence the word paper is derived. This was a species of rush 
which the ancients procured exclusively on the banks of the Nile. The 
paper manufactured from the papyrus, was of an inferior quality, 
until the time of the conquest of Egypt by the Romans. 

The time when the manufacture of this paper was lost or super- 
seded, is not known. It is generallv supposed that few. if any, 
34 



398 GENERAL VIEWS 

manuscripts on papyrus are of a later date than the 8th or 9th cen- 
tury. About this period cotton paper was first made : according to 
some in Bucharia, according to others it had been known long before 
m China and Persia. There is no doubt, however, that the Arabs, 
having gained a knowledge of the process, established a manufactory 
in Ceuta, and afterwards in Spain, and thus introduced it into 
Europe about the 12th century. At first it was made of raw cotton ; 
then of old worn out cotton cloth. The use of cotton paper be- 
came general only in the 13th century; and about the middle of the 
14th it was almost entirely superseded by paper from linen, such 
as is at present made. 

11. The Art of Printing.— No evidence exists that moveable 
wooden types were ever used, except in the capital letters of some 
early printed books. It has indeed been contended that Lewis Cos- 
ter of Haarlem, invented and used them ; that he therefore was the 
original inventor of the art of printing. But it is now proved that 
this opinion is without foundation ; that wooden types were never 
used ; and that the art of printing as at present practised, with 
moveable metal types, was discovered by John Guthenberg of 
Mayence, about the year 1438. 

Three years before this, Guthenberg entered into a partnership 
with three citizens of Strasburg, binding himself to disclose a secret 
which would enrich them all. One of the partners dying, and 
some of the most important implements having been stolen from 
the work-shop, a lawsuit took place. In the course of this lawsuit, 
five witnesses, among whom was Guthenberg's confidential servant, 
proved that Guthenberg was the first who practised the art of print- 
ing with moveable types. The result was a dissolution of partner- 
ship. The whole proceedings on this trial are in existence, and 
have been published in the original German. 

Misfortune and pecuniary loss attended his efforts for a time. In 
1450 he entered into partnership at Mayence, with John Fust: 
this also was a failure. The art was so little perfected that in their 
early efforts, neither the printing was fair, nor the expense sup- 
portable. It is not certain whether during their partnership, they 
found out the art of casting characters in metal, which they had 
previously been obliged to cut with a knife ; or whether this great 
improvement was made by Schceffer, who assisted them at this time. 
The general opinion is, that Schceffer is entitled to this honour. 
Guthenberg and Fust at length separated \ and in consequence of a 
lawsuit, the former was obliged to give up his apparatus to Fust. 

Guthenburg, however, was not discouraged, but established a new 
printing office, until 1465, when he obtained a situation, with a good 
salary, under the Elector Adolphus. In the mean time Fust, in 
conjunction with Schceffer, continued printing. Upon the taking 
of Mayence in 1457, the partners suffered much , and their work- 
men dispersing themselves, this most wonderful art was thus spread 
over Europe. 

In regard to stereotype printing, Holland has a far more substan 
iial claim to the merit of inventing that, than to the glory, through 



DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS, 399 

Coster, of originating the art of typography. Besides a quarto Bible, 
published in 1711, there exists a Dutch Bible stereotpyed in folio at 
the commencement of the 18th century. These are satisfactory 
proofs that stereotype printing was employed in Holland long before 
it was even known in France. In a note to No. 1316 of Barbier's 
catalogue, it is also recorded, that Johann Mueller, pastor of the 
German church at Leyden, had devised in 1701, a novel method 
of printing, which much resembles the process of stereotyping aa 
now practised. This method consisted in composing the page in 
the usual manner, correcting it accurately, securing the type with 
iron ties, turning it over on its face, and then cementing it into a solid 
mass by means of a metallic composition, or preferably, of mastic. 

12. Steam Engine. — This grand machine, which has done so 
much for the human race, and is destined to do much more, was 
unknown to the ancients. Its powerful effects are the result of the 
scientific combinations by which the immense expansive force 
exerted by water, when converted into steam, is rendered available 
to the most important purposes. 

The original projector of the Steam Engine is generally believed 
to have been the marquis of Worcester in 1655 ; but his apparatus 
was intended to raise water by the expansive force of steam only. 
His project was neglected in his own age, nor does the subject ap- 
pear to have excited the attention of scientific persons, till the year 
1698, when Captain Savary obtained a patent for a new invention 
for raising water, and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill-work, 
by the impellent force of fire. Other improvements were attempted 
on the steam engine by Amonton, Papin, Blakey, Newcomen, and 
others ; but nothing essential was achieved except by the philoso- 
phical genius of Mr. Watt. Being accidentally employed to repair 
a model of the then imperfect steam engine, Mr. Watt observed that 
a great quantity of heat was lost by the unnecessary and improper 
mode of condensing the steam : he completely obviated the defect, 
and by the introduction of a condenser apart from the cylinder, and 
an alternate action of the steam against each side of the piston, he 
effected the most essential improvement in the above particular. 
Under his hands, however, the machine received other improve- 
ments, particularly in the mechanical arrangement throughout. 
Since the expiration of Watt's patent, a variety of other improve- 
ments have been made by several mechanical gentlemen, but details 
must be omitted. 

Steam engines are now common all over the world. Their ap- 
plication to the purposes of navigation forms an era in their history. 
The Americans first made this application, as the genius of Fulton, 
a native of Pennsylvania, was successfully employed on this subject, 
as early as the commencement of the present century. He first 
made the experiment of propelling boats by steam at Paris in 1803; 
after which he returned to America, and exhibited a boat in successful 
operation, on the waters of New-York. Vessels propelled by his 
machinery are now in common use, throughout the United States 
and in Europe. They are known also in India, and their num- 



400 GENERAL VIEWS. 

ber is continually on the increase. In 1827, American steamboat 
tonnage alone amounted to 40,197 tons. It is now much greater. 

Incidents and Curious Particulars. 

1. Miscellaneous matter which cannot be conveniently arranged 
under any other head, is here designed to be presented. A few 
only of the vast mass of facts appropriate to this article, will be 
selected from the annals of different nations. From the present 
sample may be learned, among other things, the state of the useful 
arts, the modes of living, and the progress of society and improve- 
ment, at different periods. 

2. The most extensive and splendid of the libraries at Rome was 
the Ulpian, founded by Trajan. It is believed that at the suggestion 
of Pliny the younger, this emperor commanded all the books that 
were found in the conquered cities to be placed in this library. 
Most of the principal cities throughout the empire, at this time, had 
public libraries. The desolation of the western empire destroyed or 
dispersed most of the books in them, so that in this part of the 
world, after this period, and during the dark ages, monasteries 
almost exclusively possessed libraries. In the eastern empire it was 
different : both Constantinople and Alexandria preserved theirs, till 
the Turks obtained possession of these cities. 

3. From the origin of monasteries till the close of the 10th cen- 
tury, it is said there were no schools in Europe, except those belong- 
ing to monasteries, or episcopal churches. At the beginning of the 
11th century, they were opened in most of the cities of Italy and 
France, by qualified persons among both the laity and clergy. 
But though their general introduction and establishment, must be 
assigned to this period, yet it is certain that Charlemagne founded 
several in his dominion. Afterwards, or in the middle ages, there 
were distinct schools for clerks, for laymen, and for girls. But the 
education of the highest ranks seldom went beyond reading, wri- 
ting, and a little arithmetic. 

4. We learn from Seneca three curious circumstances relating to 
the journeys of the Romans. 1. They were preceded by a troop 
of Numidian light horse, who announced by a cloud of dust, the 
approach of a great man. 2. Their baggage-mules transported not 
only their precious vases, but even the fragile vessels of crystal and 
murra, which last has been almost proved by the learned, to mean 
the porcelain of China and Japan. 3. The beautiful faces of the 
young slaves were covered by a medicate crust or ointment, which 
secured them against the effect of the sun and frost. 

5. The use of braccce, breeches or trowsers, was considered in 
Italy in the 3d century as a Gallic and barbarian fashion. The 
Romans, however, had made great advances towards it. To encir- 
cle the legs and thighs with fascia or bands, was understood in the 
time of Pompey and Horace to be a proof of ill health and effemi- 
nacy. In the time of Trajan the custom was confined to the rich 



INCIDENTS AND CURIOUS PARTICULARS. 401 

and luxurious. It was gradually adopted by the meanest of the 
people. 

6. After the age of Tiberius, the decay of agriculture was felt m 
Italy, and it was a just subject of complaint that the life of the 
Roman people depended on the accidents of the winds and waves. 

7. In regard to habitations, our English ancestors in early times 
had few luxuries or even conveniences. Down to the reign of 
Elizabeth, the greater part of the houses in considerable towns had 
no chimneys: the fire was kindled against the wall, and the smoke 
found its way out as well as it could, by the roof, the door, or the 
windows. The houses were mostly built of watling, plastered over 
with clay ; the floors were of earth, strewed, in families of distinc- 
tion, with rushes; and the beds were only straw pallets, with a log 
of wood for a pillow. In this respect, even the king fared no better 
than his subjects, for in Henry the Eighth's time, we find directions, 
" to examine every night the" straw of the king's bed, that no dag- 
gers might be concealed therein." A writer in 1577, speaking of 
the progress of luxury, mentions three things especially, that were 
" marvellously altered for the worse in England ;." the multitude of 
chimneys lately erected, the increase of lodgings, and the exchange 
of treene platters into pewter, and wooden spoons into silver and 
tin, and he complains bitterly that oak instead of willow was em- 
ployed for the building of houses. 

In the middle ages the fires in the houses were made in a cavity 
in the centre of the floor, over which there generally was an open- 
ing in the roof for the escape of the smoke ; and when the fire was 
out, or the family retired to rest, the place in which it was made 
was closed by a cover. In those days a law was almost universally 
established on the continent, that fires should be extinguished, and 
the family be all at home, at a certain hour in the evening, which 
was notified by the ringing of a bell ; that, in England, was called 
the corfeu, curfew. 

8. In 1100, an inundation of the sea happened which overflowed 
the lands of Godwin, earl of Kent, called Godwin's Sands, to this 
day. Of these shoals the following account was given not many 
years since. " Upon our journey to Ramsgate," says Mr. Smeaton, 
civil engineer, " having visited the Godwin Sands, in order to ex- 
amine their nature, we found that though, like quicksand, they were 
clean and unconnected, yet they lay so close that it was difficult to 
work a pointed iron bar into them more than to the depth of six or 
seven feet. 

9. The spirit of the middle ages is shown in the following instan- 
ces of wild magnificence or barbarity. On a certain occasion, 
when the nobility of Languedoc met in 1174, the countess of Urgel 
sent to the meeting a diadem, worth 2000Z., to be placed on the head 
of a wretched buffoon. The count of Thoulouse sent a diadem 
also of twice that value, to a favourite knight, who distributed the 
same amount in money among the poorer knights. Other acts of 
mad prodigality were performed, particularly the sowing of a pieyq 
of plowed ground with small coin to the amount of 1500 English 



402 GENERAL VIEWS. 

guineas, by count Bertrand Rimbault. But the barbarous wasteful 
ness of lord Raymond was the most remarkable feat on the occasion. 
Having ordered thirty of his most beautiful and valuable horses to 
be tied to stakes, and surrounded with dry wood, he wantonly set 
it on fire, and suffered his favourites to perish in the flames. 

10. Among the Romans the interest of money was not fixed by 
law. It is on this account that we find in the Roman satirists so 
many loud complaints of extortion, and of the severity with 
which pecuniary claims were enforced. Horace describes a rich 
old miser, who 

" Dooms the wretches, on the appointed day, 
His interest or principal to pay." 

Many of the bankers acquired large fortunes, and arrived at the 
highest dignities of the state. Their establishments were of a pri- 
vate nature, and such banking houses are known to have existed in 
the chief cities of Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries ; and about 
the some period the first public banks appear to have been establish- 
ed by some of the Italian states, for the purposes of contracting 
loans and managing the collection of the revenue. The most an- 
cient general bank for the deposit of cash and the issue of its own 
paper in return, appears to have been formed in the city of Barce- 
lona, in 1401. 

11. The specious miracles of Arabian magic were introduced into 
Europe, by means of pilgrimages and the holy wars. Fairies and 
giants, flying dragons and enchanted palaces, were blended with the 
more simple fictions of the West ; and the fate of Britain depended 
on the art or predictions of Merlin. 

12. The magnificent castle of Windsor, was built by Edward III., 
in the fourteenth century, and his method of conducting the work, 
may serve as a specimen of the condition of the people in that age. 
No contracts were made with workmen as in the present times, but 
every county in England was assessed to send the king a certain 
number of masons, tilers, and carpenters, who were to perform their 
quota of labour. 

13. In the year 1414, the citizens of London were ordered to hang 
out lanterns to light the streets, and one of its mayors, in 1417, re- 
newing the order, " ordained lanthornes with lights to be hanged 
out on the winter evenings between hallontide and candlemasse." 
In this particular, London must have set the example to the other 
cities of Europe. During three centuries afterwards, the citizens 
were occasionally reminded of this regulation, under pains and 
penalties for its non-observance ; but the frequency of the repetition 
only proves, how ill it was obeyed. In 1716, it was directed that 
each house should have a lamp hung out on every night between 
the 2d after full-moon until the 7th after new moon, from the hour 
of six in the evening until eleven. In 1736 and 1739, the present 
mode of lighting was partially adopted, but it was not till 1744, that 
an act of parliament was passed for completely lighting the cities of 
London and Westminster. 



INCIDENTS AND CURIOUS PARTICULARS. 403 

14. During the periods of feudal strife, when neighbouring chief- 
tains often made sudden inroads on each other, every baronial castle 
was provided with its warders, i. e. men that were posted on the 
tops of towers to watch the approach of an enemy. In Wales, these 
persons were furnished with horns to sound an alarm ; and those 
in the castles of the German princes, in the sixteenth century, blew 
a horn every morning and evening, on the relieving and setting of 
the sruard. 

15 Between the years, 1312 and 1315, Germany groaned under 
all the miseries of plague and famine, by which whole towns were 
depopulated, and provinces brought to desolation. The rich sought 
an asylum in other countries, while the poor, unpitied and unassist- 
ed, miserably perished. Hunger so preyed upon wolves and other 
ravenous beasts, that overcoming their fear of man, they rushed into 
the villages, and gorged themselves with human blood. Trees and 
houses were swept away by cataracts bursting from the mountains; 
and the earth was dreadfully convulsed by earthquakes. 

16. It was not until towards the close of the sixteenth century, 
that potatoes made their appearance in Europe. They were first 
brought by Sir Walter Raleigh, from America to Ireland. From 
thence they passed by slow degrees over to Scotland, and the nor- 
thern counties of England, and have since become generalthrough- 
out Great Britain. The lapse, however, of two centuries has not 
sufficed to introduce so important a vegetable into common con- 
sumption, in the south of Europe. 

17. In the year 1500, there happened so great a plague in Eng- 
land, that it obliged the king and court to remove to Calais, and 
carried off upwards of 30,000 people in London. 

18. The progress of improvement has been slow in many res- 
pects. Many centuries of the christian era had passed away, before 
any thing better than splinters of wood, was used by our English 
ancestors for lighting their houses by night. It was not until 
towards the close of the thirteenth century, that tallow candles were 
employed for this purpose. It was not until this period that cups 
and saucers were used, and then they were considered as luxuries. 
A few centuries only have gone by since knives and forks were used 
in eating ; since hats were worn in lieu of cloth hoods and knit 
caps; since the ladies were accommodated with pins instead oi 
skewers ; and since knit stockings were introduced hi the room of 
cloth hose. 

19. In 1546, a law was made in England for fixing the interest oi 
money at 10 per cent. This was the first legal interest known in 
that country. Strange as it may seem to us, all acts of that nature 
were formerly considered as usurious. 

20. Between the years 1660 and 1670, two awful calamities befel 
London— a plague which carried off 68,000 persons— and a fire, 
which, breaking out near London bridge, and continuing several 
days, destroyed eighty-nine churches and thirteen thousand two 
hundred dwelling houses 



404 GENERAL VIEWS. 

21. A few years before the landing of the puritans at Plymouth, 
a remarkable pestilence destroyed most of the Indians from Nara- 
ganset to Penobscot, which seems to have been a providential oc- 
currence to facilitate the settlement of New-England. 

22. The waste lands in the united kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland, amount even at this time to 15,301,994 acres. 

23. In the year 1828, American shipping in foreign trade amount- 
ed to 824,781 tons, and foreign shipping employed in American 
trade was 149,435 tons — the whole being 974,216 tons. The en- 
rolled coasting tonnage of the country is nearly or quite equal to 
that in foreign trade. 

24. In the year 1829, the public libraries in Europe were com- 
puted to contain 19,847,100 volumes. 

25. The expenses of Great Britain in war, since 1688 amount, as 
appears from a statement lately made, to £2,023,500,000, viz. — 

Years. Expense. 

The war of the Revolution, 9 £36,000.000 

Spanish Succession, 11 62,500^000 

Spanish war, 1739, and > 1 > 54,000,000 

Austrian Succession, $ 9 $ ' ' 
The " Seven years war" with ) 

the French, Spanish, Austri- V 7 112,000,000 

ans and Russians, of 1756, > 

The American war, of 1775, 8 136,000,000 

French Revolution war, 9 # 464,000,000 
The war against Bonaparte, ) 

the three last years of which V 12 1159,000,000 

with the United States, j 
There were about sixty-five years of war, and seventy-five oi 
peace, in a period of one hundred and forty years. 



Present state of several Nations in respect to Agriculture, 
Roads, Conveyances, Intercourse, Education, Trade. 
Manufactures, fyc. 

1. The history of culture, in respect to many characteristics, were 
they to be traced from their origin, and described as they have ex- 
isted in past ages, would be interesting and instructive. Some sub- 
iects of this kind have been thus traced and described. It may an- 
swer the purpose of so succinct an outline, to present others to the 
reader, as we now find them, with little reference to the past. The 
articles above enumerated, may therefore come under review, in res- 
pect chiefly to the present times. They are properly characteris- 
tics ot the age, or the history of it, so far as such particulars are 
concerned. 



PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 405 

2. Agriculture. — Agriculture, as the foundation of the means of 
living, and as connected with the state of society, and with the civil 
and intellectual character of a people, deserves a high degree of at- 
tention. Accordingly, it has been a commanding object of pursuit, 
with all civilized communities, from the beginning. But it is only to 
be remarked here, that in modern times it has received more conside- 
ration than formerly. The ancient Romans, perhaps, were as much 
devoted to it as any modern nation ; and their agricultural wealth, 
as individuals, when, in some instances, several thousand yokes of 
oxen were the property of a single farmer, exceeds probably any 
thing known at present. But with the exception of the Romans, if 
they were on the whole an exception, modern nations manifestly ex- 
cel antiquity. Especially do they excel the middle ages, for then 
this great interest suffered, with every thing else, a lamentable decay. 
In very recent times, peculiar attention has been bestowed on the 
subject, both in Europe and America, by means of numerous agri- 
cultural societies. Indeed, science has been of late most successfully 
applied to the purposes of advancing the agricultural art. The bu- 
siness in the hands of scientific practical farmers, has assumed a sys- 
tematic arrangement, unknown in former days. 

3. Roads, — In Europe, as the Roman empire declined, the roads 
gradually fell into neglect ; and during the dark ages, their ruinous 
condition, rendered communication difficult, beyond what we can 
now find it easy to conceive. It is not readily ascertained what the 
state of the roads was, but they must have improved as trade in- 
creased. We know that the amelioration of them was slow ; that 
the arts of constructing and directing them,- were for a long time un- 
derstood very imperfectly ; and that the first kingdom in which the 
condition of the great roads, at all approached the present standard 
of excellence, was Sweden, where from its want of wealth, and its 
remote situation, no such occurrence could reasonably have been 
looked for. 

In England, the change in regard to the arrival and departure of 
the mails, which took place in 1793, greatly forwarded that improve- 
ment of the principal roads, which had been going on through the 
eighteenth century ; and from 1793 to the present moment, the high- 
ways, cross-roads, bridges, and ferries, throughout the whole extent 
of that country, are decidedly superior to those which are to be seen 
an y where else. 

A remarkable improvement, however, has recently taken place in 
roads and bridges, all over Europe. Materials for road making have 
been found where formerly they were not believed to exist, and the 
skill with which they are employed is surprising. Neither clay, 
sand, morasses, torrents, precipices, nor any other obstacles, are deem- 
ed insurmountable. A terrace has been conducted along the whole 
face of the Appennines, from Nice, to the gulf of Spezzia. The finest 
carriage roads cross the Alps, over mount Cenis, St. Bernard, the 
Simplon, St. Gothard, the Splugen, from the lake of Como to the 
source of the Inn from Trent to Brixen, and where the road from 
Vienna to Venice crosses them at Ponteba. An entirely new road 



406 GENERAL VIEWS 

has been formed in the kingdom of Netherlands, from Namur to Lux 
embourg; another runs along the banks of the Rhine from Mentz to 
Nimeguen ; another from Hamburg to Hanover, and from Hanover 
to Deventer. Others have been formed, and particularly the whole 
way between Berlin and Petersburgh, probably presents by this time 
an admirable line of communication between these two capitals. 
Other roads are said to be under consideration, and particularly one 
from Berlin to Hamburg, through sands which appear almost impas- 
sable. Indeed, the traveller in Europe, since the cessation of wars, 
every where witnesses the utmost zeal in building bridges, in open- 
ing, widening, levelling, and repairing roads. 

Nor has less been done, or is less doing in the United States. Pro- 
bably no people in the same time, ever made so many improvements 
in roads and bridges. Where two hundred years ago, all was a wide 
wilderness, traversed only by the foot-paths of the Indians, there are 
now thousands of good roads. The extent only of post-roads in this 
country, now considerably exceeds 100,000 miles. In some parts ol 
Europe and of the United States, rail-roads have been made, or are 
in progress, which promise the greatest advantages to commerce 
and inland transportation. The recent construction of carriages 
moved by steam, which are designed to pass over roads of this des- 
cription, will form an era in the history of travelling. Moving with 
the velocity of thirty miles or more by the hour, these vehicles will 
seem to annihilate space. 

4. Water Conveyance. — The progress lately made in water con- 
veyance, is also very remarkable. The first canals known in Europe, 
were those which were formed in Italy and the Low Countries, and 
served in several cases both to drain the ground, and for the convey- 
ance of merchandize. France followed their example, and by means 
of the canal of Languedoc, joined the channel and the Mediterra- 
nean. Several others have since been completed, and others are begun; 
but that country is never likely to place much dependence on its ca- 
nal communications. About the middle of the last century, the 
commercial prosperity of Great Britain, induced it to turn its atten- 
tion to canals, and from its abundance of water, and the moderate 
elevation of its surface, it has now pushed canal navigation, beyond 
every other country. The total length of canals in Great Britain at 
the present time, is 2,600 miles. Austria, Prussia, and Sweden, now 
possess canals ; and Russia, both within her old limits and in Po- 
land, is zealously encouraging canals, to connect her rivers, and trans- 
port the produce of her soil. Next to Great Britain, the United 
States have displayed the most enterprise in the business of canals. 
In the several states, twenty-two canals are finished, in progress, or 
in immediate contemplation, whose aggregate length is about 2,500 
miles. The greater part of them are either finished or in progress. 
Two of them, viz. the Hudson and Erie, and the Chesapeake and 
Ohio canals, are each 360 miles, the Ohio state canal is 306, and the 
Pennsylvania canal is 296 miles. The Hudson and Erie canal, which 
is in operation, is the boast of the new world. 

The application of steam to shipping, which deserves to be ranked 



PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 40? 

among the greatest discoveries, theoretical or practical, that werd 
ever made, has done more within the last twenty years, to facilitate 
the communication between different places, by water, than all the 
contrivances that went before it. Steam vessels are now found per- 
manently or occasionally plying from the bottom of the Mediterra- 
nean, all round to the top of the Baltic. No place in the eastern part 
of the world has derived so great advantage from the discovery of 
steam vessels, as England. Its situation, coal, and commerce, en- 
ables it to shoot forth these vessels in every direction, and by means 
of the certainty and celerity of their passage, they have diminished 
its distance, and multiplied its means of access to every part of the 
European continent. In the United States, where the application of 
steam to the purposes of navigation was first made, these vessels are 
most extensively employed. They abound, with all their facility of 
conveyance, on our coasts, and in our rivers ; hundreds of them are 
owned on the Mississippi alone. The combination of the above dis- 
coveries and improved arrangements, has produced an ease, certain- 
ty, and rapidity of intercourse, exceeding all past experience or ima- 
gination. 

5. Travelling. The increase of the number of travellers which 
these facilities have caused, is a characteristic of the times worth no- 
ticing. Travelling for improvement or gratification, has increased 
fifty or an hundred fold, and it is continually augmenting. In peace, 
Europe is now one great family, and certainly many advantages at- 
tend this state of things. Such a degree of travelling and inter- 
course tends very much to bind nations together, and to promote 
liberal views, and a charitable feeling, one towards another. Some 
good things, however, are sacrificed to it. Simplicity of heart, and 
the earnestness of kindness in domestic life, are diminishing. The 
love of home, the warm gush of affection, is checked. The bonds of 
society now set loosely on a man. Attachment to country ceases to 
operate as it once did. 

6. Increase of Education. Another characteristic of the present 
times, is the extraordinary increase of education. A much larger 
portion of the people of civilized countries read than formerly. Pro- 
testants have always been more devoted to reading than the Catho- 
lics. Except in Spain and Portugal, reading has increased every 
where. Both the means and the habits of reading are increased. 
The multiplication of newspapers and periodical publications— the 
number of booksellers' shops — the profusion of literary institutions 
and circulating libraries, are infallible indications of the -extraordi- 
nary spread of education and reading. There is evidently, there 
fore, the more need of moral discipline. The Bible should by all 
means be made a study, and its heavenly truths should be more than 
ever enforced upon the heart. The cheapness of books, the number 
of teachers, the spare time created by the extension of machinery, 
and the fashion for reading, have operated very considerably on the 
common people in Europe. In the United States, the same causes 
have operated on the same portion of the community, though here 



408 GENERAL VIEWS. 

the common people have always been distinguished, above those of 
other nations, for a love of reading and a competent education. 

Among the higher orders of European society, there are, so many 
books, and so much to learn, that few are profound* The stream oi 
knowledge flows wider, but has not become deeper. To master all 
the branches of science and knowledge, is impossible. Daily and 
periodical publications abound, but perhaps too much so for a sound 
and permanent literature. They include the principal stock of read- 
ing, except novels, books of travels, and memoirs. The mind of the 
public cannot be more effectually abused and unsettled, than by the 
systematic conversion of history, private life, religion and morality, 
into themes for works of fiction ; and the full extent of the mischief 
will be seen only when it is too late. A similar change to that which 
has taken place among readers, has affected authors. Most of this 
class are so impatient to reap the rewards of their labours, or so ap- 
prehensive of being supplanted by competitors for the public favour, 
that few are willing to bestow the time and trouble which are ne- 
cessary for the composition of a standard work. 

7. Improvement in external condition. — In the present state oi 
most civilized nations, a surprising improvement has taken place 
in the outward condition of all ranks of society. Many shocking 
and painful disorders have almost wholly disappeared, and others, 
which flesh must still be heir to, have by superior treatment, been 
rendered less violent and dangerous. The small pox, the ravages of 
which were once so terrible, has now ceased to alarm the communi- 
ty. The discovery of vaccination, in 1798, by Dr. Jenner, was the 
instrumental cause of so propitious a change. This is one of the 
diseases referred to ; others might be named. The plague, except 
m Turkey, and some other countries bordering on the Mediterra- 
nean, is almost unknown. Famines, arising either from cold or heat, 
are now of much less frequent occurrence than they formerly were, 
and the cruelties and calamities of war, have been mitigated. While 
these scourges of mankind have been removed or diminished, the 
length of human life has been extended, as a consequence. A greater 
proportion live to old age than was the fact a century ago. Other 
causes, however, may have operated here, as greater temperance, 
better food and clothing, less exposure, &c. Connected with the 
above, inventions of every sort, conducing to personal enjoyment, 
have been multiplied or brought to perfection. In houses, furniture, 
horses, conveyances, and every thing which can minister to the ease 
and gratification of mind or body ; in the number and refinement of 
the sources of amusement, and in all articles of domestic luxury and 
convenience, the progress that has lately been made, is unprecedent- 
ed either for extent or rapidity. There is not a district to be found 
in any European state, in which the traveller is not struck with the 
taste and magnificence displayed in the architecture of public and 
private buildings, the multiplication and commodiousness of bathing 
and watering places, hotels, coffee houses, and reading rooms, the ex- 
quisite arrangement of gardens, grounds and villas, and the neatness 
of cottages, shops and manufactories. 



PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 409 

This alteration is very conspicuous in England. The comforts of 
life appear in great profusion ; no native or foreigner can travel fifty 
or sixty miles, along a public road, without being lost in wonder and 
astonishment. Towns, villages, hamlets, mansions, farm houses, and 
cottages, are every where scattered about in the most pleasing and 
romantic situations. It were to be desired that the reality in every 
respect, corresponded with the appearances, but it is not to be con- 
cealed that the present stagnation in business, has thrown many o 
the English operatives into distress. In the United States, however 
these improvements not only abound, but the favourable appearan- 
ces are generally connected with a more delightful reality. 

8. Increase of population. — In consequence of the improvement 
in the physical circumstances of the people in christian countries, 
the population has increased in an unexampled manner. Some pla- 
ces, owing to political revolutions, or change of trade, may have de- 
creased in population, as Rome, Venice, Bologna, Genoa, Verona, 
Seville, Barcelona, Cadiz, Lubec, Bremen, Ghent, Bruges, Cologne, 
Strasburg, Nuremburg, and Augsburg. These, however, are excep- 
tions to the general rule. Petersburg, Berlin, Vienna, Brussels, 
Paris, Hamburgh, Frankfort, Milan, Munich, Stuttgard, Stockholm, 
and the territories to which they belong, are swelling in extent and 
population. England has outstripped the continent v/ithin these last 
thirty or forty years. London, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, 
Birmingham, and many other cities and towns in Great Britain, have 
experienced a great increase. According to statistics, which have 
lately appeared,* it is found that the inhabitants of Europe have, 
within the period that has elapsed since the general peace, in 1815, 
been augmented by the number of 28 or 29,000,000. Every coun- 
try has had a share in this increase. Europe, however, can hardly 
be compared with the United States, in this particular. Within the 
time above mentioned, the population of this country has increased 
to the amount of at least one third of the whole number. History 
probably does not furnish another instance of the rapid rise of cities, 
equal to that of New- York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New-Orleans, 
and several others. 

9. The approximation of the lower classes to the higher. — This 
is a characteristic of the age more particularly observable in the old 
world. In America, owing to its institutions, and the abundance 
of the means of living, the difference in the classes of the people has 
never been so wide as it is in Europe. The approximation spoken 
of is very perceptible in European society. It is obvious in dress, 
manners, and acquirements. It is encouraged by the improvement 
which has taken place in manufactures, and by the substitution of 
machinery for manual labour. Dress is scarcely a test of rank. In 
language and address, the middling classes have advanced. There 
are few above the lowest rank, if possessed of good sense, who do 
not speak and act, in these days, with ease and propriety. Much 
taste and elegance, are in many instances displayed. In mental ac- 

* The American Almanac for 1830, a most valuable production. 

35 



410 GENERAL VIEWS. 

quirements, particularly, the assimilation is visible. Children of the 
nobility, from the greater pains taken with them, excel at first, but 
are outstripped afterwards, by those who feel the necessity of excel- 
ling. The procession in society, has extended to attainments of every 
kind, especially in matters of legislation. The numerous papers 
and documents which are published, and which are accessible to 
most readers, have contributed to this result. In regard to Great 
Britain, an American gentleman long resident in that country, at 
this moment writes, " A spirit is silently at work, which is gradu- 
ally undermining the power of the Aristocracy, and will one day 
(and that not far distant) show itself in a form too powerful to be 
resisted." 

10. lYadcs and Manufactures. —The spring of late years given 
to trade and manufactures, is quite characteristic of the times. Our 
remarks have reference more especially to the continental portion of 
Europe, where, since the general peace, the products of manufactu- 
ring industry have been wonderfully multiplied. 

Sugar refineries have within a recent period been established to a 
great extent, at Trieste, Petersburg, Hamburg, and Gothenburg. At 
Motala, near Orebro, in Sweden, there is perhaps the largest esta- 
blishment in existence for all sorts of implements in steel and iron. 
The manufacture of muskets and fowling-pieces has lately been 
greatly improved in Germany, and particularly at Herschfeld, in 
Hanover. Admirable travelling carriages of all sorts, both in point 
of elegance and durability, are built at Brussels, Berlin, and Vien- 
na. The glass manufactories in France, at St. Quentin, St. Gabin, 
Comenty, and Premontre, in the department of Aisne, are all in the 
most flourishing condition, and glass is made at Munich, of a most 
superior quality, so that the Bavarians have deprived even the Bri- 
tish of the manufacture of telescopes. The elegant iron and steel 
ornaments, made at Berlin, have now become a valuable and extend- 
ing branch of commerce. The utmost attention is paid to the im- 
provement of wool throughout France, Austria, Saxony, Holstein, 
and some other parts of Denmark. The woollen manufactures es- 
tablished in Moravia, Saxony, and Silesia, and in the Low Coun- 
tries, are increasing, and in addition to those which have been long 
seated at Sedan, Elboeuf, and Louviers, in France, they have now 
been introduced at Carcassone, Castres, and Lodeve, in the south, 
and at Bourges, and Chatevuroux, in the centre. A determined and 
successful degree of anxiety to improve the breed of horses, has 
manifested itself in Prussia, Russia, and France. England bo long 
er supplies nearly the whole of Europe with lead ; a great quantil 
is now raised near Almeria, in Spain. The manufactories of iro 
and steel, which are flourishing in France, are prospering still mo 
at Liege, which has become the Birmingham of the Low Count rie: 
as Ghent is their Manchester and Glasgow. The col ton manufa 
Hires of France and Belgium, have increased tenfold in ten years. 
They are now firmly fixed at Elherfeld, near Dusseldorf, and rapid- 
ly extending themselves in the Prussian Rhenish provinces. The 
silk trade of France, which used to be confined to Lyons, has now 



id 

as 

I 



PRESENT STATE OP SEVERAL NATIONS. 411 

spread its ramifications to Avignon, Nismes, and Tours, and its an- 
nual value amounts to £6,000,000. The silk trade is carried on in 
Switzerland, a fact which is little known abroad. There is in Zu- 
rich and its neighbourhood alone between 12 and 13,000 looms. It 
is also established at Arau, Basle, and several other places. In the 
Prussian Rhenish provinces, it is spreading from Mentz through all 
the towns and villages along the Rhine, and is carried on to a great 
extent at Dusseldorf and Elberfelt, but particularly at Creveld, where 
it is conducted with great capital and great spirit. All sorts of house- 
hold furniture are now made extremely beautiful in most large towns 
throughout the continent. Exhibitions of works of genius and in- 
dustry are every where encouraged, especially at Petersburg, Berlin, 
Brussels, Paris, Munich, Stuttgard, and Vienna. 

The manufacturing industry and talent of Great Britain, and the 
trade therewith connected, have been long celebrated, and have 
grown with her growth, till she has filled the. world with the choicest 
works of mechanic art. But particulars will not be needed in re- 
gard to a country so well known. In the United States, also, trade 
and manufactures have of late risen in a remarkable degree, consi- 
dering the comparative newness of the country. Many new branches 
have been established, and many old ones enlarged, so that although 
we are essentially an agricultural people, and must remain so for a 
long time to come, we already produce a great variety of important 
articles of mechanical skill. The ingenuity and enterprise of our 
citizens are here, as in every other department of human effort, alike 
conspicuous and successful. 

11. Reform in Government. — A desire among many nations 
to free themselves from their oppressions, or to new model their go- 
vernments, is a prominent characteristic of the age. It has been ob- 
served in the course of this work, that the present period, though 
by the contemporary world which lived in it called the revolutionary, 
will probably be denominated the constitutional period by posterity. 
The nations for some time have been struggling to obtain free and 
regular constitutions. The spirit began with the United States, more 
than fifty years ago. France afterwards made a misguided, abortive 
attempt, and some other despotisms have been considerably agita- 
ted. The strict despotic principles have hitherto prevailed, except in 
the colonial establishments ; yet even in countries governed on those 
principles, such has been the influence of popular feeling, there has 
been a degree of amelioration. The attempts of the Spaniards, Por- 
tuguese, and Neapolitans, to change their forms of government, have 
been frustrated chiefly by the despotic sword from abroad ; but it is 
evident, that knowledge is increasing, and that the minds of men are 
turning with fond desire towards their long lost rights and liberties, 
and that a spirit is at work, which promises eventually the destruc- 
tion of all despotic thrones. The colonial struggles, however, have 
been successful, and the various republics of South America, and 
that of Mexico, in North America, attest the energy of that feeling 
which resolves on independence. Greece, too, favoured by circum- 
stances, and by the sympathies of nations, but more by her own he- 



412 GENERAL VIEWS, 






roism and self-denial, is an arm broken off from the Turkish power, 
and with the lingering remains of genius found in her, and quicken- 
ed into life by the principles and systems of American education, is 
destined, we may hope, to be twice immortal. 

12. Religious Enterprises. — The present era is greatly distin- 
guished by a spirit of enterprise in religion. Many, in protestant 
countries, are especially waked up in regard to the precious interests 
of the Christian church — its prosperity at home, and its extension 
abroad. Great reformations have taken place, and signal revivals of 
piety have abounded, especially in the United States ; and both here, 
and in Great Britain, the work of Christian missions has been vigo- 
rously prosecuted. Vast numbers of associations are formed in va- 
rious parts of Protestant Christendom, to give the Bible to the des- 
titute — to educate pious, indigent youth for the ministry — to imbue 
the minds of children with scriptural knowledge by means of sab- 
bath school instruction*-to promote religion and morality among 
sailors — to enlighten the inmates of dungeons — and in this country, 
especially, to secure the observation of the sabbath — to do away the 
abominations of intemperance ; and to benefit the descendants of 
Africa, by colonizing them in the land of their fathers. The esta- 
blishment and support of missionary seminaries, and theological se- 
minaries, are also among the important religious enterprises of the 
day. Indeed, there is scarcely a conceivable form of benevolent and 
pious movement which does not receive a portion of regard from 
the Christian public. 



The Christian Church. 

We shall attempt a very brief history of the Church of Jesus 
Christ, or of Christianity as a divine establishment common to most 
of the nations, whose affairs have been narrated in a different portion 
of this work. This is the only religious system that claims much of 
our attention, in modern annals. A sufficient notice has been taken 
of the religion promulgated by Mahomet, in the history of the Sara- 
cens. As to the religion of paganism, we have had so little occasion 
to bring into view the nations, who, in modern times, possess the 
pagan creed, that we need not trace its distinctive features. A few, 
however, of the religious notions of the barbarous heathen tribes, 
whence sprang the modern European states, have appeared in a des- 
cription of the manners, institutions, &c. of those tribes. The reli- 
gion of the Greeks, Romans, and other early nations, all of whom, 
except the Jews, were pagans, is a topic of Ancient History. 

1. It will suffice for the object here contemplated, to sketch 
the affairs of the Christian Church under three distinct heads. 
1. In its primitive and pure state, extending from the birth 
of Jesus Christ, to the year 325 A. C, when Christianity 
became the religion of the Roman empire. 2. In its cor 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 413 

rupted state, extending from 325 A. C. to the commencement 
of the Reformation, 1517 A. C. 3. In its reformed state, 
extending- from 1517 A. C. to the present time. 

2. In the first era, as it might be expected, we behold the 
Christian church in its best condition. Compared with the 
subsequent era, it was distinguished for the simplicity of its 
order, purity of practice, and attachment to the doctrines of 
the Gospel. Among the many events of the present period, 
we can notice only the following leading ones, viz., the ap- 
pearance of Jesus Christ on earth ; the general success of the 
Gospel under the preaching of the apostles and others ; and 
the ten great persecutions of the Church, so enumerated ana 
called, beginning with Nero, and ending with Diocletian. 

§ The appearance of Jesus Christ on earth was the most re- 
markable event that ever occurred. Its date, as commonly given, is 
four years later than the real time. The prophets had pointed out 
the period, and the world was in an unusual degree prepared for the 
coming of the Son of God. But though the nations were expecting 
the appearance of some extraordinary personage, and the Jews par- 
ticularly were waiting for their Messiah ; yet Jesus was almost uni- 
versally rejected, both by the Jew and Gentile. In the circumstan- 
ces of his birth and life, and in the doctrines which he taught, the 
expectations of his countrymen were disappointed, and upon a fri- 
volous pretence, they put him to the cruel death of the cross. By 
this procedure, so unjust on the part of the Jews, the divine plan, 
which sought the redemption of the nations, was accomplished, for 
on the third day, Jesus rose from the dead, and forty days after, 
having given his disciples suitable instructions respecting their duty 
as preachers of his religion, he ascended to heaven, a cloud receiving 
him out of their sight. 

The general success of the Gospel under the preaching of the 
apostles and others, was also a remarkable circumstance, and strong- 
ly confirmed the truth of Christianity. Many reasons might be 
given for this opinion, but our limits forbid. In regard to the fact oi 
the early and general extension of the Gospel, we are left to no 
doubt, from the nature of the case, and from historic records. The 
apostles and evangelists were early spread abroad among the na- 
tions ; and even before the destruction of Jerusalem, the Gospel had 
been preached to multitudes in several parts of the known world. 
Within thirty years of the death of Christ, says Paley, the institution 
had spread itself through Judea, Galilee, and Samaria, almost all 
the numerous districts of Lesser Asia, through Greece and the islands 
of the iEgean Sea, the sea coast of Africa, and had extended itself 
to Rome, and into Italy. At Antioch in Syria, at Joppa, Ephesus, 
Corinth, and many other places, the converts were spoken of as nu- 
merous. The first epistle of Peter, accosts the Christians dispersed 
throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadccia, Asia, and Bythinia. In a 



414 GENERAL VIEWS. 

short time, nations and cities more remote, heard of the Gospel. 
The Gauls received the knowledge of Christianity from the imme- 
diate successors of the apostles ; and during the second century, the 
Germans, the Spaniards, and probably the Britons, were converted 
to the true religion. 

The ten great persecutions of the Church have given a charac- 
ter to the whole era. They were not, however, in every instance, 
general through the Roman empire. Persecutions indeed existed 
from the beginning, and there were not many periods of entire tran- 
quillity to the Church, during three hundred years. But those of a 
more marked character, are included within the above expressed 
number. Their order is as follows : 

1. The persecution under Nero occurred thirty-one years after 
our Lord's ascension. When the emperor set fire to the city of 
Rome, he threw the odium of that execrable action on the Christians, 
and made it the pretext of persecuting them. Accordingly, they 
were hunted like wild beasts, and torn to pieces by devouring dogs, 
and in innumerable other ways, were vexed, tortured, and put to 
death. 

2. The persecution which Domitian instigated, took place in the 
year 95. It is computed that 40,000 persons suffered martyrdom at 
that time. 

3. The persecution which existed in the reign of Trajan, began 
in the year 100, and was carried on with great violence for several 
years. 

4. The persecution which was permitted by Antoninus, commen- 
ced in the year 177. Many indignities, deprivations and sufferings 
were inflicted on the Christians in this persecution. 

5. The persecution under Severus, began in the year 197. Great 
cruelties were committed at this time against the patient followers 
of Christ. 

6. The persecution which Maximinus ordered, began in 235. It 
was the more severe to the sufferers from the indulgence they had 
enjoyed under the reign of his predecessor, Alexander Severus. 

7. The persecution under Deems, began in 250. It was the most 
dreadful hitherto known. The Christians were in all places driven 
from their habitations, stripped of their estates, tormented with 
racks, &c. 

8. The date of the persecution under Valerian, is 257. Both men 
and women suffered death, some by scourging, some by the sword, 
and some by fire. 

9. The persecution by Aurelian, was in 274. But this was incon- 
siderable compared with the others before mentioned. 

10. The persecution in which Diocletian was concerned, com- 
menced in 295. This was a terrible persecution. It is related that 
17,000 were slain in one month's time. The enemies of Christianity 
dad the presumption to think " that the name and superstition of the 
Christians" had been effaced from the empire. The period, however, 
was just at hand, (a salutary lesson to persecutors,) when this holy 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 415 

faith was to rise on the ruins of all the former religions of the Ro- 
man people. 

During these persecutions, Christians multiplied, and Christianity 
became a principle of life and power to the hearts of its votaries. 
So long as their profession of religion was attended with danger — so 
long as they had the prospect of the dungeon, the rack, or the fag- 
got, their lives were pure and heavenly. The gospel was their only 
source of consolation, and they found it in every respect, sufficient 
for all their wants. Affected with mutual sufferings, they sympa- 
thised most tenderly with each other, and their Lord's new command 
of brotherly love, was never fulfilled in a more exemplary manner. 

3. The Church, at the commencement of the second era, 
was externally prosperous and flourishing. The storm of 
pagan persecution had ceased, and Christianity was support- 
ed by the Roman government. Under Constantino the Great, 
that government (which had long included the limits of the 
civilized world) changed from a persecuting to a protecting 
power. But its love was more fatal to the real interests ol 
the Church than its hate. Evils soon began to arise within, 
produced or aided by the aggrandizement it received without, 
which eventually reduced the Church to the lowest state of 
spiritual weakness and degradation. Worldly prosperity pro- 
duced pride, ambition, emulation, luxury, and many other 
vices equally opposed to the spirit of the gospel. The mix- 
ture of pagan philosophy and superstition exceedingly de- 
based the purity of religion, and the general ignorance which 
prevailed during the dark ages, rendered ineffectual its hea- 
venly truths. 

Among the more important particulars constituting this 
state of things, or affording proof of the disorders of the 
church and the consequent degeneracy of the people through 
this long period, may be named the Arian and Pelagian 
heresies, the institution of monkery, image worship, the 
establishment of the papal supremacy, the passion for relics 
and pilgrimages, the separation between the eastern and 
western churches, the crusades, sale of absolution and indul- 
gences, the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses, the 
inquisition, the great western schism, the bulls and interdicts 
of the popes, and the contention of scholastic divines. 

§ These and several others are interesting objects of attention in 
this portion of the church's history ; but except so far as a few of 
them have been already treated of separately, recourse for informa- 
tion must be had to more extended accounts 



416 GENERAL VIEWS. 

4. Towards the commencement of the third era, the re 
hgious state of the world was deplorable. All Christendom 
was held in bondage to the papal power. Corruption, both 
in doctrine and practice, prevailed to an extent before un- 
known. The Reformation of religion, which is the distinc- 
tion of the present era, was therefore greatly needed ; and we 
have the satisfaction of exhibiting the christian church under 
the influence of so propitious a change. The greater part ol 
this body adhered to the papacy, and perhaps still adheres to 
it ; but though the whole of Christendom did not participate 
in the reformation, the whole may have derived benefit from 
it indirectly. The reformed, which is also called the protes- 
tant* faith, spread rapidly at the beginning, and even now, 
from the increase of the population in nations embracing this 
faith, as well as from efforts made to diffuse it abroad, it is 
favourably extending its influence. 

The date of the great event of which we speak, is 1517, 
and the instrumental agent whom Providence employed in 
bringing it to pass, was Martin Luther. The immediate oc- 
casion of the reformation was the sale of indulgences, which 
had been authorized by Leo X., in order to furnish the means 
of gratifying his taste or extravagances. This traffic having 
been intrusted to the care of one John Tetzel, an insolent 
and dishonest wretch, attracted the notice of Martin Luther. 
His indignation was first excited by the base manner in 
which it was carried on ; but from noticing the mode, he was 
led to inquire into the thing itself, and his eyes were soon 
opened to the enormity of the principle which it involved, 
and the nefarious character of the whole system. ProiB this 
period his opinions were openly and boldly expressed, on the 
various errors which he found prevailing in the Church, and 
many were convinced on the subject by his preaching and 
writings. Hence the memorable rupture and revolution which 
took place — the blessed effects of which have been more and 
more felt from that age to the present. 

§ During his life time the benevolent labours of Luther were bless- 
ed in no small degree, and around him gathered a host of able and 

* So called from the protest which the elector of Saxony and other princes, 
•Entered against a decree of the diet at Spires, in 1520, by which every depar- 
ture from the Catholic faith and discipline was forbidden, till a general council 
should be assembled. 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 417 

godly men, who proved to be, in many instances, the most efficient 
coadjutors. Among these were Carolstadt, Melancthon, Zuinglius, 
Bucer, Oecolampadius, Martyr, Calvin, and Beza. Several of the 
princes of Germany were his patrons, and afforded him the most 
essential aid, among whom especially were Frederick the Wise, and 
John his brother, electors of Saxony. 

The new opinions were not long confined to Germany. Through 
the oppressive measures of the papacy, as much as' by any other 
cause, they were diffused abroad among the neighbouring nations 
Sweden, Denmark, and Switzerland, participated in the reforma- 
tion, and it found many friends in France, the Netherlands, Spain, 
Hungary, and Bohemia. In England, also, it was firmly establish- 
ed, though by an instrumentality at first very different from friend- 
ship to the cause. The passions and obstinacy of Henry VIII., as 
has elsewhere appeared, were, by the providence of God, concerned 
in effecting the religious revolution in that country. In Scotland 
the denunciations of Knox demolished the papal hierarchy. 

The opposition of the Catholic power to the reformation, pro- 
duced in Germany much bloodshed, desolation, and discord. These 
scenes continued till the year 1555, when a treaty was formed at 
Augsburg, called the Peace of Religion, which established the Re- 
formation, inasmuch as it secured to all the inhabitants of Germany 
the free exercise of their religion. The protestant princes of that 
country never at any time ceased their exertions, till this desirable 
result was brought to pass. 

5. A few years after the establishment of the reformation, 
the countries of Europe which favoured it and became pro- 
testant, were Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Prussia, England, 
Scotland, Ireland, and Holland. One half of Germany, and 
a small majority in Switzerland, embraced the reformation 
The countries which adhered to Rome were Italy, Spain- 
Portugal, the Belgic Provinces under the Spanish yoke. 
France became decidedly papal, though at first the hope was 
entertained that she would favour the protestant cause. A 
goodly number, however, of the French population were 
protestants. 

That portion of the professed Christian body which con- 
stituted the Eastern or Greek church, was not affected by 
the revolution in the West. Though religion in this church 
was then at a very low ebb, and the church had experienced 
many external calamities, corruption and error had not made 
so fatal a progress in the East, as among the Latins. Rus- 
sia and a part of European Turkey were the seat of the 
Greek religion. Many of its professors, however, were found 
in various countries of Asia and Africa. In 1589, the Rus- 



418 GENERAL VIEWS. 

sian church separated from the government, though not from 
the communion, of the Greek church — a circumstance which 
has reduced the latter to an inconsiderable body. 

§ As the Russian and Greek branches of the Christian church need 
not be referred to again, it may be added, that they have undergone 
but few changes in more modern times— perhaps some improvement 
is visible. Still they seem to be little acquainted with evangelical 
piety, are in general destitute of the Bible, and consequently involv- 
ed in ignorance. Their numbers are variously estimated. Hassel 
makes them seventy-four millions, which is the highest calculation. 
Members of the Greek church are at present found scattered over a 
considerable part of Greece, the Ionian isles, Wallachia, Moldavia, 
Eg}rpt, Abyssinia, Nubia, Lybia, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Cilicia, 
and Palestine. 

It must suffice for a rapid survey of the Roman and Protestant 
churches, from the time that their separation was consummated to 
the present era, to notice the following particulars. 

First, the Roman church. — Desperate efforts were made by the 
popes to regain their lost power, but on the whole with little effect. 
The means which they used, as enumerated in a recent interesting 
publication,* were principally these four. 1. The employment of 
the order of Jesuits, formed in the year 1540, by Ignatius Loyola, 
whose object was to go forth, as advocates of the papal power. 
2. An attempt to christianize the heathen, in several parts of Asia 
and South America. 3. The better regulation of the internal con- 
cerns of their church. 4. The persecution of the protestants. In 
regard to the last, it may be observed, that scarcely a country, in 
which protestants were to be found, but was the scene of awful suf- 
ferings. Our blood boils with indignation at the thought, that cru- 
elties which would have disgraced Domitian, wore inflicted by the 
minions of the papacy, under the sanction of the mild religion of 
the Saviour, upon his own followers. In these persecutions, fi f ty 
millions of protestants are computed to have perished, principally 
in Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, France, parts of Germany, and 
England. 

But all the efforts of the Roman church were in vain, except as by 
propagating her religion in heathen countries, she was for a time 
nominally mistress of greater numbers of mankind than before. 
Several causes have contributed to weaken, essentially, her 
power, wealth and splendour. These, as enumerated in the work 
above referred to, are, 1. The loss of foreign conquests. 2. Un- 
successful contests with several European governments. 3. The 
suppression of the order of the Jesuits. 4. The revolution in 
France. 5. The abolition of the inquisition. 

The statistics of the Roman church, as it exists at the present 
day, are as follows : 

The temporal dominions of the pope, are a small territory in 

* Outlines of Ecclesiastical History, by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich. 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 419 

Italy, south of the Po, containing 15,000 square miles, and 2,500,000 
inhabitants. 

Its ecclesiastical subjects are supposed to amount to 80 or 
100,000,000, in all parts of the world. Malte Brim put them down 
at 116,000,000. 

The countries where they most abound, are the pope's dominions 
in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and South America. These are considered 
entirely papal. France, Austria, Poland, Belgium, Ireland, and Ca- 
nada, are chiefly papal. Switzerland has 700,000 ; England half a 
million, and the United States about that number. Others are found 
in Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and the West Indies. The pope is at 
present making great efforts to extend his influence in the United 
States ; but it is believed either that the system cannot widely pre- 
vail here, or if from any temporary causes, it is destined to meet 
with some successes, that it will be in a degree modified by the ge- 
nius of our institutions, and not be the dark, intolerant, cruel, and 
licentious system that it has been in other countries. 

Second, the Protestants. — A diversity soon took place among those who se- 
parated from the fellowship of Rome. A general division of the protestants i3 
into the Lutheran church, and the Reformed churches. 

1. Lutheran Church. — The Lutherans, as the name imports, were the im- 
mediate followers of Luther, who consider their church as having been es- 
tablished at the time of the pacification at Passau, 1552. Their standard of 
faith is the Augsburg confession. They suffered far less from the persecu- 
tions of the times than the other portions of the reformed church, though they 
were unhappily engaged in a controversy among themselves, relating to various 
points of faith and practice. 

These controversies were followed by a low state of religion ; and this by ef- 
forts which many of the better sort made to bring about a happier state of 
things. Some good was done by the Pietists, (so this class of people were 
called,) but far less than might have been, had not their views and principles 
been misconceived or opposed. The Pietists flourished about the middle of 
the seventeenth century, but they degenerated after a time, and were suc- 
ceeded by a set of wild religionists, who did much mischief to the cause of god- 
liness. To counteract this evil, the system of the Neologists was introduced, 
which consisted in the application of human philosophy to the interpretation 
of the Bible. The remedy was as bad as the disease, and the Gospel, stripped 
of its peculiarities, has become a dead letter very extensively in Germany. It 
is believed, however, that a better spirit is now commencing in some parts of 
the Lutheran church, while it is a happiness to know that, in other parts of it, 
both in Germany and the neighbouring churches, there are those who have all 
along maintained their integrity. 

In regard to the statistics of the Lutheran church, it may be observed, that 
portions of it are found chiefly in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, in a great 
part of Germany, particularly in the north, and in Saxony and Prussia, where 
Lutheranism is the established religion. Churches of this denomination also ex- 
ist in Holland, France, Russia, North America, and in the Danish West In- 
dies. The number of Lutherans is probably between fifteen and twenty millions. 

2. Reformed Churches. — These are numerous, and little more than their 
names can be here mentioned. The term " Preformed" was a title iriginally 
assumed by those Helvetic or Swiss churches, which adhered to certain tenets 
of Zuinglius, in relation to the Sacrament. But in latter times it has a wider 
signification, and under if may be included all those sects in Protestant Chris- 
tendom, that dissent from the tenets of the Lutheran church. These are 



420 GENERAL "VIEWS. 

principally the Calvinists, the Church of England, the Presbyterian Church of 
Scotland, the Moravians, the Congregationalists of New-England, the Pres- 
byterian Church in the United States, the Episcopal Church in the United 
States, the Baptists, Methodists, and Quakers. 

1. Calvinists. — The Christians so called, taken loosely for those who ex- 
plain the Bible as Calvin explained it, constituted at first the whole body of the 
Protestants as distinguished from the Lutherans. Protestant Christendom 
even now owns this distinction on the continent of Europe. They were called 
Huguenots in France, and suffered terrible persecutions. They are not known 
as one particular denomination, but constitute a portion of several bodies of 
Christians. They exist in France, Holland, Prussia, Great Britain, and 
other countries in Europe, and extensively in the United States. The sect ol 
Arminians is, as to sentiment, directly opposed to the Calvinists, though per- 
sons of both persuasions are often found together in the same churches. The 
Arminian doctrines began to be propagated at the beginning of the seventeenth 
century. 

2. Church of England. — By this name is known the reformed church as 
established in England and Ireland. Its history is deeply interesting, as it 
passed a bloody ordeal, but there is no space for particulars. The rise of pu- 
ritanism is connected with the history of the church of England, than which 
few events in the records of religion are more important ; but this also must be 
passed over. Dissenters from the church of England are tolerated in the 
United Kingdom. The establishment embraces 5,000,000 of the inhabitants : 
its livings are 10,500. The dissenters, or independents, in England and 
Wales, have more than 1000 congregations. 

3. Presbyterian Church of Scotland. — The date of the establishment of the 
Reformation in Scotland, is about the year 15G0. At this time the Presby- 
terian church in that country began to assume a regular form. This church 
passed through various vicissitudes, and has in general been distinguished for 
the piety of its members. It includes nearly the whole population of Scotland. 

4. Moravians. — The Moravians, or United Brethren, date their modern 
history in 1722. They are an exemplary people, and devoted to missionary 
enterprises. They have settlements in Germany, Denmark, Holland, Eng- 
land, Scotland, Ireland, Russia, and the United States. Their converts among 
the heathen, amount to 30,000. 

5. Congregationalists of New-England. — Under this name are known the 
descendants of a class of the English puritans, who fled from persecution to 
the wilds of America. They began the settlement of New-England, on the 
22d December, 1G20. The sufferings, piety, and success of the fathers of New- 
England Congregationalism, are rich topics in religious history. The Con- 
gregationalists have about 1000 churches in New-England, and about 200 in 
other parts of the United States. 

6. Presbyterian Church in the United States. — This body of Christians 
was originally composed of a few Presbyterians from Scotland and Ireland, 
united to a like number of Congregationalists, chiefly from New-England. 
They have greatly prospered and increased, and are found throughout the 
middle, southern and western states. The number of their churches is nearly 
1900. 

Our limits preclude an account of other reformed churches, several cf which 
are respectable for their character and numbers. 



QUESTIONS 

ON 

OUTLINES OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 

BY REV. ROYAL ROBBINS. 



INTRODUCTION.* 

1. What does the term History compre- 
hend 7-[What are the benefits to be expect- 
ed from history ? What causes it to become 
a source of perpetual interest and enjoy- 
ment ? In what way does history improve 
our understanding, and enlarge our store 
of useful knowledge? How does it teach 
Us wisdom ? What is the most signal bene- 
fit to be derived from the record of past 
ages? What is history, speaking in the 
Way of aphorism ? What other advantages 
result from the study of history ?] 

2. How is history derived to us? W"hat 
are its principal sources ?-[What four other 
sources are mentioned ? What are monu- 
ments, and what are they intended to per- 
petuate? In what way do ruins afford a 
knowledge of antiquity ? What is said of 
coins? What are the most celebrated 
marbles known ? Wnich is the most im- 
portant of the Arundelian Marbles, and 
what does it contain ?] 



General Division. 

How may history be divided? How 
many years does ancient history include ? 
What is its extent? What does modern 
history include? What is its extent? 
What is the name and extent of the first 
period?- [Repeat this question in every pe- 
riod. From what are the periods named?] 

PERIOD I. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod ? 

1. What is the first grand event which 
history pretents? Why is the scriptural 
account the only one worthy of implicit be- 
lief? 

2. Give a brief account of that event as 
there related ?-[What were the occurren- 



ces of the first three days? What was 
done on the fourth day? What on the 
fifth and sixth ? When, and how was man 
created ?. Mention some of the theories 
held by ancient philosophers on this sub- 
j ect. What is the opinion of the Bramins 
and the negroes of Congo on this subject? 
What of Buffon and Darwin ?] 

3. Where were Adam and Eve placed ? 
What was their character and situation? 
-[What opinions have been entertained re- 
lative to the situation of the garden of 
Eden ? From the account given by Moses, 
where may We suppose it to have been sit- 
uated 1] 

4. What were the circumstances of the 
first transgression ?-[What was involved in 
their sin? What was the effect upon crea- 
tion and themselves ? What promise was 
given in connexion with the doom of the 
serpent? To whom did it refer? What 
was the conclusion of this scene?] 

5. When were Cain and Abel born? 
What crime did Cain commit ? What was 
the occasion of it ? What was his punish- 
ment? Where did he dwell after this 
event ? For what was his family famous ? 
■[When is it supposed the murder of 
Abel occurred? When was Seth born? 
Why are his descendants styled the child- 
ren of God? What prepared the way for 
the universal wickedness which soon pre- 
vailed?] 

6. What are the next events related by 
the sacred historian ? What is recorded of 
Enoch ? How far is the sacred genealogy 
minutely given ?-[Where did Adam die? 
What are the conjectures respecting his 
sepulchre ? From whom did the giants of 
those days descend?] 

7. How did God determine to punish the 
wickedness which soon prevailed upon the 
Earth ? How long a space did he give them 
for repentance ? What preacher of right- 
eousness did he send among them ? Why 
were Noah and his family exempted from 
the general destruction ? By what means 



* It will be noticed, that the same order which prevails through the History, is preserved in the 
following Questions— and also that the Questions on that part of the work which is printed on 
the smaller type, aro included in brackets, thus *[ ]. 



atJESTlOttS ON 



was their deliverance accomplished ?-[De- 
sciibe the ark.] 

Distinguished Characters. 
Who were the distinguished characters 
of this period ?-[What further particulars 
can be given of Adam and Eve? What is 
said of Jubal in Scripture ? Who was pro- 
bably among the earliest civilizers of the 
world? In what was Tubal Cain an in- 
structor? What was there peculiar in the 
character and history of Enoch ? For what 
was Methuselah remarkable ?] 

PERIOD II. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 

1. In what manner did God bring the wa- 
ters upon the earth ? How long were they 
poured upon the surface of the globe ? How 
old was Noah when he entered into the ark ? 
Who went in with him ? How long did he 
remain there ? What was his first act on 
coming out of the ark ? Where did he set- 
tle ?-[How high did the waters rise above 
the summits of the highest mountains ? On 
what mountain did the ark rest? When 
did they leave the ark?] 

2. By What is the truth of the account 
given in the Bible, of the deluge, confirmed ? 
-{What nations have had some traditions 
respecting it? What anecdote is related 
on this subject ? How is this fact indicated 
by the surface of the earth?] 

3. What was the covenant which God 
made with Noah after the flood? How did 
he confirm it ? 

4. Why was Canaan, the son of Ham, 
subjected to a curse ?-[What was the age 
of Noah, and how long did he live after the 
flood?] 

5. In what parts of the world did the 
three sons of Noah settle ?-[What nations 
were derived from the immediate descend- 
ants of Shem ? What from Ham ? What 
from Japheth ?] 

6. How long after the flood did all the 
descendants of Noah speak one language ? 
What was the origin of a diversity of 
tongues? What does the name given to 
the city signify ?-[Of what materials was the 
tower built ?] 

7. Why must the history of mankind from 
this time, be given in distinct nations? 

8. Which was the oldest nation ? Where 
and by whom was Assyria founded ? What 
was its capital, and by whom was it built ? 
How long did it continue before it was uni- 
ted to Babylonia ?-[About what time, and 
by whom was Babylonia founded ? Under 
what king was it united to Assyria? By 
whom was the seat of government removed 
to Babylon ?] 

9. How did Semiramis signalize her name? 
•[How far did she extend her conquests?] 

10. By whom was Semiramis succeeded ? 
What was his character, and that of his 
successors ?-[Who was the last of the As- 
syrian kings ? ] 



11. How far do the records of China e.t» 
tend? What different accounts are given 
of the foundation of this empire ?-[Into how 
many dynasties are the sovereigns of China 
divided? Who formed the first dynasty, 
and how long did it last ? What is said of 
Gu-tu? WhatofKy-a?] 

12 What is the character of the early 
annals of Egypt? When, and by whom is 
it supposed to have been founded? What 
four kingdoms arose from the division of 
the land among his children? What cir- 
cumstance prevented the increase of civi- 
lization in this empire? When did this 
event occur, and how long did it last ?-[What 
did Menes accomplish ? Under whose reign 
was the country invaded, and by whom 1 
What king of Thebes was worshipped 
under the name of Mercury? Why was 
Tosorfhros styled Esculapiu's ? What did 
he invent ?] 

Distinguished Characters. 

Who were the distinguished characters 
of this period, and for What were they emi- 
nent ?-[ What is known of Niinrod? What 
is Menes called in Scripture, and what was 
his character ? What more is said of Ninus 
and Semiramis ?] 

PERIOD III. 

What is the name and extent of Period 
Third ? 

1. From whom were the Hebrews de- 
scended? Why, and when was Abraham 
called of God ? Why does the history ot 
the Hebrews instruct us in a different way 
from that of all others ? From whom were 
the twelve tribes into which it was divided, 
named ?-[What is meant by the calling of 
Abraham? What promise did God make 
to his descendants 1 Why was one family 
thus set apart from the rest of mankind? 
To which of Abraham's children was the 
promise made ? Who were tile children of 
Isaac? How did Jacob obtain his father's 
blessing ? Why were his descendants call- 
ed Israelites ? 'Of what nation was E.sau 
the founder ?] 

2. When, and in what manner did Jacob 
close his life ? By what means had he been 
brought into Egypt? What do the occur- 
rences by which Joseph became minister 
to the king of Egypt, show ?-[ What is the 
character of the story of Joseph, as record 
ed in Scripture ? Mention some of the prin 
cipal incidents.] 

3. When did Joseph die ? What was the 
consequence to the Israelites? What 
means did Pharaoh take to prevent their 
increase? What was his success? In 
what way did God prepare for them a deli- 
verer? 

4. From whom were the Caiwanites de 
scended ? How many nations did the term 
Canaanites include ?-[What did they suf- 
fer in consequence of the curse denounced 
against their progenitor V 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



5. What are the first authentic accounts 
of this people ? What judgment was inflict- 
ed on them fifteen years after this event 1 
What change did this effect in the face of 
their country ?-[What peculiarities mark 
this sea, and the adjacent region?] 

6. What other events have been trans- 
mitted to us, relating to this people, during 
this period'? 

7. Is the early history of Greece authen- 
tic ? Where do we find any information 
respecting the descendants of Japheth, du- 
ring this and the preceding period ? From 
what event do we date the commencement 
of Greece ? Who founded Sicyon ?-[Who 
are the greater part of the deities worship- 
ped by the Greeks, supposed to be ? Who 
was Uranus ? Who was Saturn ? What is 
said of Jupiter'?] 

8. Describe the ancient inhabitants of 
Greece.-[What is the most ancient name of 
Greece, and from what is it derived ?] 

9. When did the other states of Greece 
arise? How long did the descendants of In- 
achus retain possession of the throne of 
Argos ? Who founded a second dynasty ?- 
[When, and by whom was the kingdom 
transferred to -Mycenae ? Which were the 
only two States founded by the native 
Greeks? When do we find laws among 
them ? How were they governed previous 
to that event ?] 

10. When, and how was Athens founded ? 
How did Cecrops divide the inhabitants ?- 
[What did Athens afterwards become ?] 

11. Who was the successor of Cecrops, 
and what event occurred during his time ? 
Who was, the third king of Athens, and for 
what is he celebrated ?-[To what does the 
deluge of Deucalion owe much of its im- 
portance? What event occurred during 
the reign of Amphiction?] 

12. Give an account of the founding of 
Corinth. 

13. By whom was Thebes founded ? 
When did Cadmus introduce letters into 
Greece ?-[Of what nation was Cadmus a 
native ?] 

14. By whom, and when was Lacedee- 
mon founded? How long did the govern- 
ment continue in his family ?-[To what did 
the names of Sparta and Lacedeemon pro- 
perly belong ? Where was this state situa- 
ted?] 

15. To what do the events of Egypt, du- 
ring this period, chiefly refer ? When and 
where did Nitocris reign? Is any thing 
known of the other kings of Egypt, during 
this period ?-[What was the character of 
Nitocris ? In what way was Sesostris dis- 
tinguished?] 

16. How long did the second dynasty of 
China continue ? Of how many emperors 
did it consist ?-[What was the character of 
Ching-tang, its founder ? What anecdotes 
are related of two of his successors?] 

Distinguished Characters. 
Who were the distinguished characters 
in this period, and for what were they cele- 



brated ?-[l. Relate the principal incident* 
in the life of Abraham. 
2. What rs known of Melchisedec? 

5. What did Cecrops teach the Atheni- 
ans? 

6. Of how many letters did the alphabet 
consist, which Cadmus introduced into 
Greece ?] 

PERIOD IV. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 

1. What was there remarkable in the 
history of the Israelites at this era ? By 
what means did Moses effect their deliver- 
ance from Egypt ? How long did they wan- 
der in the wilderness ? How far were they 
conducted by Moses ? What is the date of 
this event ?-[Relate the first incident which 
is mentioned after the Israelites left Egypt 1 
What other instances of rebellion against 
God are recorded ? What punishment was 
inflicted on them for these sins? What 
was the sin and punishment of Korah, Da- 
than, and Abiram? When and how did the 
Israelites begin their conquests ?] 

2. What did Joshua accomplish for them? 
How long were they governed by judges 1 
Why did they desire a king?-[By what mi- 
racle did Joshua enter Canaan ? What fol- 
lowed this event ? Why were the Israelites 
often brought into bondage ? Who were in- 
struments of delivering them, on these oc- 
casions ? What is related of Gideon ? Of 
Samson? Of Samuel?] 

3. Who was the first king of Israel? 
When was he anointed, and what was the 
character of his reign ? Who was his suc- 
cessor ? What was his character, and the 
state of the nation under his reign? By 
whom, and when was the foundation of the 
temple laid?-[What more is said of Saul? 
Of David?] 

4. What was the fate of the Canaanites 1 

5. What arts were early cultivated among 
the Phoenicians 7 What were their princi- 
pal kingdoms? With whom was Hiram 
contemporary ?-[What is related of the 
foundation of Sidon and Tyro? How far 
did their trade extend ? In what way did 
their king assist David and Solomon ?] 

6. How is the history of Greece pursued 
during this period? What was done for 
Athens by Theseus ?-[How was he treated 
by its citizens ?] 

7. Why, and when did a change take 
place in their government?- [What anec- 
dote is related of Codrus ? What office waa 
created at his death ?] 

8. How long did the family of Sysiphus 
reign in Corinth ? By whom, and when 
was the last king deposed ? 

9. Give an account of the last great en- 
terprise of the Greeks ?-[What is said of 
the cause and success of this expedition ? 
What games were instituted on their re- 
turn ?] 

10. Mention the two wars which occttr* 
red in Greece during this period. 



QUESTIONS ON 



11. What is the most celebrated event in 
the annals of Greece in this period 
When 'l ; d it commence and terminate'? 
What V'as the consequence to Troy? 
Why was it undertaken ?-[Where was 
Troy situated ? When, and by whom was 
it founded ? What was the character of the 
people ? Relate the circumstances of this 
war. Who of the survivors settled in Italy ?] 

12. When did the war of the Heraclidse 
begin? What was the occasion of it? 
What was the result ? 

13. What was the state of Greece after 
this event? 

14. Who is supposed to have been the 
king of Egypt that was drowned in the Red 
Sea?-[What celebrated work of art was ac- 
complished during this period ? For what 
was Hermes Trismegistes celebrated ? 
What is said of Actisanes? From what 
king of Egypt was the word Proteus de- 
rived ?] 

15. Into how many dynasties' are the 
kings of Lydia divided? When did the 
first begin to reign ? For what were the 
Lydians celebrated ?-[Who is the supposed 
founder of Lydia? Where was this coun- 
try situated ? For what were this people 
early remarkable ?] 

16. At what time did Italy begin to be a 
kingdom ? When did ./Eneas arrive there, 
and how did he become connected with 
their history? Which among the early 
kingdoms of Italy deserves attention ? 
Why are these worthy of notice ?-[What 
reasons are there for supposing that the 
Etruscans were a refined people? From 
whence was Italy probably peopled ? What 
is the story of Latinus and iEneas ?] 

Distinguished Characters. 

Who were the distinguished characters 
of this period, and for what were they emi- 
nent ?-[l. What are the principal events in 
the life of Moses? 

2. What was the first city conquered by 
Joshua ? What more did he do for the Is- 
raelites ? When did he die ? 

3. Relate the story of Orpheus. 

4. What poem appeared in this period, 
and by whom was it written ? 

5. What is said of Samson 1 

6. What of Sancomathon ? 

7. What was the character of David as a 
prince and a poet ? How long did he reign, 
and when did he die ?] 

PERIOD V. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 

1. What was the character of the reign of 
Solomon ? What was the most important 
undertaking of this prince ? By what was 
he characterized? What was the conse- 
quence of his sins to the Israelites ?-[De- 
scribe the Temple.] 

2. When did Rehoboam begin to reign? 
What important event occurred during his 



reign ? Were the kingdoms of Judah an'J 
Israel ever reunited? 

3. What is the character of the kings of 
Israel during this period? What marks 
their history ?-[What is related of Jero- 
boam, their first king? What of Zimrit 
Of Ahab ? Of Jehu ? Of Jehoash ? In 
whose reign were the ten tribes carried to 
Assyria ?] 

4. What, was the character of the kings 
of Judah during this period ? Why were 
the people whom they governed called 
Jews ?-[What occurred during the reign of 
Rehoboam? What was the conduct of Je- 
hoshaphat? What was that of Ahaziah? 
What is recorded of Joash? What of Uz- 
ziah and Jothain ?] 

5. What induced the Greeks to adopt a 
popular form of government ? Who was 
distinguished in this work of reformation 1 

6. When and by whom were the poems 
of Homer introduced into Greece ? What 
was their effect ?-[What is said of Homer 
and his poems?] 

7. What effect had the peculiar institu- 
tions of Lycurgus upon Sparta ? What was 
the form of government introduced by him? 
What appears to have been his sole object? 
When did this change take place ?-[Who 
was Lycurgus ? How did he commence 
reformation ? W T hat were his regulations 
respecting lands, coins, and food? What 
was a part of the ceremony at their public 
meals ? How were the children taught ? 
From what is the term laconic derived? 
How did Lycurgus ensure the observance 
of these laws, and how long did they con- 
tinue in force ? What are some of their de- 
fects ?] 

8. From what time do the Olympic games 
form a certain epoch in history ? 

9. Where was Macedon? When and by 
whom was it founded ? How long did the 
government continue in his line ? 

10. How long a chasm do we find in the 
history of Assyria ? What is recorded 
respecting Pul, one of its last sovereigns ?- 
[What effect had the preaching of Jonah on 
the Ninevites?] 

11. Who was the last of the Assyrian 
monarchs? What occurred during his 
reign? What monarchies arose upon its 
ruins ?-[What was the character and fate of 
Sardanapalus ?] 

12. Who were the most considerable of 
the kings of Egypt during this period ?- 
[What is recorded of Shishak? What ol 
the three others ?] 

13. 13y whom were the Phcenicians go- 
verned during this period ? Why was Dido 
obliged to flee? 

14. When did Dido arrive in Africa? 
What nation dates their history from this 
event? Where did she fix her habitation? 
How did this nation afterwards become 
famous ? What character had this colony ? 
What was the extent of its dominion and 
population in the height of its splendor ?- 
[What were the circumstances of Dido ; 3 
flight?] 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



15. When was there a turn in the events 
oi Italy deserving notice? What was it 1 
Who were Romulus and Remus ?-[6ire an 
account of their early history?] 

Distinguished Characters. 

Who were the distinguished characters 
in this period, and for what were they emi- 
nent HI- What were the writings of Solo- 
mon ? How long did he reign, and when 
did he die ? 

2. What is known of the parentage and 
circumstances of Homer ? By what is his 
poetry characterized? When did his po- 
ems appear in Greece? Who arranged 
them in their present form ? 

3. What is said of Hesiod and his poetry ? 

4. Why did Lycurgus travel in foreign 
countries? 

5. What was there tragical in the death 
of Dido? 

6. Give an account of the life and charac- 
er of Isaiah.] 

PERIOD VI. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 

1. When did Romulus commence the 
building of Rome ? What became of Re- 
mus ? Where was the city situated ? 
What was its early state ?-[What were the 
circumstances which decided its situation?] 

2. What was the character of the regula- 
tiors introduced by Romulus ? 

3. What was the cause of the Sabine 
war ? How long did Romulus reign ? By 
whom was he succeeded? When did this 
occur ?-[How was peace produced between 
the Romans and Sabines ? What occasion- 
ed the death of Romulus ? What was the 
character of Numa and his reign ? What 
were the names and duties of the different 
classes of priests?] 

4. Who was the third king of Rome ? 
When did he begin to reign ? What were 
the effects of his warlike disposition ? 
What was the most remarkable event of 
his reign ?-[Describe this combat.] 

5. What four other kings successively 
governed Rome ? For what was each re- 
markable ? When did the monarchical go- 
vernment end at Rome ?-[What anecdote is 
related of Tullia? What was the occasion 
ofTarquin's expulsion from Rome? Who 
was Brutus, and what part did he take in 
this event?] 

6. What was the form of government 
now introduced at Rome ? To whom was 
the supreme authority committed ? In what 
respect did their power differ from that of 
kings? Who were the first consuls ?- 
[What was the result of a conspiracy form- 
ed against the government ? What was the 
conduct of Brutus on this occasion? In 
what way was Rome saved in the war with 
Porsenna ? What incident led to the con- 
elusion of a peace?] 

7. Why and when did the Latins declare 

r 



war against the Romans ? Why was it ne- 
cessary to create a dictator? What was 
his authority ? How long did it continue 1 
Why were tribunes created? How were 
they elected? What were the duties of 
their office ? To what, number were they 
afterwards increased? When may the 
commencement of the popular government 
of Rome be dated? In what way were the 
liberties of Rome threatened about this 
time ? How was this danger averted ?-[Re- 
peat the story of Coriolanus ?] 

8. What was the state of Athens at the 
beginning of this period? What change 
took place in 648 B. C. ? When and by 
whom were reformations attempted ? How 
was it accomplished ?-[ What was the cha- 
racter of Draco and his laws? What is 
said of Solon ? What were some of his re- 
gulations? What anecdote is related of 
him?] 

9. What usurper appeared in 560 B. C. % 
How long did he and his posterity exercise 
the supreme power ?-[What arts were em- 
ployed by Pisistratus to secure the favour 
of the people ? For what was he eminent? 
How was the democracy restored ? What 
became of Hippias ?] 

10. What effect had the institutions of 
Lycurgus upon the Spartans ? With what 
nation were they almost constantly engaged 
in war? When did the first Messenian 
war commence, and how long did it con- 
tinue? How many other wars were there 
between them ? What was the fate of the 
Messenians ? 

11. What was the state of the kingdom of 
Israel at the commencement of this peri- 
od ? During whose reign did this event oc- 
cur ?-[What was the cause of the taking of 
Samaria by Salmanazar ? What became of 
the Israelites? Who were the Samaritans? 
Why were the ten tribes destroyed as a 
nation ?] 

12. What was the state of the kingdom of 
Judah after the commencement of this pe- 
riod ? When and by whom was Jerusalem 
taken ?-[What were the characters of the 
last kings of Judah ?] 

13. When did the seventy years captivity 
commence? Under what king did this 
event occur ?-[What took place in the reign 
of Zedekiah ?] 

14. When, and under what king, were 
the Jews permitted to return to their na 
tive land ? Who were their leaders ? Did 
their attempts to rebuild the temple meet 
with success? When was it completed? 
How did they celebrate this event ?-[What 
effect had adversity on many of the Jews ?] 

15. Into how many kingdoms was the an- 
cient Assyrian empire divided on the death 
of Sardanapalus ? Which is the first in or- 
der ? Who was the first king of Nineveh ? 
What is the date of this event ? Who are 
some of his successors? By whom was 
this kingdom destroyed? What became oJ 
Belshazzar ? When did this occur ?-[Whai 
is recorded of Sennacherib ? What was 
there remarkable in the life of Nebuchad 



QUESTIONS ON 



nezzar"- How did Belshazzar become pe- 
culiarly infamous? Relate the circum- 
stances of the taking of Babylon?] 

16. How long did Babylon continue a 
separate kingdom? Who was its first 
king ? When, and by whom was it annex 
ed to Nineveh ?-[Did any thing worthy of 
notice occur during the reign of Nabonas- 
sar?] 

17. Which was the last in order of the 
kingdoms which constituted the second 
empire of Assyria ? What was the early 
state of this kingdom? Who was their 
first king, and when was he elected ? How 
did the kingdom of the Medes, and the As- 
syrian empire, become united with that 
of Persia ?-[From whom were the Medes 
descended? What was tho early capital 
of this empire ? What was the fate of De- 
joces ? How did the Scythians obtain a re- 
sidence in Media? How were they de- 
stroyed? Who was king of Media at this 
time ? In what war did he engage ? For 
what was the last battle remarkable ? How 
did Cyrus become king of Media and Per- 
sia?] 

18: What is the elate of Cyrus the Great? 
What was the state of Persia, before and 
after his reign ? What was the character 
of Cyrus? What was the result of his ex- 
pedition against the Scythians ? By whom 
was he succeeded? What did he add to 
the empire? Who was his successor? 
How many years B. C. was this event ?- 
[From whom were the inhabitants of Per- 
sia descended? What incident relating to 
their early history is recorded in Scrip- 
ture ? What was the education of Cyrus ? 
How was he affected by a visit to the court 
of his grand-father Astyages ? What is re- 
lated of his conduct there ? How did he 
obtain an entrance into Babylon? How 
long did he reign over this vast empire 
alone? How long did the Egyptians re- 
main under the Persian yoke ? By what 
stratagem did Cambyses enter Egypt ? In 
whose reign did the Jews rebuild the Tem- 
ple?] 

19. What is said of the dynasties of Lydia 
during this period ? For what was Croesus 
celebrated? By whom was his kingdom 
conquered?- [What occurred, worthy of re- 
mark, in the contest between Cyrus and 
Croesus?] 

20. By whom was Egypt governed during 
this period? When was Egypt conquered 
by Cambyses. king of Persia ?-[What is 
said of Sabbacon? Of Tharaca? What 
connexion had Pharaoh Necho with the 
Jewish history? What was the end of 
Psammenitus ?] 

Distinguished Characters. 

Who were the distinguished characters 
of this period, and for what were they emi- 
nent ?-[l. What is the fable respecting the 
death of Romulus ? 

2. Where was Sappho born, and where 
aid she flourish ? What is her story ? For 
what have her poems been admired 1 



3. When did .55sop flourish? By what 
did he acquire a high reputation ? What 
was his original condition ? What was the 
occasion of his death? 

4. What more is said of Solon ? 

5. Where was Thales born? In what 
sciences was he eminent? When did he 
die, and how old was he ? 

6'. What is related of the death of Cy- 
rus? 

7. What was the character of Anacreon, 
and his writings? 

8. For what was Pythagoras celebra- 
ted?] 

period vn. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod ? 

1. When, and under what king, did the 
Persians invade Greece ? What was the 
size of their fleet and army 1 Where did 
they meet? Who successfully opposed 
them there ? What was the loss on each 
side ? What is the date of this event ?- 
[What was the cause of this war ? Where 
was Marathon situated? How did Milliades 
become sole commander? To what was 
the success of the Greeks owing? What 
treatment did he afterwards receive from 
his countrymen? With what did Greece 
abound at this time ? What is related of 
Themistocles ? What was his character? 
How did he behave under the ungrateful 
treatment of his countrymen ?J 

2. Who prosecuted the war against 
Greece? What, celebrated battles were 
fought in the early part of this war ? What 
is the date of these battles ? Who distin- 
guished themselves in defending their 
country ? What was the size of Xerxes' 
army ? How long was this army resisted 
at the pass of Thermopylae ? By how many 
men ? What was the loss on the side o'f 
the Persians ? Was their progress finally 
arrested? How did the Persians treat 
Athens ?-[What anecdotes are related to 
show the character of Xerxes ? What ci- 
ties refused to send the token of homage 
to the Persian king? Who was Leonidas, 
and where did he meet the Persians? 
What reply did he give Xerxes whon he 
demanded his arms? Describe the battle 
which ensued. What was the success o! 
the Athenian fleet? Who commanded it? 
What was the conduct of Xerxes on wit- 
nessing this defeat? Describe the baitle 
of Plataea. When was the Persian fleet de- 
stroyed ?] 

3. Did Xerxes make any further attempts 
upon Greece ? What became of him ? 
What was the state of the military glory of 
the Greeks? What was the cause of their 
prosperity ? Who was Cimon ? 

4. When did he commence his military 
career ? What were his successes against 
the Persians ?-[How long did the military 
glory of the Greeks continue? What was 
the treatment which Cimon received from 
his countrymen ? In what way did he im- 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



Drove the city ? What anecdotes are re- 
xorded of Aristides ?] 

5. Between whom was the power of 
Athens divided ? Which obtained the con- 
trol in the republic ? What effect had his 
administration upon Athens'? When did 
the Lacedaemonian war commence ? How 
long did Pericles live after its commence- 
ment ? Who succeeded him ? On what 
terms was the Lacedaemonian war closed? 
What Spartan signalized himself in this 
war ?-[What more is said of Pericles ? 
Give an account of his death, and the oc- 
casion of it. What was the cause of the 
Lacedaemonian war? What was the con- 
duct o f Alcibiades, during this war ? What, 
treatment did he receive from the Atheni- 
ans ? Why did the Athenians wish his re- 
turn? In what manner did he return? 
What was the termination of his varied 
life ? What brought the Lacedaemonian 
war to a close ? What was the conse- 
quence to Athens?] 

6. What government was established at 
Athens ? When and by whom was the re- 
publican government re-established ?-[Who 
were the thirty tyrants? How long did 
they continue in authority? What is as- 
cribed to Lysander?] 

7. What occurred to stain the Athenian 
character, about this time ?-[Who was So- 
crates ? What were the distinguishing traits 
of his philosophy? Mention the circum- 
stances of his death ?] 

8. "What celebrated event occurred in the 
year 401 B. C. ? What are the remarkable 
circumstances of this retreat ?-[What was 
the occasion of the Greeks being in such a 
situation ? Who has written an account of 
this retreat? How did Sparta become en- 
gaged in this war ? What was the result to 
Sparta ? When was a peace concluded ?] 

9. Which of the Grecian States became 
distinguished during this period? What 
occasioned the war between this state and 
Sparta? What states assisted Thebes? 
Who were the Theban leaders? What 
celebrated battles were gained by the The- 
bans ? What is the date of these battles? 
What paved the way for the entire subjuga- 
tion of the Grecian states to a foreign pow- 
er ?-[How long was the Theban fortress 
kept by the Spartans ? By whom, and how 
was it received? What was the station and 
character of Epaminondas? To what was 
the success of the Theban army at the bat- 
tle of Leuctra owing? How were these 
two generals treated by their countrymen ? 
Give an account of the death of Epaminon- 
das?] 

10. What change took place in the govern- 
ment of Rome, during this period ? Had it 
not been a democracy before?- [How was 
this change effected?] ! 

11. When, and upon what occasion did 
the Romans choose a Dictator ? Who was 
appointed? What service did he render 
his country ? How long did he retain his 
power ?-[What was the character of Cin- 
cinnatus? What more is said of him?] 



12. When were the Decemviri chosen ? 
For what purpose ? What was the charac- 
ter of their laws ? How many crimes were 
punishable with death ?-[What was the first 
code of laws of the Romans ? In what way 
did the Decemviri exercise their authority ? 
How long did this government last ? What 
tragical event was the cause of its dissolu- 
tion ?] 

13. What important law passed 445 B. C.I 
What was substituted for Consuls, the same 
year? Were the Consuls ever restored? 
When was the office of Censors created? 
What was their duty ?-[What barriers sepa- 
rated the patricians and plebeians ? How 
were they removed? Why was the oflice 
of Censors important ?] 

14. How did the Senate repay themselves 
for their concession to the people ? What 
effect had this on Roman ambition ? 

15. What cities were taken by Camillus? 
When were they taken ?-[What were the 
circumstances of the siege of Veii? What 
occurred during the attack on Falerii? 
What became of Camillus?] 

15, What calamity befel Rome soon after 
these successes? When did this event 
occur '!■ How were they expelled from the 
city ?-[ What was the cause of this invasion? 
What occurred in the Senate house ? How 
was the capital preserved from the general 
ruin ?] 

17. When did the Roman constitution 
undergo another change? What was it? 
What effect had this on the power of Rome ? 
-[What was the cause of this change?] 

18. When, and by whom was the king- 
dom of Egypt restored? How long did it 
continue independent? To what power 
was it then subjected? 

19. With what nation is the history of 
Persia involved during this period ? What 
sovereigns were engaged in this war? 
-[What is said of Artaxerxes I.? What of 
Xerxes II.? What of Artaxerxes II., and 
Ochus ?] 

20. What king first gave Macedon celeb- 
rity ? What advance had he made in con- 
quest, before the birth of his son Alexan- 
der?-^ what way didhe ascend the throne? 
What was his character? What more is 
related of him?] 

Distinguished Characters. 
Who were the distinguished characters 
of this period, and for what were they emi- 
nent ?-[l. What is said of Confucius? 

2. What does the history of Herodotus 
describe? In what dialect was it written, 
and what is its character ? 

3. Of what country was Pindar a native? 
What is said of his compositions? 

4. For what statues was Phidias celebra- 
ted? 

5. What is said of the life of Euripides? 
What of his writings? 

6. For what was Sophocles distinguish- 
ed ? What is said of his writings ? What 
anecdote is related of him? What was the 
occasion of his death? 



QUESTIONS ON 



7. Of what country was Socrates a native ? 
What was his early occupation? What 
was his character ? Why was he condemn- 
ed to die ? What was his belief? 

8. Under what circumstances did Thu- 
cydides write his history of the Peloponne- 
sian war? What are the peculiarities of 
his style ? 

9. Where was Hippocrates born ? How 
did he acquire the knowledge of medicine? 

10. What more can you say of Xeno- 
phon ?] 

PERIOD VIII. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 

1. What was the situation of Greece, at 
the commencement of this period? With 
what nation is their history connected? 
What was the cause of the sacred war? 
How did Philip become engaged in it? 
Who roused the Athenians to oppose him ? 
When was the battle of Cheronea ? How 
were the Greeks treated by Philip ?-[How 
did Philip obtain a place in the Amphicty- 
onic council ? From what is the term Phi- 
lippic derived? What proof is recorded of 
the success of his eloquence ? What great 
expedition was Philip contemplating at the 
time of his death ? How did he die ?] 

2. When did Alexander, the son of Philip, 
enter Greece? What did he do there? 
[How old was he when he began to reign ? 
What is said of his early life ? Describe 
his interview with Diogenes. What was 
the result of his consulting the oracle at 
Delphos ? Did he retain possession of the 
Grecian states without an effort ?] 

3. When did Alexander invade Persia? 
How old was he ? What was the size of 
his army ? What countries did he conquer ? 
How long was he in conquering them? 
Where, and how did he die? What was 
his character ?-[Where was his first bat- 
tle with the Persians fought? What was 
the fruit of this victory ? Where was the 
next encounter? What was the conse- 
quence to the Persians? How did he em- 
ploy himself from this time to the battle of 
Arbela? What is said of this battle? What 
more did he accomplish? What instances 
of amiable feeling are recorded of him?] 

4. How were the possessions of Alexan- 
der divided, immediately after his death ? 
How were they afterwards divided ? Which 
was the most powerful of these divisions ? 
-[How did Alexander's family become ex- 
tinct?] 

5. What was the situation of the Grecian 
states, after the death of Alexander ? What 
and when was the last effort made to revive 
the spirit of liberty ?-[Wha.t was the occa- 
sion of the death of Demosthenes? In 
what respect did he differ from Phocion? 
What was the character and death of Pho- 
cion ? What prevented the success of the 
Achaean league ?] 

6. What was soon to be the fate of Mace- 
donia and Greece? When did Macedonia 



become subject to the Romans? When, 
and by whom was Greece subdued ? What 
was the pretext for attacking Greece ? Un- 
der what name did Greece become a pro- 
vince of Rome?-[What was the occasion 
of introducing the Romans into Greece? 
What was the result to Macedonia, and 
their last king, Perseus? What was the 
fate of Corinth? In what year did this oc- 
cur? What other event renders this year 
important? What is said of Philopoemon ? 
WhatofNabis?] 

7. What was the situation of Rome at the 
commencement of this period? 

8. What nations did the Romans easily 
subdue ? Against whom did they then turn 
their arms? How long were they engaged 
in this war ? What nation did they subju- 
gate in the mean time? [What was the 
country of the Samnites ? What remarka- 
ble instance of bravery occurred during the 
war with this nation ? What incident in the 
war with the Latins shows the sternness of 
Roman virtue ?] 

9. What mortification did the Roman army 
experience during the war with the Sam- 
nites? When were they subdued? What 
nation shared their fate ?-[Relate the cir- 
cumstances of the disgrace of the Romans?] 

10. When were the Romans engaged in 
war with the Tuscans ? What general de- 
feated them? What was the most impor- 
tant war in which they were engaged at 
this time? How did Pyrrhus become en- 
gaged with the Romans? What was the 
success of his attack on them? When did 
all Italy submit to the Romans .'-[What 
anecdote illustrates the ambition of Pyr- 
rhus ? To what was he indebted for his 
first successes in Italy? What was his 
fortune in Sicily ? What instance of gene- 
rosity is mentioned? What was the condi- 
tion of the States of Italy after they were 
conquered by the Romans ?] 

11. What was the occasion of the first 
Punic war? When did it commence? 
How long did it last? What exception is 
mentioned to the general success of the 
Romans? What reasons were there for 
supposing that the Romans would not suc- 
ceed in their naval engagements ? Where 
was the principal scene of this war ? On 
what terms did the Carthaginians conclude 
a peace ?-[What was the object of both 
nations? What was the success of the 
naval engagements? What orders were 
given to Regulus ? Why did he wish to re- 
turn home ? How were the Carthaginians 
enabled to defeat him? In what way did 
he show uncommon devotedness to his 
country ? What was the condition of Sicily 
after this war ?] 

12. How long did the peace between 
Rome and Carthage continue ? Over what 
nations did the Roman arms triumph? 
How often had the temple of Janus been 
shut since the foundation of the city ? How 
did the Romans employ themselves during 
this interval ?-[What was the cause of tlio 
war with the Illyrians and Gauls ?] 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



13. How did the Carthaginians improve 
this season of peace? How was the se- 
cond Punic war commenced'? Who was 
the leader in this war? When did this 
war commence,, and how long did it last? 
Where was the war at first carried on? 
With what success ? Why was Hannibal 
obliged to leave Italy ? What finally deci- 
ded the fate of the war? On what terms 
did the Carthaginians obtain a peace? 
[What oath did Hannibal take when a child? 
What was his character and habits ? De- 
scribe the course of Hannibal from Africa 
to Italy. How old was he, and what was 
the number of his troops ? What battles 
were lost by the Romans? What were 
the circumstances of the battle of Cannae? 
What is said of Paulus iEniilius ? To what 
causes can you attribute the future ill suc- 
cess of Hannibal? Under whom were the 
Romans again victorious ? By what means 
did Fabius conduct the war prosperously? 
Who reduced Spain? What was the fate 
of Asdrubal? Why did Scipio carry the 
war into Africa? What was the character 
of Scipio? What was the loss to the Car- 
thaginians at the battle of Zama? What 
more is said of Hannibal ? When did the 
second Punic war end ?] 

14. What other victories were obtained 
by the Romans ?-[What was the war with 
Philip called ?] 

15. What war commenced in 192 B. C. ? 
What was the result of this war ? What 
was the cause of it? What was the conse- 
quence of these successes to Rome? 

16. What is said of the government of 
Sicily? With what nation were they fre- 
quently at war ? When were they brought 
under the Roman sway?-[What were the 
circumstances of the early settlement of 
this island ? By whom was Syracuse found- 
ed ? Who established a tyrannical govern- 
ment there? What was the character of 
his successor, Dionysius the younger? 
Who effected his first banishment? Who 
his second ? By whom was this city taken ? 
What interesting anecdote is connected 
with the taking of this city ?] 

17. When, and under what monarch did 
the kingdom of Syria arise into import- 
ance ? To whom did it fall on the first di- 
vision of Alexander's empire? How did 
Seleucus obtain it? What were the sove- 
reigns of this kingdom called ?-[By whom 
was Syria settled? What do we learn of 
the kings of Syria from the Bible ?] 

18. How did Seleucus obtain possession 
of Macedonia? What prevented his re- 
taining it?-[Who was the successor of Se- 
leucus, and what is related of him? What 
is said of Antiochus Theos ? Who reigned 
between him and Antiochus the Great? 
Relate the principal events of his reign? 
What occurred during the reign of Seleu- 
cus Philopater? What was the occasion 
of the death of his successor Antiochus 
Epiphanes? What is said of the other so- 
vereigns during this period?] 

20. What do we notice in the history of 



the Jews at the commencement ct this pe- 
riod? What was their state under th* 
kings of Persia? When did this prosper- 
ous state expire ?-[What particular favours 
did they receive under Artaxerrxes ? What 
abuses were reformed by Nehemiah and 
Joiada? How was Alexander the Greai 
met by the high priest?] 

21. What was the state of the Jews after 
323 B. C. ? What was the consequence of an 
invasion of Antiochus Epiphanes ? When 
were the Syrians driven from Judea 
Who was the leader of the Jews on this 
occasion ?-[Relate the circumstances of the 
invasion of Judea by Ptolemy governor of. 
Egypt? When, and by whom was the 
translation of the Bible called the Septua- 
gint made ? What led the Jews to revolt 
from Antiochus ? How was his death con- 
nected with this event ? What was the fate 
of Judas Maccabeus?] 

22. What was the state of Egypt when 
conquered by Al exander the Great ? What 
change took place after his death? When 
did this event occur? How long did the 
Ptolemeean dynasty last? Who was the 
last sovereign ? How many of this dynasty 
are included in this period?-[Who were 
these princes, and what is said of them?] 

23. When does the history of Parthia 
begin? By whom was it founded? Of 
what did it at first consist? What are the 
successors of Arsaces called ?-[What did 
the Parthian empire include? To whom 
had Parthia been subject? What was the 
occupation of the Parthians?] 

24. What was the character of the Arsa- 
cidae? How far did Mithridates I. extend 
his dominions? 

25. What is the date of the commence- 
ment and close of the third dynasty of Chi- 
na ? How many emperors did it include, 
and what is it called ? When did the fourth 
dynasty begin and terminate ? How many 
emperors did it include ? What is it called? 
-[What is related of Chaus? What wasj 
accomplished by Ching ? What is said of 
his ambition?] 

Distinguished Characters. 

Who were the distinguished characters 
in this period, and for what were thev emi- 
nent ?-[l. What is said of the life, charac- 
ter, and manners of Plato ? What of his 
writings? What truth did he maintain 
with powerful arguments ? 

2. When did Apelles live ? What is said 
of his pictures? 

3. Mention the principal circumstances 
in the life of Alexander. What anecdotes 
are recorded of him which exhibit amiable 
feelings ? 

4. What difficulties stood in the way of 
Demosthenes' ever becoming a great ora- 
tor ? How did he overcome them ? How 
did he die? 

5. What was the peculiarity of Aristotle's 
mind ? What is said of his writings, habits, 
and appearance t Where did he teach phi- 



10 



QUESTIONS ON 



losophy 1 Relate the circumstances of his 
death. 

6. Where did Euclid live, and where did 
ne flourish 2 For what was he distinguish- 
ed? 

7. When and where did Theocritus live ? 
What was the character of his writings'? 
What was the cause of his death ? 

8. Of what country was Zeno a native ? 
What influenced him to devote his life to 
philosophy ? Where did he deliver his in- 
structions? What was his character and 
habits ? 

9. In what way did Archimedes assist in 
defending the city of Syracuse, when be- 
sieged by the Romans ?] 

PERIOD IX. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod ? 

1. What was the state of the Roman peo- 
ple in this and several succeeding periods ? 
When was Carthage conquered by the Ro- 
mans? How long was the war? Who 
were the aggressors ? What was the result 
to Carthage as a city and nation?- [What 
measures did the Carthaginians take to pre- 
vent this war ? What demands were made 
upon them by the Romans ? How did, they 
receive them? How did they defend the 
city, and with what success ? In what way 
were they attacked by Scipio ? What other 
circumstances relating to the destruction of 
the city are mentioned?] 

2. What defeat did the Romans suffer 
about this time ? What success attended 
their arms in Spain after this defeat ? When 
did Spain become a Roman province ?-[What 
were the principal events of this war?] 

3. What was the state of Rome 133 years 
B. C. ? What was the occasion of the 
death of Tiberius Gracchus? Why was 
his brother Caius Gracchus obnoxious to 
the nobles? What was his fate?-[Who 
were the Gracchi ? What is related of her ? 
What circumstance occasioned the death 
of Tiberius? What was the character of 
Caius Gracchus? To what were these tu- 
mults a prelude ?] 

4. What were the conquests of the Ro- 
mans abroad about this time ? When did 
the war with Jugurtha commence and 
close? How many of the Numidian army 
were slain? What became of Jugurtha? 
What Roman generals commanded in this 
war?-[Who was Jugurtha? How did he 
obtain the crown of Numidia ? What was 
the state of the war when Marius succeeded 
to the command? What was the character 
of Marius? How did he obtain possession 
of Jugurtha?] 

5. In what war were the Romans again 
engaged under Marius ? What was the oc- 
casion of the Social war ? What was the 
result of this war? 

6. When did the Mithridatic war com- 
mence? Where had Sylla distinguished 
himself? Why was his appointment to this 
expedition the cause of dreadful dissensions 



in Rome ? How long was Sylla absent, ami 
what was his success ?-[Who was Mithri- 
dates, and over what countries did he ex- 
tend his dominion? What were his means 
for carrying on a war with Rome ? On 
what pretence did the Romans attack him? 
Who was Sylla and what was his character ? 
With what act of cruelty did Mithridates 
commence this war ? What was the suc- 
cess of the two battles which succeeded? 
Why did both parties desire a cessation ol 
arms ?] 

7. When did the contention between Ma- 
rius and Sylla begin? What was the con- 
duct of Sylla when recalled to Rome ? How 
did he enter the city? -What was his suc- 
cess? Why did Sylla return into Asia? 
What occurred during his absence ?-[Who 
was Cinna, and what was his character ?] 

8. Was Sylla victorious in Asia ? What 
was his conduct on his return to Rome? 
-[By whom was the army headed which 
opposed Sylla ? What was the consequence 
of this battle? With what purposes did 
Sylla enter Rome ? How far did he extend 
the work of destruction?] 

9. How was Sylla enabled to support this 
violence ? When did this dictatorship com- 
mence and how long did it last ? After this 
time what was the government of Rome ? 
What was the character of Sylla's dictator- 
ship ? How were the Romans freed from 
this tyrant ? What motives led him to re- 
linquish his authority ?-[What more is re- 
lated of him ?1 

10. What was the situation of Syria un- 
til it became a province of Rome ? When 
did that event occur ?-[Who w T ere the first 
two of the Seleucidse of the present era, 
and what is said of them ? Who succeed- 
ed, and what occurred in his reign ? Why 
did the Syrians exclude the Seleucidae 
from the throne? How did they accom- 
plish it? Who reigned after Tigranes? 
Who reduced Syria to a Roman province ?] 

11. What was effected for the Jews by 
the brothers of Judas Maccabseus ? What 
was accomplished by John Hyrcanus ? 
For what was he celebrated? When and 
how long did he reign? What two offices 
were united in him and continued in his 
family? By what appellation are his de- 
scendants distinguished ?-[What more is 
said of Hyrcanus ? Who was Aristobulus, 
and what "is recorded of him?] 

12. What was the state of Egypt during 
this period? How many cities did these 
states include ?-[What was the first Ptolemy 
of this period called? What was his cha- 
racter ? Who was his successor, and what 
is recorded of him '.'] 

13. What was the situation of Parthia 
during this period ? Who were its prin- 
cipal sovereigns ?-[On what occasion were 
the Chinese first known to appear abroad?] 

Distinguished Characters. 

Who were the distinguished characters 
in this period, and for what were they 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



11 



eminent ?-[l. Relate the principal circum- 
stances in the life of Polybius. What his- 
tory did he write, and what is its charac- 
ter? 

2. When did Apollodorus flourish, and 
what did he write ? 

3. Of what kind of writing was Lucilius 
the founder ? What is said of him by 
Blackwell? 

4. What anecdote is recorded of Ma- 
rius ?] 

PERIOD X. 

What i3 the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 

1. What was the state of Rome at the 
commencement of this period"? What dis- 
tinguished character made his appearance 
at this time ? What was his first military 
enterprise, and how was it rewarded? 
What were his next exploits ?-[What ap- 
peared from this time to be his object? 
What advantages did Caesar possess for ob- 
taining office and popularity ? What remark 
was made of him by Cicero ?] 

2. What contentions broke out after the 
death of Sylla? How were they termina- 
ted ?-[What was the occasion of the war 
between Catulus and Lepidus ? What was 
the rusult ? Who was Sertorius ? What 
was the origin of his war? By whom was 
it terminated? Relate the cause, progress, 
and close of the Servile war.] 

3. Which was one of the most important 
wars in which Rome Was ever engaged ? 
By what means had Mithridates rendered 
himself formidable to the Roman power ? 
By whom was he defeated ? To what 
were his successes afterwards owing? By 
what general was this powerful enemy 
finally subdued? When did the war ter- 
minate ?-[How long was Mithridates the 
enemy of Rome ? How was he enabled to 
maintain so long a contest? By what 
means had Pompey acquired his populari- 
ty? Why did not this great authority 
which was given him by the people, render 
him dangerous to their liberties ? Relate 
Jhe events of this war. What was the fate 
of Mithridates?] 

4. After the defeat of Mithridates, what 
did Pompey accomplish ? When, and how 
did he enter Rome ?-[What nations did 
Pompey make experience the power of 
Rome in this expedition? 'What is said of 
lis triumph? What was the amount of 

.reasores carried to Rome ? Was the real 
prosperity of Rome increased by these vic- 
tories?] 

5. Who was Sergius Catiline ? By what 
is he rendered conspicuous? How was his 

{>roject frustrated ? What became of Cat" 
ine? What gave Cicero so much renown 

6. What Was the occasion of Pompey's 
contention with Crassus? For what was 
Ca;sar aspiring? How did he endeavour to 
accomplish his object ? What arose out of 
this union? When did this occur? How 
were the power and popularity of Caesar 



strengthened ? What effect had the trium- 
virate on the liberties of Rome? 

7. How did these three individuals divide 
the empire ? Of what base acts was Caesar 
guilty before he departed to his govern 
ment ? On what pretext was this accom- 
plished ? By whom was he recalled from 
exile ?-[What was the character of Cicero 1 
How was his banishment accomplished? 
When, and why was he recalled by Pom- 
pey ?] 

8. Of what country was Ceesar the go- 
vernor? How did he conduct himself 
there? When did he invade and subdue 
Britain ?-[Give an account of his conquests 
during the nine years he remained governor 
of Gaul.] 

9. What put an end to the Triumvirate ? 
To what did Caesar and Pompey aspire after 
this event ? What was the comparative 
strength of each ? What was the result of 
the ambition of these two individuals ? 
Where did they meet in battle ? What was 
the consequence to Pompey and his army ? 
What is the date of this event?- [What 
propositions were made by Caesar to the 
senate before he turned his arms against 
his country ? Why did they not comply 
with them ? What c ircumstances are men- 
tioned respecting Caesar's entrance into 
Italy ? What was his reception there ? 
Where did Pompey go? How long was 
Caesar in subduing Spain ? To what offices 
was he chosen ? What was the situation of 
Pompey's army ? Where did the opposing 
armies first meet ? What was the result ? 
What anecdote is related to illustrate the 
character of Caesar? Where was their 
next meeting? What was the difference 
in the respective armies? What determin- 
ed the fate of the battle ? What was the 
loss on the part of Caesar ? How were the 
vanquished treated by him? Relate the 
tragical fate of Pompey ?] 

10. By what means, and when, did Egypt 
become a Roman province ? Whom didhe 
subdue two years after this?-[What indu- 
ced Caesar to engage on the side of Cleopa- 
tra? How did he convey the report of the 
reduction of Pharnaces to Rome?] 

11. Why was it necessary for Caesar to 
hasten to Rome ? Who had taken up arms 
in Africa ? What was the result ? When 
did Caesar return in triumph to Rome ? 
How did he obtain the favour of the peo- 
ple? What honours and titles were be- 
stowed upon him ?-[Relate the story of 
Cato.] 

12. When, and why did Caesar go again 
into Spain ? What was his success ? To 
what did he now turn his attention ? How 
did he use his power ? What did he ac- 
complish ? 

1 3. How and wh en was h i s brilliant course 
ended? What was the cause of this con- 
spiracy against him?-[As Caesar possessed 
the power, why was it supposed that he 
wished the title of king ? By whom was the 
conspiracy headed ? Was there any rea- 
son for supposing that Brutus would not 



12 



QUESTIONS ON 



have been engaged in it ? Mention the par- 
ticulars of the death of Caesar. How many- 
lives were sacrificed before Caesar reach- 
ed his elevation ? By what is the darkness 
of his character relieved?] 

14. What peculiar state of things was 
produced by the death of Caesar? What 
obliged the conspirators to flee ? When 
was the second triumvirate formed ? Of 
Whom did it consist? What stipulation 
did they make among themselves ?-[Who 
suffered in consequence of this stipula- 
tion?] 

15. What engagement took place at Phi- 
lippi, which decided the fate of the empire ? 
When did it occur ? By whom was it won ? 
What effect had this battle on Roman liber- 
ty? How did Brutus and Cassius escape 
the hands of their enemies ?-[How was 
this battle lost by the republicans ? How 
was Brutus affected by the death of Cas- 
sius ? Why did Brutus take the field again ? 
What was his fate ? What were the mili- 
tary talents of Octavius ? How did he gain 
his popularity ?] 

16. In what way did Octaviua and An- 
thony employ themselves, after they had 
banished Lepidhs ?-[Who had been admit- 
ted into a share of power and possessions of 
the triumvirate ? How was he disposed of?] 

17. What was the consequence of Antho- 
ny's summoning the queen of Egypt to an- 
swer for hex disaffection to the Roman go- 
vernment? What were the immediate 
causes of the war between him and Octa- 
vius ? ■ Where and when did they come to 
an engagement ? What was the conduct of 
Cleopatra and Anthony on this occasion? 
What terms did she offer Octavius ? What 
were the designs of Octavius respecting 
Cleopatra? How were they frustrated? 
What became of Anthony? What was 
now the situation of Octavius ? When did 
Egypt become a Roman province ?-[What 
was the character of Anthony ? What was 
the amount of forces collected at the battle 
of Actium? What decided the fate of this 
battle ?] 

18. What was now the state of the Ro- 
man empire ? What was Octavius called ? 
What was his power? In what way did 
he almost efface the memory of his former 
cruelties ? For what was his reign remark- 
able ? What is the most important event 
which ever took place in our world ?-[At 
what peculiar crisis did our Saviour appear? 
Was the administration of Augustus favour- 
able to liberty? Why was" an absolute 
government necessary to the tranquillity of 
Rome ? What offices and titles did Augus- 
tus take ? Through whose advice did he 
retain his usurped authority ? Of what was 
Mecaenas a patron? What anecdotes are 
related of Augustus? How long was his 
reign? For what purpose were the few 
wars in which he was engaged carried on ? 
What was the most serious disaster he ex- 
perienced ? Give an account of his domes- 
tic life. When and where did he die ?] 

19. Why can little be said respecting 



other nations during this period? What 
was the state of the Asmonean dynasty at 
this time ? When and how was Antipater 
placed upon the throne ?-[What became of 
Aristobulus ?] 

20. When did Herod the Great become 
king of Judea? Who was he, and what 
was the character of his reign ?-[What oc- 
currences of his reign are noticed?] 

21. What kings of the Lagidee family oc- 
cupied the throne of Egypt during this pe 
riod ? With whom did it end ? How long 
had they reigned in Egypt? How was it 
governed afterwards?- [What was the his- 
tory of Cleopatra, before the arrival of 
Anthony in Egypt? What is said of her 
personal appearance and manners ? What 
is related of her by Pliny ? Mention the 
remaining circumstances of her history.] 

22. What is said of Parthia, during this 
period ?-[What was the result of the expe- 
dition of Crassus against Parthia? What 
is said of Orodes and Phraates ?] 

Distinguished Characters. 

Who were the distinguished characters 
in this period, and for what were they emi- 
nent ?-[l. Of what country was Lucretius 
a native? What were his tenets? What 
is the character of his writings ? 

2. From whom was Julius Caesar de- 
scended? What did Sylla say of him? 
Mention the principal events in his life. 
Was he distinguished except in war ? 
What writings of his are extant, and for 
what are they admired ? 

3. Who was the father of Latin elo- 
quence, and the greatest orator Rome ever 
produced? For what was he styled the 
father of his country ? Why was he ba- 
nished? How did he incur the anger of 
Anthony ? How did he die ? For "what is 
he to be admired ? 

4. Against whom was the satire of Ca- 
tullus directed? How was he repaid? 
What did he introduce into Latin poetry ? 

5. What offices were held by Sallust? 
What was his character? What was the 
cause of the hatred between him and Cice- 
ro ? What did he write ? 

6. How many volumes were written by 
Varro ? When did he die ? 

7. What is said of Cornelius Nepos? 

8. When, and where was Virgil born? 
How did he lose his farms? Through 
whose interest did he recover them ? Why 
did he write his Bucolics and Georgics"? 
What was the design of the iEneid 7 
Whose friendship did he enjoy? Where 
and when did he die ? Where is his tomb 
still seen? 

9. Where was Horace educated? Why 
did he turn his attention to poetry ? When 
did he die ?] 

GENERAL VIEWS. 

[To what does the knowledge derived 
from the Bible respecting the Antediluvian 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



13 



world relate 1 By what are we guided on 
other subjects?] 

1. Is there any reason for believing that 
the surface of the earth differed from what 
it is at present"? To what purposes was it 
probably better adapted ?-[What was the 
opinion of Dr. Burnet respecting it ? What 
would have been the natural consequence 
of an universal deluge ? Does the appear- 
ance of the earth's surface favour such a 
conjecture?] 

2. What season has conjecture assigned 
to the Antediluvian world? How might 
this have been the fact? Is there any 
other reason for supposing a change took 
place at the time of the flood ?-[In what 
way has St. Pierre accounted for the de- 
luge ?] 

3. What inference has been drawn with 
respect to the population before the flood 
from the longevity of its inhabitants ? 
What is the probability respecting it?- 
[What is the opinion of Cuvier on this 
subject? Can the causes of the longevity 
of the Antediluvians be known with cer- 
tainty ? What reason is mentioned? Is it 
necessary for us to discover a physical 
cause ?] 

4. What is known relative to the observ- 
ances of religion before the flood ?-[How 
were the descendants of Seth and Cain dis- 
tinguished ? How did the whole world be- 
come corrupted ?] 

5. What circumstance was favourable to 
the cultivation of the arts and sciences ? 
Is it probable that many of them were 
known? What arts were understood by 
them ?-[What is further said on this article ?] 

6. What was the most probable form of 
government ? Describe it ?-[What was 
probably the state of mankind, ^after the 
union of the families of Cain and Seth?] 

7. Why might the intercourse of the an- 
tediluvians have been easy ? What reason 
is there for supposing they were unac- 
quainted with navigation ? 

8. What did Assyria comprehend? What 
Was its capital ? Where was it ? What 
is the country now called ?-[Describe this 
city?] What composed Babylonia? What 
is it now called? What was its capital, 
and how was it situated? Describe it. 
-[What more particular description may be 
given of it ? How were the hanging gar- 
dens built ? What is said of the Temple of 
Belus ?] 

9. What was the government of these 
nations ? What was claimed by the king ? 
-[Why did" they live in retirement ? By 
what three classes of -officers was the go- 
vernment administered ?]-Upon what did 
the laws of the empire depend ? What one 
was irrevocable ?-[What were their punish- 
ments ?1 

10. Who were the Chaldeans ? How 
were they employed ? How, and when did 
idolatry arise ?-[What reason is there for 
supposing this was the origin of image wor- 
ship ?] By whom was the custom of human 
sacrifices first practised? 

2 



11. What was the most singular of their 
customs ? What other custom is mention- 
ed? 

12. What was the state of learning among 
the Babylonians ? What science was first 
cultivated among them ? What arose from 
their knowledge of Astronomy ?- [In what 
manner was the learning of the Chaldeans 
acquired? Why did they never make 
great advances in the sciences ?] 

13. What do the immense buildings of 
the Babylonians prove? What was the 
state of painting, statuary, music and po- 
etry among them ?-[How did they treat their 
sick ? In what were they particularly in- 
genious ?] 

14. What did China anciently include ? 
What reason is there for thinking that their 
ancient territory was nearly the same as it 
is at present ? In what part of Asia was it 
situated ? How was it separated from Tar- 
tary ? 

15. Describe their government. 

16. What was the religion of the ancient 
Chinese ? 

17. What was the state of the sciences 
among the Chinese ? With what arts were 
they early acquainted? In what state 
were these arts ? In what were they dis- 
tinguished ?-[What was their character? 
When was Egypt one of the most distin- 
guished countries of the ancient world? 
Why was it distinguished?] 

18. How was Egypt situated ? What was 
its ancient name ? What is it called by the 
Turks ? How was it divided ? 

19. What were among their most magni- 
ficent cities ?-[Describe Thebes. What is 
said of its ruins? By whom was Mem- 
phis founded, and where was it situated? 
Give a description of Alexandria. What 
was the principal cause of its eminence 1 
In what other respects was it distinguish 
eel?] 

20. What is said of the monuments and 
works of art of ancient Egypt ? Which are 
the most celebrated of these ?-[What was 
the size of the Lake Moeris? For what, 
purpose was it built? How was the Laby- 
rinth built? For what was it designed? 
What were the Catacombs ? For what pur- 
poses were they used? Describe the Pyra^ 
mids.] 

21. What was the government of Egypt? 
-[To what course of life were their mo- 
narchy restricted?] How were the public 
affairs administered? For what did they 
become more famous than any other peo- 
ple? 

22. Who were the principal gods of the 
Egyptians ?-[What is said of their idolatry?] 

23. How were their children educated? 

24. What was their usual drink? For 
what are we probably indebted to them ? 
-[What singular customs are noticed?] 

25. What, was the state of literature 
among them? How is it supposed that 
Geometry was discovered ?-[How did they 
adjust the length of the year? What arta 
were early cultivated among thorn?] 



i4 



QUESTIONS ON 



26. What proof Lave we that the Egyp- 
tians early engaged in commerce'? 

27. What is said of the Egyptian lan- 
guage 1 

28. What was the country of the He- 
brews called? How was it situated, and 
what was the extent of its territory ?- [What 
other names are given to this country 
and people ?] How was Palestine di- 
vided 1 ? 

29. What are among the remains of an- 
cient works 1-[How is Jacob's well con- 
structed'? Describe the Pools of Solomon, 
Gihon, and Eethesda.] 

30. Had they many large cities 1 Which 
were the most celebrated'? How was Je- 
rusalem built ? Where did the temple 
stand? -[Under what kings did it become a 
renowned city ? How many times was it 
destroyed? When, and by whom ? What 
is its present state ? What is said of He- 
bron? Give an account of Gaza and As- 
calon ?] 

31. What does the history of the religion 
of this people comprise ? What now sup- 
plies its place? What effect had the gos- 
pel upon it?-[How did religion flourish 
among them? To what as a nation were 
they continually inclined? What judg- 
ments were inflicted on them on this ac- 
count? How are the tribes of Judah and 
Benjamin now known ? What knowledge 
have we of the other ten tribes?]- What 
truths were revealed to this people, and to 
them alone? What was the design of the 
peculiarities of their ritual worship ?-[To 
what were the peculiar rites of Judaism 
adapted? What was the meaning of its 
sacrifices?] 

32. What was the government of this 
people ? What is a Theocracy ? 

33. To what did the most interesting of 
their manners and customs relate ?-[How 
was the rite of circumcision celebrated? 
What was their diet? What were their 
diversions? What is meant by high pla- 
ces ? How did they express their mourning 
for their friends ? How did they estimate 
burial?] 

34. In what knowledge did the Israelites 
excel? What were their places of public 
instruction called? What was the charac- 
ter of their language ? On what materials 
did they write ? 

35. In what arts did the Israelites make 
the greatest proficiency ?-[What made 
them a warlike people? Describe their 
arms. To what was their attention chiefly 
confined before the reign of Solomon"? 
What change took place in his time? In 
which of the fine arts are they inimitable?] 

30. What was the state of commerce 
among them?-[What country did the Ca- 
naanit.es inhabit? How were they driven 
out of it?] 

37. Was there a uniformity of customs, 
manners, arts, sciences, and languages, 
among this people ?-[Wherc did the differ- 
ent rhisses of people reside? What was 
their knowledge of war?] 



38. What reason is there for supposing 
that their religion was pure in the days of 
Abraham ? What was it afterwards ? 

39. What rendered Greece illustrious? 
What was the face of the country ? What 
was its climate and soil?-[What places are 
connected with agreeable associations to 
the classical reader?] 

40. What was the situation and extent of 
Greece ?-[What two countries were after- 
wards considered a part of Greece ?]-What 
were the two principal divisions of Greece ? 
-[What did Greece proper include ? What 
states were included in Peloponnesus ?]- 
What were the principal islands connected 
with Greece ? 

41. By what name was Greece and its 
inhabitants called by the natives? What 
were they denominated from their different 
tribes by the poets? 

42. What is meant by the interesting lo- 
calities of Greece ?-[From what did Pelo- 
ponnesus take its name ? For what were 
Mycenae, Nemea, Epidaurus, and Lerna re- 
markable? With what was Amyclae ho- 
noured? Why were the Spartan slaves call- 
ed Helo'tes? For what were Tamarus and 
Taygetus noticed? For what were Elis, 
Olympia, and Corinth famous? Of what 
was Arcadia the country? Where was 
Mercury born? Why was Stymphalus 
and the Isthmus famous? For what was 
Eleusis remarkable? What mountains in 
Attica were celebrated, and why? What 
was the character of the Boeotians ? For 
what was Chreronea remarkable ? Why 
is the cave of Trophonius, Thespia, Ta- 
nagra and Delium mentioned? To whom 
were Helicon and Aganippe consecrated ? 
What did the Greeks conjecture of Phocis? 
What rendered Delphi and Parnassus illus- 
trious? For what was Anticyra famous? 
For what was Narix and Thermopylae re- 
markable? In what did the .^tolians ex- 
cel? From what circumstance was Nau- 
pactus named? What rendered Leucate 
and the lake Acherusia remarkable ? 
Which was the most ancient oracle of 
Greece? From what, did Chaonia receive 
its name? To what was Pindus sacred * 
From what were the Acroceraunian moun- 
tains called? Describe thevale ofTempe. 
For what was Thcssaly renowned.? For 
what was Larissa, Heraclea, Othrys, and 
Amphrysus remarkable ? To whom was 
Pierus sacred? Why were the women of 
Thessaly famed? What renders Athos 
and Stagifa remarkable ? Why were 
Apollonia and Strymon celebrated? For 
what were the islands of Corcyra and Ithica 
remarkable? Why were Strophades and 
JEgina famed? What rendered Delos, 
Paros, Waxes, and Crete remarkable ? For 
what, was Rhodes famous ? Why was Pat- 
mos celebrated? For what was Scio fa- 
mous? What circumstances caused Lcm- 
nos to be celebrated 'I 

43. Which were the most renowned cities 
of Greece? Of what was Athens die capi- 
tal? From what was it named? What 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



15 



was it called by the ancients 1 Describe it. 
[Where was the citadel? What is said 
of the upper and lower city?]- What edi- 
fices were in the citadel ? Which is one of 
the noblest remains of antiquity? What 
magnificent structure was in the lower city ? 
What was its size?-[How many harbours 
had Athens and how were they situated? 
Where were the principal gymnasia of 
Athens? What was a Gymnasium ?]-How 
was Sparta situated? How was it built? 
When were its walls erected? Why did 
it not need them before ?-[Why were 
the houses of the Spartans destitute of or- 
naments ? Was the city entirely unadorn 
ed ? To whom was religious respect shown ' 
What is said of the environs of the city ?] 

How was Corinth situated ? How did it 
compare with the other cities of Greece? 
By whom was it destroyed ? Was it ever 
rebuilt ?-[From what were Corinthian pil 
lars named? To what did the citizens of 
Corinth devote themselves? Of what was 
this city a distinguished seat? What is its 
present state ?]-Describe Thebes. When 
were the Thebans masters of Greece ? At 
what time was it only an inconsiderable 
village?- [What is said of its destruction by 
Alexander?] 

44. What was the general character of 
the government of Greece ? In what re- 
spects did it bear a resemblance to the go- 
vernment of the U. S. of America ?-[What 
was the government of Athens before 
and after the death of Codrus ?]-Into what 
classes were the inhabitants of Athens di- 
vided? What were the privileges of citi- 
zenship ? How were they obtained ?-[How 
were the citizens of Athens divided ?]- 
What was the situation of sojourners? 
What was the distinction between the 
slaves of Athens? How were the magis- 
trates divided ? How were they distin- 
guished ? Mention them, with the different 
methods of their election.-[Who were 
usually appointed to the offices of the state ? 
What was required of the magistrates be- 
fore their election, and after their term of 
office had expired ?]-How was the usual 
government of Athens carried on? What 
power was held by the Archons? How 
were they elected, and what were their 
privileges ?-[What was the number of 
Archons ? What was the first called, and 
what concerns were assigned to him? 
What were the others called ? What was 
their duty ?]-How was the Senate of five 
hundred elected? What was the Dusiness 
of this body?-[What was the power of 
the Senate ?]-For what purpose were As- 
semblies of the people convened? Who 
composed them? How often were they 
held ?-[ What was the smallest number of 
which they could consist? What was 
their business? Where did the orators of 
Athens exert their influence ?]- What other 
celebrated body of men was there at 
Athens ?-[From what was the name of this 
court taken? Why was its repute high? 
Of what did it take cognizance? What 



was required of its members ?]- What ab- 
surd peculiarity was there in the govern- 
ment of Athens? 

How were the inhabitants of Sparta di- 
vided? What were the two classes of 
citizens called? What were their privi- 
leges? What was the number and situa- 
tion of the Helots? How many kings 
had Sparta? What was their power? 
-[What were their duties ?]-Of what did 
the senate consist ? What was their duty ? 
Who were the Ephori ? For what purpose 
were they elected? For what purpose 
were assemblies held? How many were 
there, and what were they calLed? Who 
composed them? What was the govern- 
ment of the other sovereignties of Greece? 
What was that of Thebes ?-[For what 
were many of the sovereigns of Thebes 
celebrated ?]- What was the A.mphictyonic 
Council ?-[How many deputies were sent 
from each state? Where did they meet?] 

45. Of what were the armies of Greece 
composed ?-[Of what did the main body 
of the armies consist ?]-Of what were the 
Greek arms made ? What were their de- 
fensive arms ? What their offensive ? 
-[In. what kind of warfare were the armies 
inefficient? What punishments were in- 
flicted on deserters by the Lacedaemo- 
nians? Why was Archilochus banished?] 

46. How many kinds of ships had the 
Greeks ?-[For what purposes were the dif- 
ferent kinds used ?] 

- 47. What was the religion of the Greeks? 
How were their gods divided ? Who was 
Jupiter considered?- [What was the only 
authority for the popular belief? How is 
the account here given to be regarded? 
Why is it particular?] 

Who were the celestial deities ?-[Who 
was Jupiter, and where was he born? 
How did he become possessor of the world ? 
How did he divide it ? What was one of 
his greatest exploits ? What was his cha- 
racter? How is he represented? Who 
was Apollo and where was he born ? Over 
what did he preside ? What was the con- 
sequence of his killing Cyclops ? Relate 
some of his adventures on earth. How is 
he represented ? Who was Mars ? Of 
what was he the god ? What was offered 
to him? What is recorded of him? How 
is he represented? Wh> was Mercury? 
What was his office, and of whom was he 
the patron? What is said of him? How 
is he represented? Who was Bacchus, 
and of what was he the god? How were 
his festivals celebrated? How is he de- 
picted? Of what was Vulcan the god, 
and of whom was he the patron? Whose 
son was he? How did he become a crip- 
ple? What was his business in heaven? 
Of whom was he the husband and father? 
How is he represented ? Who was Juno, 
and what is she styled ? Where was she 
born? Why was she held in great venera- 
tion by the ancients ? What is said of her 
person and worship ? How is she repre- 
sented? Of what was Minerva the god;- 



16 



QUESTIONS ON 



dess 1 How did she compare with the 
other divinities ? In what did she instruct ? 
What city claimed her particular attention ? 
How is she represented? Of what was 
Venus the goddess ? Who were her pa- 
rents? What was the character of the 
worship paid to her? Where were her 
most beautiful temples? Where was her 
favourite residence ? How is she represent- 
ed? Of what was Diana the queen? To 
what was she and her attendants devoted ? 
What plants were sacred to her ? How is 
she represented ? Of what was Ceres the 
goddess, and who were her parents ? 
What was her life ? What mysteries were 
celebrated to her honour ? How is she re- 
presented ? Of what was Vesta the goddess 
and guardian? How is she represented?] 
Who were the marine deities ?-[What 
was the rank of Neptune among the gods ? 
Over what did he reign ? What was the 
consequence of his conspiring against Ju- 
piter ? How is he represented ? Who was 
Oceanus? Of what was he the father? 
How many sons had he and his wife The- 
tys? Who was Triton, and what was his 
office ? Describe him. Who was Nereus ? 
How many daughters had he, and what 
were they called? Who was Proteus? 
What power did he possess?] 

Who were the infernal deities ?-[Who 
was Pluto, and over what did he exercise 
dominion? What is related of him? 
Were any temples raised to his honour ? 
How is he represented ? Who was Plutus ? 
What was Charon's office? What is said 
of his person and character ? What was 
requisite in order to enter his boat ? Where 
were departed souls carried by him ? Who 
were the Furies? How are they repre- 
sented ? What is their office ? Who were 
the Fates? On what did they decide? 
How was it accomplished ? Who were the 
judges of the dead?] 

What other divinities were there ?-[How 
was Cupid represented? Who were the 
parents of the Muses? How many were 
there, and what were their names ? Over 
what did each preside? Who were the 
Graces ? What are they supposed to do ? 
How are they represented?] 

Who were the rural deities ?-[Of 
what was Pan the god? Over what did 
Sylvanus and Priapus preside ? What did 
Aristams invent and discover ? What did 
Termineus watch over? What is said of 
the Sirens? Who were the Gorgons? 
What are the Harpies said to have been? 
Who were the Dryads, Naiads, and Nere- 
ids? Who were the Tritons? Over what 
did the Lares and Penates preside? Who 
were the Fauns and Satyrs? Who was 
Pales ? What is said of the Nymphs 1] 

How was the worship of these divini- 
ties conducted ?-[From whence did the 
Greeks derive their religion? By whom 
was it extended ? How many gods did they 
worship? How arc they represented? In 
what did the religion of the common people 
consist? What was the belief of their | 



] poets and philosophers with respect to a 
i future state ? What did they think rela- 
tive to the immortality of women ?]-What 
picture have they drawn of Hell? How 
did they describe Heaven ? What was 
connected with the religion of the Greeks? 
Where were their principal temples situa- 
ted and how were they built? Which was 
the most celebrated ?-[Where were the 
statues of the gods placed, and the sacri- 
fices performed? To what do temples 
among the heathen probably owe their ori- 
gin ?]-In what estimation were oracles held 
by the Greeks ? How was the will of the 
superior powers communicated ?-[What 
may they be called when compared with 
the predictions of the Scriptures? Which 
were the most celebrated ?]- What were 
the public Games in Greece? What were 
the contests in these games? How were 
the victors treated ?-[By whom, and when 
were the Olympic games instituted? What 
was an Olympiad ? How were the victors 
crowned? What is said of the celebration 
of the Pythian games? What of the Ne- 
mean and Isthmian ?] 

48. What was the state of literature in 
Greece ? In what are they still unrivalled ? 
-[Did the Greeks derive any part of their 
learning from foreign nations? In what 
did their peculiar glory consist? What 
contributed to the rapid advances made by 
them in civilization and knowledge ?]-How 
early did they cultivate poetry ? -[What 
celebrated names do we find in each de- 
partment of poetry ?]-Where, and with 
what success was oratory cultivated ? 
Where did it become an object of attention? 
-[Who were the most distinguished ora- 
tors, and what were their peculiar excel- 
lences ?]-When was history cultivated, 
and with what success ?-[What is said of 
their historians ?]-What was the state of 
philosophy among the Greeks ? From 
what did the professors of philosophy ori- 
ginate? What were they called? What 
was the character of the Grecian philoso- 

Ehy?-[What were the principal sects, and 
y whom were they founded ? What were 
some of the peculiarities of doctrine which 
distinguished these sects? What was % 
subject of special research among the Gre- 
cian philosophers? What was (he opinion 
of some of them upon this topic? Who 
were the seven wise men of Greece?] 

49. When did Greece abound in archi- 
tects, sculptors, and painters? What im- 
provement did they make in the useful and 
necessary arts? In what did they excel all 
other nations? What did they carry to 
perfection ?-[What system of architecture 
did they invent ? Of what orders did it con- 
sist? Describe them. What specimens 
of their sculpture are mentioned? Who 
among their painters have been highly ex- 
tolled ? Did thev excel in music ?] 

50. Was the dress of the ancients simi- 
lar to that of the moderns ? What was the 
dress of the men among the Greeks ? What 
of the women? What covering did thor 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



17 



•wear on their heads ?-[What did the Athe- 
nians wear in their hair? What was the 
external appearance of the higher classes 
among the Spartans ? What was the 
military costume ? Upon what did they 
set a high valuer-Describe the meals of 
the Greeks.-fWhat were convivial enter- 
tainments in the earliest ages ? What was 
used for drinking and for food by the 
Greeks ? What were some of their cus- 
toms relative to feasts ?]-When were mar- 
riages lawful ? How were they esteemed 
among the Greeks ?-[Was polygamy ever 
allowed? What were the habits of the 
Grecian women? What was required of 
parents and children ?]-How were funerals 
attended ? 

51. How was Phoenicia situated? 

52. What was the capital, and for what 
was it distinguished ? How was Tyrus situ- 
ated ?-[What is said of it ? Were there any 
other cities in Phoenicia?]- What vestiges of 
splendour still remain ? 

53. What effect had the situation of the 
Phoenicians on their pursuits ? How early 
were they known as a commercial peo- 
ple ? 

54. What improvement did they make 
in the sciences ?-[What eminent philoso- 
phers were there among them?]-In what 
manufactures were they skilled ? What 
proof have we of their skill in architect- 
ure? 

55. Why is it probable that they were in- 
structed in the worship of the true God? 
-[What were the principal objects of their 
mistaken adoration ?] 

56. Where was Lydia situated ?-[What 
is said of the inhabitants on the coast?] 

57. What were the principal cities ?-[For 
what was Ephesus famous? By whom, 
and why was it burnt? What other cir- 
cumstances rendered it famous ? What is 
its present situation? Of what prediction 
is that a fulfilment ?] 

58. What was the character of the Ly- 
dians, before and after the introduction of 
Persian luxuries ? 

59. What were some of their customs? 

60. What country did the Romans inha- 
bit ?-[What other names had Italy ?]-How 
was it situated? How was it divided? 
-[What were its principal districts ?] 

61. Does Italy furnish any interesting lo- 
calities ?-[For what are Andes, Comum, 
Verona, and Patavium celebrated ? Why 
are Ravenna and the river Po ? What ren- 
ders Padusa, Rubicon, and Etruria famous? 
Why are Circeii and Tusculum noticed? 
For what are Capua and Cumse celebrated ? 
What was first invented at Nola? What 
rendered the eruption of Vesuvius, in 79, 
A. O, remarkable? By whom was the 
city of Arpi founded ? Where was Horace 
bom? Why are Apulia, Brundusium, Ru- 
diae, and Tarenturn mentioned ? Why 
were Psesturn, Metapontum, Thurium, and 
Petilia famous ? For what was Sicily cele- 
brated? For what were Lipara, Sardinia, 
Corsica, and Urcinium famous ?] 

2* 



62. What was the Beat of the Roman em- 
pire ? How was it built ? Where were the 
residence of the kings, the Capitol, and 
the Tarpeian rock ?-[Why are not the in- 
equalities in the surface of Rome, as dis- 
tinctly marked as formerly? How was 
water conveyed for the use of the city? 
What was the Circus Maximus ? Mention 
some of the magnificent ruins which still 
remain. What was the extent of its walls 1 
What is its present state? Describe the 
Forum. For what purpose was it used? 
What was the Campus Martius ?] 

63. What were the several governments 
under which the Romans lived? When 
does ancient history end ? How were the 
kings chosen, and what was their power ? 
-[What were their external distinctions, 
and what were their prerogatives ?]-How 
were the Roman people divided? Who 
composed the Senate? What was their 
business and rank?-[What changes did 
the Senate undergo ?]- Who were the 
Knights ?-[What was their business ?]- 
What were the remainder of the Roman 
citizens called? How were they divided? 
-[What division of the citizens was call- 
ed centuries ?]- What was the situation of 
the slaves? -[What punishments were in- 
flicted on them ? What privileges had the 
slaves?]- What provision for uniting the 
different orders, was made by Romulus? 
How many, and what names had the Ro- 
mans ?-[What did each signify ?]-Did the 
privileges of citizenship extend out of the 
city? Where was the power of the Ro- 
man people expressed ? What were they 
called ? For what purpose were they sum- 
moned ?-[How many kinds of Comitia 
were there? Which was the principal, 
and what was their business ? Where did 
they meet ? Who created the subordinate 
magistrates ? Who were called candidati ? 
When did the Comitia fall into disuse ?]- 
How were the Roman magistrates divided? 
Who were the ordinary? Who the ex- 
traordinary? Who the provincial ?-[What 
officers performed the duties of kings af- 
ter their banishment ? At what age were 
they eligible to office ? What was the 
duty of the Tribunes of the people ? What 
was the duty and power of the Censors ? 
For what were Praetors appointed ? What 
was the duty of Pro-consuls and Pro-pree- 
tors ? Who were the -33diles ? For what 
were Quaestors appointed? When were 
Dictators created ? What was their pow- 
er ? What check was given to it ? Who 
were the Decemviri ? What was the pow- 
er of Military Tribunes? What was an 
Interrex?] 

64. What gods did the Romans worship ? 
How were their priests selected? How 
were they divided ?-[What were the prin- 
cipal of the first of these divisions ? Men- 
tion the respective duties of each?]-Give 
an instance of the kind of priests appropri- 
ated to particular deities. -[What was their 
duty?] * 

65. What was the tendency of all the 



18 



QUESTIONS ON 



Roman institutions'? What was the duty 
of every citizen ? How long after the build- 
ing of Rome did the soldiers serve without 
pay ?-[What way was necessary to be ap- 
pointed to any honourable office ?]-What 
change took place about the time of Marius ? 
What was the appearance of a Roman le- 
gion 1 Of how many men did it consist ? 
How were they divided ? On what was the 
dependence of Rome placed ?-[Gf what did 
their defensive arms consist ? What were 
their weapons of assault ? What was the 
pilum? What was the Roman sword? 
Describe their method of drawing up an 
army, and attacking an enemy.]-What 
were their engines of attack in besieging 
a town?- [Describe the aries. How we're 
the soldiers protected ?]-How was a Ro- 
man camp formed ?-[Did they ever ne- 
glect a regular encampment ? What could 
each soldier accomplish, when it was ne- 
cessary to leave their camps ? What was 
the character of the Roman soldiers ?]- 
What were the rewards of distinguished 
soldiers'? What was the highest object of 
Roman ambition'? By whom was it de- 
creed ^-[Describe a triumph. What was an 
ovation'?] 

66. What is said of the Roman ships ? 
To what was the success of the Romans at 
sea, owing ?-[What was their object in sea 
battles ? From what model did they first 
construct their ships ? In how short a time 
could they fit a fleet for sea"? By what 
was the size of their ships reckoned? 

67. When did the Romans pay much at- 
tention to agriculture ? What two profes- 
sions did they unite ? What distinguished 
generals were called from the plough to the 
army ? When were the pursuits of agri- 
culture abandoned ?-[How often did the 
farmers visit the city ? What were some 
of their common maxims on agriculture ?] 

68. What is mentioned as an amusement 
of the Roman people ? Which were the 
most popular, comedies or tragedies ? What 
other entertainments were in use on the 
stage ?-[By whom and when was the first 
regular play written ? What distinguished 
the comic and tragic actors? Wliy wore 
the Senate opposed to theatres ? When 
was the first, of stone, built ? For what is 
it now used?]-Which of the public games 
were most frequented? What did these 
shows exhibit ?-[With what was the fe- 
rocious taste of the Romans gratified ?]- 
What had superior attractions for them? 
By whom were these attended ?-[By whom 
were they first exhibited ? What did 
they become y When were they entirely 
abolished? What numbers fought at the 
games exhibited by Trajan and Claudius? 
Who were the gladiators? What mode of 
fighting is mentioned? Which was the 
most celebrated Amphitheatre for this pur- 
pose?] 

69. What is said of the system of edu- 
cation among the Romans? To what was 
their attenlion principally directed? In 
what way did the politeness of the Romans 



show itself ?-[What improvement was made 
in education, after their intercourse with 
the Greeks ? To what were children 
habituated in the family ? Where were 
the young men placed at the age of 17? 
What were the chief objects of pursuit of 
the Roman youth ? To what may be at- 
tributed the great number of eminent men 
and women during the republic? What 
swept away the most valuable of their in- 
stitutions ?] 

70. What was the state of Roman litera- 
ture, previous to their intercourse with 
Greece ? How did it compare with that of 
Greece in the Augustan age ? What was 
cultivated with success ?-[What writers 
improved their language ?]-What appears 
to have been their earliest intellectual ef- 
fort ?-[What names adorned the Roman 
drama? Who were their Lyric poets? 
Who excelled in elegies, and who in satiric 
poetry ? In what did Lucretius and Virgil 
excel ?]-With what success was history 
cultivated ?-[Who were the most eminent 
of their historians ?]-What was a favourite 
study at Rome? How did the most dis- 
tinguished orators often exercise their 
talents? What were the characteristics 
of Roman eloquence?- [What is said of 
Ca;sar, Hortensius, and Cicero ?]-When 
did philosophy first appear at Rome ? 
From whence was it derived ?-[How was 
it introduced ? Why was the philosophy of 
the stoics at, first generally received ? Who 
were among the Roman stoics? Who 
were disciples of the old, and who of the 
new academy ? What made the Epicrirean 
philosophy fashionable ? Who were devo- 
tees to this system?]- Was natural philoso- 
phy much cultivated by the Greeks or 
Romans? Whose name is the only one 
conspicuous in this department? What 
contributed greatly to the advancement of 
learning at Rome ?-[For what was the li- 
brary ofLucullus remarkable?] 

71. How did the Romans compare with 
the Greeks in the fine arts?-[How were 
their temples and private dwellings adorn- 
ed ?]- What was the state of the mechanic 
arts?- [Mention some conveniences which 
they did not possess.] 

72. How were the houses of the Romans 
constructed before luxury reached its ut- 
most bounds ?-[What is said of them in 
the time of the emperors ? How were their 
tables made ? What was a Roman villa ?]- 
What change took place in I he meals 
of the Romans? How many meals had 
they, and in what manner were they taken ? 
-[Of what did the diet of the earlier Ro- 
mans consist? What were esteemed great 
delicacies? What wines were Used 1 Of 
what were the services of their tables 
made? Describe their manner of taking 
their meals.]- What is said of their baths! 
-[What rendered their frequent bathings 
necessary ?]-Of what did the dress of the 
Romans consist? What was the toga ? 
What was the toga virilis ? What was 
the tunica ?-[What was the difference be- 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



19 



tween the dress of the women and the 
men'? When were hats and caps worn'? 
Were ornaments, pins, and mirrors, in 
use ?]-In what estimation was 'marriage 
held by the Romans? On what did the 
validity of the transaction depend ?-[What 
was always attended to before a marriage 
was solemnized ? What power had fathers 
over their children ?]-What were the fune- 
ral rites of the Romans? When did the 
practice of burning the dead fall into dis- 
use ?-[Why did they slaughter animals at 
the tomb of the deceased?] 

72 1-2. What was the commerce of Rome ? 
What circumstance restricted their com- 
mercial dealings ?-[In what estimation was 
traffic held? What was the size of their 
largest merchant ships ?] 

73. What was the situation- of Syria 7 
What were its principal towns ?-[How did 
Antioch compare withtpther cities ? What 
is said of Daphne and Seleucia? What 
rendered Damascus famous? Why are 
the remains of Heliopolis interesting? By 
whom was Palmyra founded ? What shows 
its former magnificence ?] 

74. What was the character of the an- 
cient Sj rians ? 

75. When did the Syrian language be- 
come a distinct tongue ? Where was it 
spoken ?-[What is its character?] 

76. What was the extent of Carthage 7 
-[By whom was it rebuilt after its destruc- 
tion by the Romans ?]-From what time may 
its decay be traced ? 

77. W'hat was the government of Car- 
thage ? What was their character ? 

78. What was the situation of Parthia?- 
How were the people governed ?-[Who 
were the ancient Parthians? To what 
were they accustomed from infancy ? For 
■what were they celebrated by the ancients ? 
What was the state of their morals and re- 
ligion ?] 

79. What was the extent and situation of 
ancient Persia 7 

80. What was their government ?-[How 
were the kings of Persia treated by their 
subjects ? What anecdote is mentioned as 
a proof of this ? What is said of the royal 
palace ? For what purpose did the Persian 
monarchs live ?] 

81. What was there peculiar in the edu- 
cation of the Persians? 

82. What were their punishments ?-[What 
was the most severe?] 

83. To what kind of military exercise 
were they particularly trained? Upon 
what did they depend for success ?-[What 
singular custom prevailed?] 

84. What was their religion ?-[Is it proba- 
ble that they were ever acquainted with 
the worship of the true God? Who was 
Zoroaster ?] 

Mythology of Ancient Nations. 

1. What was the religion of the nations 
of antiquity? What was their system 
called? 



2. Who were esteemed deities among 
them?-[What was the character of the 
religion of Egypt ? What did the Babylo- 
nians and Arabians worship ? Who were 
the gods of the Canaanites, Syrians, Phoeni- 
cians, and Carthaginians ? Whom did the 
Moabites and Philistines worship? Who 
was the favourite deity of the Scythians ? 
What was there peculiar in the religious 
rites of the Celts ? What is said of the re- 
ligion of the Persians ? What was the my- 
thology of the ancient Hindoos ?] 

3. What is said of the worship of a mul- 
titude of gods ? To what were the agree- 
able fictions of mythology adapted ?-[How 
was the Pagan theology divided? What 
was the first ? How was this estimated by 
the wiser heathens? What was the se- 
cond ? Who were the writers of this class, 
and to what did their speculations relate? 
What was the third ?] 

4. How were the systems of mythology 
explained by the refined and liberal ? What 
use is to be derived from the study of the 
Pagan systems of religion? What other 
advantages are mentioned ?-[What was 
meant by mundane and super-mundane 
gods? Into how many orders were they 
distinguished ? What duties were assigned 
to each ? Why was it necessary that the 
governors of the mundane gods should be 
twelve ? Who were they ? How may 
this truth be seen in the statues of Apollo, 
Minerva, and Venus ? How did the other 
mundane gods subsist? Give some exam- 
ples. What was the genuine pagan creed 
as given by a heathen philosopher ?] 

5. What does a survey of the heathen 
mythology present ?-[How long did this 
state of things continue ? What effect 
has the Bible produced in the moral 
world?] 

Discoveries, Inventions, and Improve- 
ments of Early Ages. 

1. To what is special reference had in 
this article ?-[What evidence exists of the 
early progress of mankind in the arts of 
life 1] 

2. What urged the cultivation of the arts 
at first ? What are among the earliest arts 1 
What is said of astronomy ? Of geometry ? 
Of medicine? Of agriculture If How iid 
agriculture flourish among the Romans? 
How among the Israelites and Egyptians? 
How do the moderns compare with the 
ancients in this respect ?]-What is said of 
architecture ? 

3. What was one of the minuter divisions 
of ancient art ? What articles did the an- 
cients generally use in embalming dead 
bodies? Did they know all that the mo 
dems know on this subject ? What is said 
of the Egyptians ?-[What way of embalm 
ing was most ancient? What was the 
Egyptian method ?]- What is said of che 
streets of ancient Rome ? What attention 
did the Greeks and Romans pay to their 
public roads ?-[What is further said of th« 



20 



QUESTIONS ON ANCIENT HISTORY. 



Roman roads'? What was the ordinary 
rate of travelling compared with the pre- 
sent ?]-What was the oldest method of 
conveying news'? What was another 
mode?-[What is further said of public 
criers ? What of the mode of posting ?]- 
To what is the origin of making glass 
probably due? Where is it said to have 
been discovered ?-[Relate the history of the 
discovery of glass?] 

What were the oldest mirrors mentioned 
in history made of? Of what were they 
afterwards made? Were glass mirrors 
known to the ancients ?-[What were the 
looking glasses mentioned in our English 
Bible? What is said respecting the date 



of the invention of glass mirrors 7]- Where. 
as is supposed, was linen first manufactur- 
ed? Were the Greeks acquainted with it? 
When was it introduced into Rome ? What 
is said of the arts of spinning and weaving? 
By what people was wool in Europe first 
manufactured?- [From what country did 
sheep originally come? With what were 
the early inhabitants of northern Europe 
forages clothed ?]-Is the art of dyeing an 
ancient one? By what nations was it 
known ? What articles did they dye ? To 
what ancient people was steel known? 
What names did the Greeks give to it? 
-[How does the steel of the ancients com 
pare with that of the moderns?] 



QUESTIONS 



ON 

OUTLINES OF MODERN HISTORY. 

BY REV. ROYAL ROBBINS. 



INTRODUCTION.* 

1. What event have some writers taken 
as the dividing period between Ancient and 
Modern History ? What have others taken ? 
Mention that which is assumed in this book. 

2. Why is the Christian era the most pro- 
per separating point?- [What made it re- 
markable, in divine providence ? Describe 
the state of the world in a political view?] 

3. What is said of the materials of Modern 
History ? What has diminished our means 
of information on this subject ?-[Mention 
the causes which have rendered portions 
of Ancient History obscure. What particu- 
lars can you relate of the library at Alex- 
andria? What has happened to some li- 
braries since ?] 

General Division. 

-[How may Modern History be divided ? 
By what may each period be remember- 
ed?]- What is the name and extent of the 
first period ? Repeat this question in every 
period. 

PERIOD I. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 

1. With 
riod comm 

Roman history? When did the birth of 
Jesus occur, in common reckoning ? What 
is the general opinion of the learned on this 
subject? According to this opinion, how 
old was Jesus at the vulgar date ?-[What 
is said of the temple of Janus, at this time ?] 

2. How long had Rome been an empire ? 
What was its state at the birth of Christ? 
What afterwards ? What was one of the 
causes of its downfall ? Why did ambassa- 
dors daily arrive at Rome ? 

3. Who was the first Roman emperor, 
and when did he die? What were the 
events between the birth of Christ and the 
death of Augustus ? 

4. What was the political condition of the 
Romans at this time ?-[On what accounts 
are we inclined to undervalue antiquity? 
How does this subject appear to a contem- 
plative mind ?] 

5. Who now assumed the government ? 
Who was Tiberius ? How long did he ap- 



pear just and moderate 1 After this, what 
was his character? Who were the first 
objects of his suspicions ? What is said of 
the Roman people, upon the death of Ger- 
manicus ? What did Tiberius afterwards ? 
How did he die?-[When did he abandon 
Rome, and whither did he repair ? What 
is said of his person and habits ? How long 
did he live and reign ?] 

6. What was the character of the Ro- 
mans at this time ?-[How did Tiberius feel 
in view of their character ? What formed 
a part of the festivities of the Romans?] 

7. Whom did Tiberius adopt ? Who was 
Caligula, and why so called ? When did he 
begin to reign, and in what manner ? How 
did he at length act ? What was Seneca's 
idea of him? When, and how did he die? 
-[What were his cruelties, impieties, folly, 
and prodigality? What does Heeren re- 
mark concerning his prodigality? By 
whom, and in what manner was his death 
accomplished ?] 

8. What followed the death of Caligula? 
Who was proclaimed emperor ? Who was 
Claudius? What was his character? 
-[What became of his family? By whose 
jealousy was he instigated to acts of cruel- 
ty?]- What particular enterprise marked 
his reign ? How did it terminate ? What 
became of Messaiina his wife ? Whom did 
he afterwards marry ? What did Agrippi- 
na do ? When was Claudius put to death 1 
-[Repeat the story of Petus and Arria.] 

9. How many inhabitants did Rome at 
this time contain? What was its moral 
condition ? 

10. Who succeeded to the empire ? To 
whom had Nero's education been entrust- 
ed? How long did he appear just and hu- 
mane? What did he afterwards do? What 
is said of his flagitiousness, his meanness, 
and puerility? By whom was he slain 1 ? 
How long did he live and roign?-[What 
was the cause of the burning of Rome? 
What is said of Piso's conspiracy against 
him? What was the state of Rome, and 
the surrounding country? Why was the 
despotism of the Roman emperors quietly 
borne by the people ?]-During the reign of 
Nero, what occurred among the Britons'? 
What among the Parthians ? The Jews 1 

11. Who succeeded Nero in the empire? 
Who proclaimed Galba ? What body sane- 

* It will be noticed, that the same order wliich prevails through the History, is preserved in the 
following Questions— and also that the Questions on that part of the work which is printed 05 
the smaller type, are included in brackets, thus -[ ]. 



what great event does this pe- 
lence? Why does it belong to the 



QUESTIONS ON 



tioned this measure? Whal was the cha- 
racter of Galba, before his elevation ? How- 
did he manifest his severity ?-[What would 
have made him more acceptable as an 
emperor ? Mention an instance of his se- 
verity. What is said of his parsimony ?]- 
How* long did Galba reign? On what ac- 
count was he slain? What did Otho ex- 
pect? Did the emperor favour this design ? 
What followed? 

12. Who was raised to the throne ? What 
was the character of Otho ? How long did 
he reign? What did Vitellius do?-[From 
whom was Otho descended? What has 
been observed respecting the last moments 
of his life?] 

13. Who now assumed the government? 
How long did Vitellius retain it? What 
was his character? Under what circum- 
stances did Vespasian appear in Italy at 
this time? What became of Vitellius? 
-[What instances of his cruel disposition 
are here recorded? What is said of his 
gluttony ?] 

14. When and by whom was Vespasian 
declared emperor? By what was he dis- 
tinguished? What is said of the Jewish 
war, during his reign? After this, what 
was the state of the empire?- [What were 
the acts of his admini stration ? What were 
his feelings in regard to learning? How 
did he die ?] 

15. When did Titus succeed to the em- 
pire? What was his character? What is 
said of his reign? When did he die? 
-[What is related as an instance of the go- 
vernment of his passions ? What is said of 
his tenderness ? Mention some events that 
happened during his reign. What were the 
circumstances attending his last sickness ? 
Who was suspected of having hastened his 
death ?] 

15J. When did Domitian assume the pur- 
ple ? What were his acts after a short pe- 
riod? What is said of his reign? What 
most occupied his private hours ? What is 
said of the persecution of Christians ? Did 
he derive renown from the success of his 
general, Agricola?-[To whom was Domi- 
tian particularly hostile ? What did he do 
to the senators, at particular times? By 
whom had his death been predicted? How 
did that circumstance affect him? What 
does Heeren say of the fall of Domitian? 
Who concerted measures to destroy him ?]- 
What race ended with Domitian? Who 
was the first, and who the last emperor of 
the Augustan family ? 

16. Who was now elected emperor ? 
Who was Nerva? What unfitted him to 
cure the disorders of the empire ? Whom 
did he adopt as his successor ? When, and 
in what year of his age did he die ?-[During 
his reign, what commendable things did he 
do ? Relate an instance of his lenity ?] 

17. Who now possessed the throne? 
What was the character of Trajan? In 
what particular was his equity implicated? 
What is said of the extent of the empire at 
this time? What of Trajan's liberality 
towards learning? What of his column? 



How long did he reign, and when did he 
die ?-[Did Trajan fear his enemies? Men- 
tion an anecdote in point. What war did 
he first engage in? Whither did he turn 
his arms afterwards ? Where and how did 
he die ? How was the estimation in which 
Trajan was held, shown ?] 

18. Who succeeded Trajan? When? 
How was Adrian declared ? Who was he ? 
What did he do on his accession ? De- 
scribe his character. When did be die? 
-{What did he achieve in Britain? What 
in a war with the Jews ? In what manner 
did he travel ? What is said of his endow- 
ments ? Why did he wear a long beard ? 
Whom did he adopt for his successor ? In 
what manner did he bear the pains that pre- 
ceded death? What was the character of 
his reign ?] 

19. Who succeeded to the empire? 
When? What was the character of An- 
toninus ? How was his reign marked ? 
What were the most remarkable foreign 
occurrences ? What was the extent of his 
age and reign ?-[What is said of his munifi- 
cence — his humanity — his love of peace — 
his regard of Christians ? What, neverthe- 
less, took place respecting them? What 
was his patronage of learned men ? Relate 
the circumstance respecting Apollonius. 
How did the emperor die ?] 

20. Who now came to the throne ? When ? 
Who had been designated with Marcus ? 
Was Verus admitted as a partner ? What 
was the character of the two brothers ? 

| How did Marcus illustrate his attachment 
to philosophy ? How did Verus conduct in 
war? What is said of the Parthians and 
Germans ? After the death of Verus, what 
did Aurelius do? Where and when did 
Aurelius die ? What was an infelicity of 
this emperor's reign ? Who were the in- 
struments in the persecution of Christians? 
-[What is said of this emperor's love of re- 
tirement? Relate the story of a " Christian 
legion. "]-Upon the death of Aurelius, what 
was the state of the empire ? At the period 
of Trajan's death, what countries did the 
empire comprehend ? 

21. Who now mounted the throne ? 
When ? Who was Commodus, and what 
his character ? What is said of his admi- 
nistration ? How and when did he perish ? 
-[What is further said respecting his 
cruelty?] 

22. Who was the successor of Commo- 
dus ? When was Pertinax proclaimed ? 
Who was he ? When, and by whom was 
he murdered ? 

23. Who next succeeded to the empire ? 
When ? How did Didius obtain it ? What 
happened at the same time ? Who seized 
the government ? When and by whom was 
Didius put to death ?-[Relate the circum- 
stances of his purchase of the empire. From 
this period to what was he exposed? What 
at the crisis of affairs did the senate do ?] 

24. Who was now at the head of the Ro- 
man world ? Who was Severus ? What 
is said of his military talents ? His admi- 
nistration of government ? What work did 



Modern history. 



he accomplish in Britain'? Where and 
when did he die ? To whom did he leave 
the empire ?-[What was the first act of Se- 
verus ? With whom did he soon after en- 
gage in war ? What is said of his activity 
and love of conquest ? What of the wall 
he built in Britain ? What circumstances 
preceded his death ?] 

25. Who were now established in the em- 
pire ? What were the characters of Cara- 
calla and Geta ? What was the end of Car- 
acalla? During his reign what was the state 
of the empire ?-[Detail some of his bad ac- 
tions ; his feelings in respect to death.] 

26. When was Macrinus proclaimed ? 
How did he lose the affections of his army, 
and finally his life? How long was his reign? 

27. Who was now raised to the throne ? 
What was the character of Heliogabalus ? 
How long .did he reign ?- [Mention some 
facts respecting his effeminacy, prodigality, 
and cruelty. How was his death accom- 
plished ?] 

28. When was Alexander Severus pro- 
claimed ? What is said of his character and 
qualities ? How was he cut off ?-[ What was 
a specimen of his virtuous character ; his 
remark on a certain occasion ; his intellect- 
ual endowments ? Mention some of the acts 
of his reign ; his manner of living.] 

29. How and when did Maximinus ascend 
the throne ? What is said of his descent 
and person ? What was his character as a 
sovereign ? To what end did he- come ? 
How long was his reign, and what took 
place during it ?-[In what did this emperor 
delight ? How did he act when the senate 
appointed others to the supreme power ? 
What is said of his strength and voracity ?] 
Who was now proclaimed ? 

30. When did Gordian assume the em- 
pire ? How old was he at this time ? State 
what he did. What part did Philip the 
Arabian act?-[How was Gordian's fondness 
for learning shown ?] 

31. When did Philip acquire the empire? 
How long did he reign ? What was the 
manner cf his death ? 

32. Who succeeded in the empire? 
When ? What is said of Decius in respect 
to his activity ? What causes were enfee- 
bling the empire ? When and how did his 
reign terminate ? 

33. When and how was Gallus raised to 
the throne ? Give an account of his char- 
acter and the manner of his death. -[What 
happened during his reign ?] 

34. When did Valerian succeed to the 
throne ? What did he suffer ?-[To what 
use was he put by Sapor ? What was the 
manner of his death ?] 

35. Who was Gallienus, and when was he 
chosen emperor ? What is said of him af- 
ter his elevation? Of thirty pretenders? 
Of the emperor's death ? 

36. Who was now invested with the pur- 

Ele ? When ? What was the character of 
lauaius ? What kind of death did he die ? 
-[What is said of his military exploits ?] 

37. How and when was Aurelian chosen 
emperor? What is said of his parentage ? 



How did he pass his time alter his elevation? 
How did he fall?-[What is said of his 
strength ? Relate a further particular con- 
cerning him ?] 

38. Was a new emperor immediately 
elected ? When did Tacitus take the reins 
of government ? What was his character? 
How and at what age did he die ? 

39. Who succeeded Tacitus? Who, how- 
ever, was chosen by the army ? How long 
did Florian enjoy this distinction ? What 
became of him ? What was the character 
of Probus ? Why and by whom was he 
slain ?-[What is said of his parentage? Of 
his energy and virtue ? Repeat the story 
of Bonosus.] 

40. Who succeeded Probus? When? 
Who was Carus 1 Who were associated 
with him in command ? What was the char- 
acter of Carus ? Of his two sons? What 
is said of their reign ? What became of 
Carus and his sons?-[Tell the story of Nu- 
merian.] 

41. When did Diocletian begin his reign? 
Whom did he associate with himself inthe 
empire ? What did they achieve ? What 
step did they soon take ? What was the 
state of things at this time ? What did the 
two emperors do in a few years ? How did 
they feel and act from that time ? When 
did each die ?-[What was Diocletian's pa- 
rentage ? Why did he choose Galerius for 
his associate? What is further said of 
Diocletian ? Of Maximian ?] 

42. Who were now universally acknow- 
ledged emperors ? Who ruled the eastern ; 
who the western parts of the empire ? 
Who were the two partners whom Con- 
stantius and Galerius took in with them? 
What was the character of the two empe- 
rors respectively ? When did Constantius 
die, and whom did he leave as his succes- 
sor ? When and how did Galerius die ? 
What did he instigate Diocletian to do ? 
-[Of what did the western parts of the em- 
pire consist? Of what, the eastern ? Re- 
late an anecdote of Constantius.] 

43. What is said of the prevalence, and 
number of the persecutions of Christians 
during this period ? Name the persecuting 
emperors. From what motives did they 
act thus ? 

44. When did Judea become a province 
of the Roman empire ? When did the 
birth of our Saviour take place ? What 
did Herod do in reference to this occur- 
rence? What happened to him?-[In what 
year of the world was our Saviour born ? 
What era do we nevertheless adopt ? Can 
the mistake now be rectified ? Who were 
troubled by his birth ? How was Jesus in 
his infancy saved from the designs of He- 
rod ? What kind of life did our Saviour 
lead ? Under whom did he suffer ? What 
is further said of Christ?]- Are the affairs 
of the Jews at this period sufficiently im- 
portant to be particularized ?-[How was 
Judea divided at this time ? What is a te- 
trarchy ? Who held the different tetrarch- 
ies ? Who was the successor of Archelaus ? 
What is related concerning him ? Who 



atJESTIONS ON 



was the successor of Herod II. 1 Mention 
what is said in connexion with his name. 
Who was his successor, and what is said 
of him 1] 

' 45. When and by whom was Jerusalem 
attacked ? What was the cause ? How 
Were the Jews treated ? How many of 
them perished? What did they suffer? 
What will the reader of the Bible see and 
learn in these events ?-[Under what em- 
peror did the Jewish war commence ? Who 
was his general ? Who at length prosecuted 
the war? Mention the particulars narrated.] 

46. Was Jerusalem rebuilt after this ? 
What followed ? When was the city finally 
destroyed? When it was afterwards built 
over anew, what was it called ? 

47. At the beginning of this period, under 
what sway did Parthia continue ? When 
did the second branch of the Arsacidas 
commence ?-[What is said of Veronesl.?] 

48. Under whom did the second branch 
commence? How long did it last ? What 
is further related of the Parthians ?-[What 
is said of Artabanus V. ?] 

49. How long had Persia been subject to 
the Parthians from the time that it was 
brought under the Macedonian yoke ? 
When and by whom was the Persian em- 
pire restored? What happened between 
the Persians and Romans under Artaxares ? 
What is said of Sapores I. ? By what name 
was the present dynasty called ?-[What is 
further said of Sapores ? What is said of 
Hormisdas II. ?] 

50. When did the fifth dynasty of China 
commence ? When did it terminate ? 
What is it called ? During how many years, 
and under how many emperors did it last ? 
Who was the head of it ?-[What is related of 
Kao-Tsou ? What of Vuti ?]-When did the 
sixth dynasty begin and end ? What is it 
called ? How was China divided at this 
time? 

Distinguished Characters. 
Who were the distinguished characters 
of this period, and in what respects distin 

fuished?-[l. What is said of the fame of 
.ivy ?- What of his Roman history ? 
2." To what study was Ovid irresistibly 
inclined ? What was his fate in life ? How 
are his poems characterized ? 

3. Relate what is said of Tibullus. 

4. What, only remains of Strabo's works ? 
Describe it. 

5. Mention the circumstances in the life 
of Seneca. 

6. Relate the facts in Lucan's life, What 
is the character of his Pharsalia ? 

7. What is said of the sfudiousness of 
Pliny ? Give an account of his work on 
Natural History. How did lie lose his life ? 

8. (Jive the history of Quintillian. What 
is Raid of his Institutions? 

9. Give the particulars of the life of Ta- 
citus. Describe his writings. 

10. Mention the facts in Plutarch's life. 
What is said ofhis Lives ofTllustrious Men 1 

11. What can you say of Juvenal's life ? 
What of hi3 pieces 1 



12. Give an account of the character of 
M. Antoninus. Of his Meditations. 

13. Who was Tertullian, and what do Ms 
writings evince ? Which are the most es- 
teemed of his works ? 

14. Give an account of the life, character, 
and writings of Origen. 

15. What is said of Cyprian ?] 

PERIOD II. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 

1. When was Constantine proclaimed ? 
Who had been proclaimed before him, and 
who had declared himself at the same time ? 
Whom did Galerius create emperor ? Were 
these rivals of Constantine soon removed ? 
What has Constantine been styled ? What 
did he do in this character? What has 
been assigned as the cause of this ? If the 
cause were real, would it account for his 
conduct ?-[Give an account of his seeing 
the cross. What occurred in 314?] 

2. How was Constantine's administration 
at first, compared with what it was after- 
wards ?-[In what light has his- character 
been considered ? What ought we to think 
of it.?]-Of what change in the empire was 
he the author, aside from its religious 
change ? Can his motives for this be ascer 
tained? What was the effect of the mea- 
sure ? How and when did he die ?-[How 
was the new seat of empire said to have 
been pointed out?l-How long are the histo 
ries of Rome and Constantinople blended ? 

3. What is said of the corruption of Rome 
at this time ? What held the empire longer 
together ? What specially tended to over 
throw the fabric at this period ?-[What is 
said of the Roman armies ?] 

4. On whom did Constantine settle the 
empire ? When did their sovereignty com 
mence? Who of these remained in pos- 
session of the whole empire, and how did it 
happen ? How long and in what manner 
did Constantius reign ?-[By what enemies 
was the West annoyed ? By what the East ? 
Whom did Constantius create Caesar ? De- 
scribe his person and character.] 

5. On what account was Julian called the 
apostate? When was lie acknowledged by 
the senate ? How was he situated in re- 
spect to Constantius? Describe his char- 
acter. What did he do in favour of pagan- 
ism ? What did he attempt in respect to 
Jerusalem ? How and at what age did he 
die ?-[In what manner did he treat the 
Christians? Which is the most famous of 
his compositions ? How were his last mo- 
ments spent ? Why did he attempt to re- 
build the temple at Jerusalem? What is 
farther said on this subject.] 

6. What was tlie condition ofthings on the 
death of Julian ? Who was finally fixed on 
as emperor? When? What did Jovian do 
in respect to the Persians!? What in res 
pect to the church ? How long was his 
reign and a' r o?-!rJcntion a circumstance 
respecting his death.] 

7. When was Valentinian I. elected ? 
Whom did he associate with him ? When 



MODERN HISTORY. 



was the division of the empire perfected ? 

Was it still considered as one ? What ene- 
mies attacked the empire ? How did the 
emperor demean himself? When did he 
die?- [Mention the manner of his death.] 
What is said of Valens ?-[What did he do in 
respect to the Huns? How did he pe- 
rish ?] 

8. When did Gratian succeed his father? 
Upon the death of Valens whom did Gratian 
associate with him ? How long did he reign ? 
What was his character ?-[What was the 
occasion of his death ? In what year ?] 

9. Who succeeded Gratian? What oc- 
curred to Valentinian II. ? What became 
of the tyrant Eugenius ? 

10. In the East who succeeded after Va- 
lens ? When ? What was Theodosius sur- 
named? Why so? What is said of Chris- 
tianity at this time ? When did Theodosius 
possess the whole empire ? Did any em- 
peror afterwards reign over both the East 
and West ?-[Who was Theodosius ? What 
victory did he obtain soon after his election ? 
What did he do in 390 ? Which religious 
party did he espouse ? By what was his 
faith said to be confirmed?] 

11. What circumstance favoured the pro- 
jects of the barbarians? Who were the 
Huns ? Where did a part of them settle ? 
-[What is further said of them?] Who were 
the Alains ? How early did they invade the 
empire ?-[What is further said of them?] 
Whence came the Vandals? Where did 
they settle once and again ?-[What is further 
said of them? Whence originated the 
Goths ? Where did they first settle ? What 
division did they form?-[What is further 
said of them ?] Whence did the Heruli 
originate ? Where did they emigrate first 
and last?-[What is further said of them ?] 
Who were the Gepida? ? Where did they 
fix first and last ?-[What is further said of 
them ?] Who were the Suevi, and where 
did they live ?-[What is further said of 
them?] What was the country of the Bur- 
gundians ? Name a few others of the bar- 
barians ? 

12. In the West who held the sceptre ? 
To whose vigour was it owing that the bar- 
barians were repelled for a time ? Whom 
did Stilicho defeat ? When did Alaric take 
R.ome ? For how many years had the city 
been unmolested by a foreign enemy? 
-[What was one cause of the attacks of the 
barbarians ? From what regions did they 
issue ? How did Stilicho act against them 1 
What fate did he experience ? What tribe 
joined Alaric? What was the number and 
character of Rome's population at this time ? 
What hastened the fate of the city ? What 
completed the work ?] What became of 
Alaric ? What did Honorius now do ? To 
what year did he continue to reign ? 

13. When was Valentinian III. crowned? 
Who was he ? What resulted from the re- 
volt of Count Boniface ?-[How was Boniface 
drawn into a revolt. ? Whom did he call to 
his assistance ? What did Genseric do ?] 
What is said of the Huns under Attila? 
Who checked their progress for a time ? 



What saved the Western empire from im- 
mediate destruction ?-[Give an account of 
Attila?] What became of Aetius? What of 
the emperor ? 

14. When was Maximus TI. proclaimed 1 
To what circumstance did he owe his death? 

I -[What is further said of Maximus ?] How 
1 came Genseric into Italy? How did he deal 

with Rome ? How with the Empress Eu- 

doxia? 

15. In what year did Maximus die ? How 
many emperors were there from that time 
to the termination of the empire ?-[What is 
said of Avitus ? OfMajorian? OfServe- 
rusIII. ? OfAthemius? OfOlybrius? Of 
Glycerus? Of Julius Nepos ? OfAugus- 
tulus ?] 

16. When was the Eastern empire finally 
separated from the Western ? What was 
the character of Arcadius ? 

17. When did Theodosius II. succeed to 
the empire? What was his character? 
By whom were his deficiencies supplied 1 
-[Relate the story of Athenais.] 

18 When and by whom was Marcian called 
to the throne ? How long was his reign 1 
-[What was the reply of Marcian to Attila?] 

19. When was Leo I. called to the em- 
pire? What is said of his domestic ene- 
mies ? what of the Goths ? When did he 
die ?-[Repeat an anecdote of Leo.] 

20. By how many princes was Persia 
governed during this period ? When was 
the nation at war with the Romans, and 
when at peace with them?-[What is said of 
Sapores II. ? What of Sapores III. ?] 

21. When did the seventh and eighth dy- 
nasties of China end ? Under which of 
these did the empire become united ? Men- 
tion particulars concerning this and the 
eighth ?-[What is said of Venti and his 
brother ?] 

Distinguished Characters. 
Who were the distinguished characters 
in this period, and in what were they emi- 
nent ?-[l. What was the character of Lac- 
tantius as a writer? What were his prin- 
cipal works ? When did he die 1 

2. Who was Ossian ? What is the char- 
acter of his poems ? Is not their authenti- 
city doubtful? 

3. What is said of the life, character and 
writings of Eusebius ? 

4. When did Eutropius live? What is 
said of his Roman history ? 

5. To what has the change in Julian's re- 
ligious opinions been ascribed ? What 
powers has he shown in his writings ? 

6. Who was Basil ? What does Mosheim 
say of him ? 

7. What is said of the life and writings of 
Gregory Nazianzen ? 

8. When did Claudian flourish ? What 
is the character of his poems ? 

9. Give an account of the life and writings 
of St. Chrysostom. 

10. Who was St. Augustine? By what 
was he characterized ? What has been 
pronounced respecting his book of the Citv 
of God ?] 



QTJ EST IONS ON 



PERIOD III. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod 7-[When did the dark ages commence ? 
How long did they last ? What is a proper 
view of them ?] 

1. When was the Western empire extin- 
guished ? By whom was this done ? Who 
was emperor at that time ?-[ What cause led 
to the invasion of Rome under Odoacer ? 
What became of Augustulus ?] How long 
had Rome existed as an empire ? How long 
from the building of the city ? What was 
the cause of the ruin of the empire ?-[Must 
Rome have iallen without the agency of the 
Northern invaders ? Why ? What was 
the situation of the Eastern empire after 
the fall of the Western? Mention one rea- 
son why the Eastern empire continued so 
long?] 

2. What is the Eastern empire sometimes 
called ? Under whose sway was it in 474 ? 
On what account was he odious, and how 
did he perish? How long was his reign? 

[What is said of Verina ? Mention the 
manner of Zeno's death?] 

3. When was Anastatius raised to the 
throne ? How long did he reign, and what 
was the character of his reign ? 

4. Who now ascended the throne ? How 
did Justin govern? In what war did he 
engage ?-[Mention some further particulars 
resoecting him.] 

5. When did Justinian I. assume the go- 
vernment? What is said of his personal 
character? What of his reign? What form 
an era in history? What is said of Belisa- 
rius, and of Justinian's treatment of him? 
-[What is further said of Belisarius in the 
war with the Persians ? What in the sedi- 
tion of Constantinople ? In the war with 
the Vandals? In the war with the Goths? 
Where and how were his declining years 
passed?]- What is said of Narses? At what 
age did Justinian die ? What were his vices, 
and what his virtues ? What was the char- 
acter of the age in which he lived ? What 
the condition of the empire? 

6. When did Justin II. ascend the throne ? 
What was his character, and what befel 
him? Who was associated with him in the 
empire ? With what losses and evils was 
it affected ?-[What advice did he give to Ti- 
berius ? How long was his reign ?] 

7. When did Tiberius possess the throne ? 
By what was his reign rendered glorious ? 
What was his character ?-[On whom did he 
bestow his diadem?] 

8. When did Maurice ascend the throne ? 
How long was his reign? What was his 
character ? What did he do in 602 ? What 
ensued ?-[Give an account of his trials at 
last?] 

9. Who now took the throne? When? 
What was his character and end?-[Whatis 
said of his cruelty?] 

10. When was Heraclius I. crowned? 
What is said of his war with the Persians? 
How long was his reign ?[What occurred 
■luring the last of his reign ?] 

11. What was the kingdom called which I 



was built on the ruins of the Western em- 
pire ? How long did the conquerors hold 
it ? Mention the transfers from one tribe to 
another, and the length of time each one 
held the sovereignty. 

12. What is said of the kingdom of the 
Heruli ?-[Mention particulars respecting 
Odoacer.] 

12£. When did the kingdom of the Ostro- 
goths begin? Who was their king? Where 
did he fix his residence? How long was his 
reign ? Whatwas his character ?-[Mention 
other particulars of him.] 

13. How many kings succeeded Theodo- 
ric? Who are the best known of them ? 
When did Narses retake Italy ? 

14. When did the kingdom of the Lorn. 
bards follow? Who invited Alboin their 
king into Italy ?-[Mention the circumstances 
of Alboin's death.] 

15. What is said of Alboin's successors? 
-[What is considered by some as the origin 
of the feudal system?] 

16. In Persia how many kings reigned 
during this period? Of these who was the 
most conspicuous? What is said of the 
war between the Persians and Romans I 
-[Give an account of Chosroes II. Of Chos- 
roes III.] Did Persia soon become a part 
of the empire of the Caliphs? 

17. In China how many dynasties were 
there during this period? What was the 
character of several of the sovereigns? 
What occurred in the reign of Yang-ti l 
-[What is said of one of the sovereigns I 
Before the subversion of the Western em- 
pire what occurred to some of its nations .' 
What two nations may date their separate 
existence from that event? Did the seve- 
ral nations then become detached from one 
another? How are they here considered <1 

18. What is said of Spain while consti- 
tuting a portion of the empire? What is 
said of the Alains in 418? Of the Suevi I 
Of the Vandals ? Of the Visigoths ?-[Whnt 
is said of the names of Spain ? Of its in- 
habitants ? Of its subjugation at different 
times ?] 

19. What was France anciently called? 
When and among whom was it divided f 
Who is the founder of the French mon- 
archy? When? Into how many and u I ir,t 
dynasties have the French kings been divi- 
ded? Who gave name to the first dynasty ? 
To what year did it continue ?-[Give an ac- 
count of the Franks. What is said of Clo- 
vis ? By whom was Clovis followed ?] 

20. What was the ancient name of Eng- 
land 7 How long had the Romans abandon- 
ed it before the subversion of the empire ? 
What happened to the inhabitants in the 
mean time? Whose assistance did they 
seek? When did the tribes from the conti- 
nent arrive ? What followed ? How long 
were the Saxons in subduing the Britons 1 
What is meant by the Heptarchy ?-[De- 
scribe the original inhabitants. Whence 
was the name England derived ? By whom 
was the island first settled ? When and by 
whom was the Roman dominion in Britain 
begun ? Describe the successive conquests 



MODERN HISTORY. 



and acts of the Romans there under Claudi- 
us and Nero. By Agricola, and Adrian. 
Who invited the German tribes to Britain ? 
Who were their leaders ? Who first be- 
came sole king of England ? When?] 

Distinguished Characters. 
Who were the distinguished characters 
of this period, and for what were they cele- 
brated HI- What is said of Proclus as a 
philosopher ? What of his industry ? 
What vain labour did he undertake ? 

2. Mention particulars respecting the life 
and writings of Boethius. 

3. Who was Procopius, and when did he 
llourish ? What is said of his History of 
the reign of Justinian ? 

4. Who was Cassiodorus, and to what did 
his writings relate ? 

5. What can you further say of Belisari- 
us ? 

6. Who was Gildas ? What is said of his 
Epistle ?J 

PERIOD IV. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod ?-[What is said of the darkness in Eu- 
rope during this period ? How was the case 
in the East ?] 

1. Give an account of the character and 
origin of the Arabs. Whence is their name 
Saracen derived ? What is said of them in 
reference to Rome and Persia ? Where 
and when was Mahomet born ? In 609 what 
did he begin to do ? How were his impos- 
tures received ? What year was the hegira ? 
What led to that ? What countries did he 
conquer ? When did he die ? How many 
branches of his family did he leave ?-[What 
is the opinion of some historians respecting 
Mahomet ? What great men were among 
his followers ? How were the Arabs and 
Greeks brought into contact? To what 
causes did Mahomet owe his success in 
part ?]-What are the followers of this im- 
postor called ? What is the book containing 
their creed called? What are their priests 
called? How did Mahomet propagate his 
religion ? 

2. What are Caliphs ? Who was the first 
Caliph ? Whom did Mahomet appoint ? To 
what did this give rise ? How many sects 
are there ? What are their names ? Men- 
tion what they believe, and who they are. 
What course did Abu-beker pursue?-[What 
occurred between him and Omar?]-When 
did Omar begin to reign? What did he 
achieve in his first and second campaign? 
-[What did his general, Amrou, do ?]-What 
is said of Othman ? What of Ali ?-[Relate 
the story of Ayesha.] 

3. In what time did the Saracens rear a 
powerful empire ? In a century how far did 
their dominion extend ? How many caliphs 
were there of Omar's race ? What dynasty 
succeeded ? What is said of Almanzor ? 
-[Relate the story of Abu Hanifa.]-Who 
ascended the thi-one in 785 ? By what was 
he distinguished ? When did he die ? To 
what sciences were the Arabians chiefly 
devoted ?-[Mention the conquests of Al 



Raschid. Repeat two anecdotes concern- 
ing him.] 

4. What inroads did the Saracens make 
upon the Eastern empire 1 With what 
success did they besiege Constantinople 1 
-[Give an account of the Greek fire.]- When 
did Justinian II. succeed to the empire * 
What of his character ? What became of 
him ? Who were some of the emperors 
that followed ? What is said of Leo III. ?- 
[What can you say of the conduct and end 
of Irene ?] j 

5. To what year did the Kingdom of Italy 
continue? How long had the Lombard 
kings ruled it ? How many kings reigned 
during the remainder of its existence % 
Name the principal of them. By what 
means did the kingdom come to an end ?- 
[Mention particulars respecting Cunibert, 
Luitprand, Rachisius, Astolphus, Didier.] 

6. How long did Spain continue under 
the dominion of the Visigoths ? By whom 
was it then conquered ? What part re- 
mained free from the Moors ? What small 
kingdoms were founded there ?-[Who was 
sent to conquer Spain ? How was a union 
formed between the conquerors and the 
vanquished ?] 

7. When was Spain formed into an inde- 
pendent kingdom ? What part remained 
true to the Christian faith ? By whom and 
where was learning encouraged ? 

8. In what way did the Merovingian kings 
of France enjoy scarcely more than the 
name? Who was mayor of the palace in 
the time of Thierry ? What did he do ? 
What is said of Pepin's son ? 

9. To whom is it owing under Providence 
that the Mahometan dominions did not ex- 
tend over Europe ?-[How was this achiev- 
ed ?]-What more is said of Charles ? Who 
were mayors of the palace after his de- 
cease? On whom did the sole administra- 
tion at length devolve ? Why ? When was 
Pepin Le Bref made king, and what race 
now succeeded ?-[What did he do soon after 
he was crowned ?] 

10. How did the temporal authority of the 
popes commence ? How were the limits of 
France extended ? When did Pepin die 1 
-[Relate an anecdote of him.] 

11. Between whom where the dominions 
of Pepin divided? Who soon obtained the 
whole ? By what name is Charles known 
in history ? What is said of his character ? 
Of his treatment of the Saxons ? Against 
whom was he successful in war ?-[What is 
said of his person and mind? Of his efforts 
in correcting the habits of his subjects? 
When did he experience a disaster in war ?] 

Distinguished Characters. 
Who were the distinguished characters 
in this period, and for what were they cele- 
brated ?-[l. What kind of knowledge had 
Mahomet? Describe the arguments he 
employed to persuade men to embrace his 
religion. What peculiar doctrine did he 
invent ? What is said of his person, and 
intellectual and moral qualities 1 Mention 
particulars respecting his death. 



QUESTIONS ON 



2. Who was Adhelme? When did he 
die ? What is related of him as a writer ? 

3. Who was Bede ? On what subject is 
he celebrated as a writer ? Did he write 
on other subjects ? What is said of his last 
sickness, and when was his death ? 

<- 4. Give some further account of Charles 
Martel. 

5. When did John Damascenus flourish ? 
Give some particulars of his life. What 
does Mosheim, say of him?] 

PERIOD V. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 

1. What was included in the New West- 
ern empire ? When was the title of the 
emperor of the West conferred on Charle- 
magne ? What should he have done in 
order to restore the empire of the Romans ? 
What countries were included under the 
New Western empire ?- Did it long conti- 
nue ?-[Mention the manner in which Charle- 
magne was crowned.] 

2. Who succeeded him ? When? What 
part of the empire did not come into the 
hands of Louis the mild ? Whom did he 
associate with him in the empire ? On what 
account did Louis do penance ? What is 
said of his children in connexion with him ? 
-[What was the cause of their disaffection ? 
Relate a circumstance connected with the 
death of Louis.] 

3. Who succeeded Louis in a part of his 
dominions? When? What was the occa- 
sion and result of the battle of Fontenay ? 
Which of the brothers retained the title of 
emperor ? How did they divide the empire 
among themselves ? How did it become 
lost to France ?-[What further is said of the 
battle of Fontenay ? What of the Normans ?] 
(1) When did Lothaire, the emperor, die ? 
Who was his successor ? (2) What was 
the character of Louis ? When did he die ? 
(3) When did Charles assume the empire? 
What is said of his reign ? What is the 
condition of the grandees under the Carlo- 
vingian kings ? Why is it necessary to re- 
sume our narrative of individual countries ? 

4. Upon the death of Charles (the Bald) 
who succeeded as king of France ? When ? 
How long was his reign ? Who were his 
successors? What is said of their reign ? 
-[Mention the manner of their death.] 

5. When and how did Charles the Fat 
come to the throne ? Who was he ? When 
was the imperial dignity transferred to 
Germany ? On what account ? Who was 
then chosen king? Who next in 898? 
Who became king in 922? When did 
Ralpho succeed ?-[Whence was Normandy 
named?] 

6. Who was Louis IV. and when did he 
come to the throne ? What is said of Hugh 
the Great and Hugh Capet under several of 
the French kings ?-[ What does the fact 
that two of these kings were poisoned by 
their queens show ?] 

7. Who was the head of the third dynas- 
ty of French kings? When did he begin 
to reign 1 What was the character of his 



administration ?-[Who was true heir to tLe 
crown ?] 

8. When did Robert succeed? Mention 
the circumstance of his excommunication 
by the pope. -[What is said of the supersti- 
tion of the times ? Was the king happy in 
his second marriage ? What remarkable 
fact is mentioned in regard to Languedoc ?] 

9. How and when did Henry secure the 
throne ? What was his character ?-[What 
is said of a famine ?] 

10. To whom did Henry leave his crown ? 
When ? What is said of him as a sovereign ? 

11. When was Charles the Bald pro- 
claimed king of Italy 7 What was the state 
of Italy after his death ? When did Otho 
the Great, reunite it to the German empire 1 
What however happened to it during two 
centuries ?-[What anecdote is related of 
Otho II. ?]-When was the temporal power ot 
the popes founded? Relate the history of it. 

12. What proportion of Spain did the 
Christians possess ? Mention the provinces. 
By whom was the remainderof thepeninsula 
occupied? What is said of Cordova ? What 
circumstance would have favoured the 
Christians in regaining the whole kingdom, 
had they been disposed ?-[How long did the 
splendour of Cordova last? What added to 
the divided state of Spain ? Who was -the 
most distinguished of the knights-errant ?] 

13. What was the condition of Germany 
previously to the era of Charlemagne ? 
When was it separated from France ? 
How has it stood related to Charlemagne's 
empire ? Who is now nominally regarded 
as the successor of the Roman emperors ?- 
[Relate some of the particulars in the early 
history of Germany.] 

14. Who succeeded Charles the Bald ? 
When? What other country did he go- 
vern? 

15. When was Arnold proclaimed ? 
What occurred during his reign? Who 
was the last emperor in the male line from 
Charlemagne ?-[IIow did he die ?]-Froin 
what time did the empire become elective ? 

16. When was Conrad elected? What 
did he do ? 

17. Who succeeded Conrad? What were 
the character and deeds of this prince ?- 
[Was he zealous for religion ?] 

18. Who was Otho I. the Great? When 
was he elected ? What events marked his 
reign ? What is his reputation ? How long 
was his reign? Where was he interred?- 
[To what did Otho owe his ascendency in 
Italy ? For what purpose did he visit Italy ? 
Relate an incident in Otho's life, showing 
the power of parental love.] 

19. Who were the successors of Otho I. 
down to the time of Henry IV.? 

20. Who succeeded in 1056? Detail his 
history in regard to his contests with the 
popes. How long did he live and reign 1 
What was his character ?-[What story is 
told of his treatment from one of the 
popes?] 

21. When did England become one entire 
kingdom 1 By whom was this change ef- 
fected ? What was the occasion of it 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 



IS What disturbed the prosperity of the 
English for a long time ? Between whom 
was England divided by Ethelwolf?-[What 
did he grant to the priesthood ?]-What bro- 
ther succeeded Ethelbald and Ethelbert? 
When did Alfred succeed? 

23. What was the state of his kingdom at 
first! What is said of his talents, &c. ? 
What did he do for his realm ?-[What plan 
showed the wisdom of his civil institutions ? 
describe it.]- What contests had he with the 
Danes? What was his situation at one 
time ? How long was his reign ?-[In what 
manner did he cut off the Danes 1] 

24. Who was the successor of Alfred? 
How did he conduct affairs? How long Was 
his reign ? 

25. Who succeeded Edward? What was 
his character? What did he encourage? 
How long was his reign ?-[What is said of 
the translation of the Bible?] 

26. Who succeeded Athelstan ? When ? 
How clfd he die? Who succeeded Ed- 
mund ? When ? What was his character l- 
[What is said of Dunstan ?] 

27. Wild now filled the throne? Why 
was he persecuted by the monks '-[What 
became of his wife ?] 

28. When did Edgar come to the throne? 
What is said of his private . character ? 
What of his administrations '-[Hcnvdid Ed- 
gar obtain his wife, Elfrida?] 

29. Who succeeded Edgar? Who was 
Ethelred II. ? What was" his surname ' 
What barbarous deed did he order ? How 
vyas it revenged? To whom did the Eng- 
lish offer the kingdom ? Who at length as- 
serted it by arms? Who was the succes- 
sor of Elhelred ? With whom was he 
obliged to divide his kingdom? When did 
Canute become sole king ? What is said of 
him as a sovereign ?-[f low was he affected 
towards the latter part of his life ?] 

30. Which two of the sons of Canute suc- 
ceeded him? Did they reign long? Upon 
their death, what did the English do 1 When 
did Edward the Confessor begin to reign? 
What was his merit? .Whom did he ap- 
point, to the throne ?-[What did Edward do 
as to the laws?] 

31. On the death of Edward, who took 
possession of the throne? Describe the 
contest between him and William, duke of 
Normandy. What was the character of 
William's administration ? By what means 
did he alienate the minds of the conquered ? 
-[Of what other regulations was he the au- 
thor ? What is the Doomsday book?]- What 
other events are recorded oi'hhn ? Describe 
his eharacter.-fWhat is said of his person? 
Relate an incident in his contest with his 
son.] 

32. Who next ascended the throne ? 
When ? What was the character of Ru- 
fus? How was his life terminated ?-[By 
what is his name perpetuated?] 

33. In the Eastern empire, how many 
emperors were there during this period? 
What is said of their character ? How did 
the Greeks compare with the other nations 
of Europe at this time ?-[What regions re- 



mained to the empire in the tenth century 1 
What is further said of the arts, &c. of the 
Greeks? What was the character of Ba- 
sil 1. ? What incident is related of his 
reign? What was the reputation of Nice- 
phorus Phocas ? Relate an instance of cru- 
elty in Basil II.] 

34. In the history of China, how many- 
dynasties and emperors were included in 
this period? What occurred in the reign 
of Tai-tsong?- [What was the character of 
this prince ? What is said of Chwang-tsong ?] 

35. What was the condition of the Sara- 
cens, as to science, &c. at the beginning of 
this period ? How did Arabia lose much of 
its importance after a time ?-[What pre- 
vented the Saracens from perpetuating an 
immense empire ?] 

36. In what military expedition did the 
African Saracens engage during this peri- 
od ? What was the result ? 

37. When was Bagdad taken by the 
Turks? What ensued ?-[What is said oi 
Adadodawla ? What striking anecdote is 
related of Matimud Gazni ?] 

Distinguished Characters. 
Who were the distinguished characters 
of this period, and for what were they dis- 
tinguished H'l. What .more particulars can 
be given of Charlemagne as a sovereign? 
As io his private character? 

2. Who was Photius? What did he 
write I When did he die? 

3. Mention some particulars respecting 
Erigena. What did he write? 

4. -What is said of Alfred, as to his wisdom 
and piety ? How did he usually divide his 

5. What is said of the learning of Al Ra- 
zi? When did he die? 

6i At what time did Avicenna live ? 
What is said of his study of Aristotle? 

7. When did Suidas flourish? By what 
only is lie known ?] 

PERIOD VI. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod ?-[By what was the age peculiarly cha- 
racterized ?] 

1. In describing the Crusades, what do 
we include ? Who participated in them ? 

2. What were the crusades ? What their 
object? What their cause or origin? Who 
instigated them ?-[Why is Juclea interesting 
to the Christian world? Is the fanaticism 
of the crusaders, considering the age, much 
to be wondered at?] 

2k. How many, and how long continued) 
were the crusading expeditions? What 
nation was the most enthusiastic in them ? 
By whom was the first crusade preached? 
Who had previously contemplated the same 
design ?• How many councils were held for 
this object? Was Peter fitted for his place ? 
How many persons did he lead to the East ? 
When did they commence their march? 
How many soon followed them? What be- 
came of them?-[Who was Peter? How 
came he to conceive of such a project 1 
What did he do to engage Christians in it 1 



10 



btTEStiONS ON 



What sort of characters followed him ? 
How did they conduct themselves on their 
route ? What portion of them reached Pa- 
lestine? Where were the remainder de- 
feated ?] 

3. When did a new host arrive at Con- 
stantinople? What was the character of 
its commanders ? Mention them. What 
was the number of the Warriors, &c. ? 
With what result did they meet the Sara- 
cens ?-[What was the condition of Constan- 
tinople at this time ? How did the crusa- 
ders and the Greeks mutually regard each 
other? How did the emperor treat the 
Croises? Describe the qualities of their 
leaders. By what means did Nice fall ? 
How was Edessa conquered? How was 
Antioch taken? What was the conduct of 
the Croises here? What followed?] 

4. How and when was Jerusalem taken? 
How many of the first expedition were left 
to encamp about Jerusalem ? How many 
Europeans had by this time been sacrificed? 
What places had been gained ?-[Were the 
victories of the crusaders easily gained ? 
What embarrassments did they meet with? 
In taking Jerusalem, how did they treat their 
foes?] 

5. Who was placed at the head of the 
kingdom which the crusaders established 
in Palestine? To whom was he soon com- 
pelled to resign his kingdom? What act 
weakened the power of the crusaders ?- 
[What was obtained by the first crusade?] 

6. What is the date of the second cru- 
sade ? Who was the preacher of this cru- 
sade? What sovereigns were engaged in 
it? How large was their force? In what 
Way did the enterprise end in disaster ?- 
[Give an account of St. Bernard.] 

7. What was the state of the Holy Land 
Detween the second and third crusades? 

8. What was the occasion of the third 
crusade ? When was Jerusalem taken by 
Saladin ? How were the inhabitants treated ? 

9. How was Europe affected by the loss 
of Jerusalem ? Was a third crusade easily 
excited? What sovereigns were prevailed! 
on to engage ? How many forces had Philip 
and Richard? What became of Barbarossa 
and his army? From what cause Was it 
that Richard was at length left alone to sus- 
tain the conflict? Whom did he defeat? 
What befel him in attempting to return 
home ?-[ What is said of the treaty between 
Richard and Saladin? Relate the story of 
Richard's captivity.] 

10. How much did Richard do for Pales- 
fine? When was a fourth crusade filled 
out? Who was its leader? What enemy 
did they meet with ? What city did they 
take? What did the Venetians do in this 
enterprise ?-fWhy is it difficult to designate 
distinctly the several crusades ? What did 
the present crusade spring from? Who 
was its preacher? What is said of him? 
What was the condition of Constantinople 
at this time? What was the force of the 
allied army brought against it I By what 
excesses was their victory marked ?] 

11 How was Baldwin rewarded J What 



soon became of him ? How were tne lih* 
perial dominions shared? How long did 
the dominion of the Latins last ? 

12. What expeditions were fitted out sue* 
ceeding the crusade against the Greek em- 
pire? What seems to have been their ob- 
ject ? Did their acquisitions avail any thing 
in the end ? 

13. By whom was the last of the crusades 
led? Was the spirit now dying away? 
Who kept it alive for a few years? What 
was his character? When did Louis set 
out on his adventure ? What was his suc- 
cess in invading Egypt ? What did he do 
on returning to France? In what crusading 
project did he again engage? How did it 
end?-[What circumstance influenced Louis 
in the course he took? What incident 
showed his zeal ? What did the ransom ol 
Louis and his army cost him? By what 
people was he joined in his second expedi- 
tion ? Whither did the English portion ol 
the forces afterwards go ? Were they 
finally successful?] 

14. Mention some of the causes of the 
decline of the crusading spirit. 

i5. What different opinions have been 
entertained respecting the effects of the 
crusades ? What opinion is here maintain- 
ed? Might not the good which they are 
sometimes supposed to have produced, 
been more effectually realized in other 
ways? What considerations lead us to be- 
lieve that the evil greatly overbalances the 
good? 

16. When did Louis VI. ascend the 
throne of France ? What was the issue of 
his war with Henry I. of England? 

17. Who succeeded him? When? How 
long did he reign? In what way did he 
lose a portion of his monarchy ?-[To what 
superstition was he inclined?] 

18. Who ascended the throne in 11S0? 
How long was hi-, reign? What is said of 
him as a sovereign ? What were the most 
signal events of his reign ?-[How and when 
was Normandy re- united to the crown of 
France ?]-What institution may be dated 
from his reign? 

19. When did Louis VIII. mount the 
throne? When did he die ? What is said 
of him? 

20. When, and under whose regency did 
Louis IX. become king? What were his 
moral qualities ? What is said of his war 
with England ? 

21. Who succeeded? When? For what 
had he a passion ?-[What circumstance 
caused his death?] 

22. Who ascended the throne in 12S5? 
How did his disposition contrast with his 
person ? What resulted from his contest 
with the pope? What did he do in 1314?- 
[Menlion some particulars of his contest 
with the pope.] 

23. Who secured the throne of England, 
in 1100? Who was the rightful heir? 
How was Robert induced to forego his 
rinht ? How was he treated by Henry ? 
Was Henry's injustice visited upon him by 
Providence? What was his character !• 



MODERN HISTORY. 



11 



£HoW did Henry unite the Norman and 
Saxon blood? Tell the story of his sor's 
death ?] 

24. Who was crowned in 1135? TV whom 
did the crown belong of right? Hew did the 
contest which the Earl of Glcveester car- 
ried on against Stephen, &"A ? By what 
means was the succession, secured to Hen 
ry, son of Maud? Wha'» js said of Stephen's 
reign ?-[What gave to the aristocracy great 
power, during his reign ?] 

25. When did Henry II. succeed ? Of 
what race was he the first ? What is said 
of his power and dominions? What did 
England owe to him ? In what respect was 
Henry unfortunate?- [How was Becket pro- 
moted? What design had he in view? 
What is said of the ecclesiastics of those 
times ? What are called the Constitutions 
of Clarendon? Did Becket submit to them? 
What ensued in respect to him? To what 
superstitions did his death give rise ?]-What 
is said of Henry's conquest of Ireland ?- 
[What were the Irish in early times ? How 
did Henry divide Ireland ?]-What is said of 
his last years ? What contests had he with 
his sons ? By what means was his life ter- 
minated ?-[Tell the story of young Henry's 
death.]- What is said of the character and 
reign of Henry II. ? 

26. When did Richard I. succeed? What 
was his character ? How did his chivalric 
wars affect his country ? 

27. Who now succeeded? When did his 
reign commence and end ? By what was it 
marked? What occurred between him 
and the pope ? When, and by what means 
did John's subjects obtain the famous Mag- 
na Charta?-[Of what did this charter con- 
sist? What other charter did John grant ?]- 
In what state of affairs Was John suddenly 
called from life ?-[What was his character ?] 

28. Who was John's successor? What 
is said of his disposition and understanding? 
What of his reign ? Who attempted to wrest 
the sceptre from Henry ? What ensued ?- 
[From what era is dated the House of Com- 
mons ? What occurred in' the battle be- 
tween Prince Edward and Leicester ?]- 
What was the state of the kingdom during 
the latter part of Henry's reign? What 
was its length ? 

29. When was Edward I. crowned? What 
was his first object? What was his next 
project ?-[Whence is it that the eldest son 
of the king is styled Prince of Wales ? Who 
are the Welsh?]- What was Edward's next 
project ?-[What was the northern part of 
the island anciently called? When does 
the history of Scotland become more cer- 
tain? What is said of Malcom III. ? What 
was the state of Scotland under Alexander 
I, David I., and William I. ? What part did 
Edward take in a competition between 
Bruce and Baliol?]-How long did the war 
with Scotland continue ? Was the country 
finally conquered ? What was Edward pre- 

I)aring to do at the time of his death? How 
ong did he live and reign ?-[Tell the story of 
Wallace. What is said of Robert Bruce ?]- 
What. was the character of Edward 1 What 



is said of the constitution of England, during 
his reign ? 

30. What was the state of Germany, 
during this period? How were the empe- 
rors Frederick I. and Henry VI. treated by 
the popes ? What is said of the claims of 
the popes upon the empire ? What was a 
consequence of the contentions between 
the imperial and papal powers? What is 
said of Frederick II. ? What was the state 
of the empire after his death ?-[Who was 
at one time a nominal sovereign? What 
was the condition of the empire then? Re- 
late an anecdote of Henry VI. What was 
remarkable during the reign of Lotharius ?] 

31. Where have some of the affairs ot 
the Eastern empire been already narrated 1 
How many emperors were there during 
this period? When was Constantinople 
recovered from its Latin conquerors? By 
whom.?-[Tell how Constantinople was ta- 
ken. Describe the distinguished men be- 
sides PalcEologus. Detail the fate of An- 
dronicus.] 

32. Did the empire of the Saracens come 
to an end before the conclusion of this pe- 
riod? How long did they hold their do- 
main after it was recovered from the cru- 
saders ? When did the Tartars blot out the 
Saracen empire ? Who was the last of the 
caliphs ? What is said of the taking of Bag- 
dad ?-[What is related of the caliph Moham- 
med? WhatofAlMoktafi? WhatofMos- 
tasem ?] 

33. When did Genghis Khan and his suc- 
cessors establish their dominion in China 1 
What is said of Kublay, his son ? Who were 
the last sovereigns of the nineteenth dynas- 
ty ? How long did the Chinese dominion 
cease ? How did Kublay govern the Chi- 
nese ?-[Give an account of the Moguls and 
their conquests*] 

Distinguished Characters. 
Who were the distinguished characters 
in Period VI., and for what were they emi- 
nent ?-[Where and when was Abelard born 1 
What were the weak points in his charac- 
ter ? On what subjects did he write ? 

2. Who was Walter de Mapes ? What is 
said of his poetry? 

3. What is said of Averroes, in respect to 
his knowledge ? What was he in private 
life? 

4. Relate the particulars of the life of 
Genghis Khan. 

5. What is Said of the scholarship of 
Matthew Paiis? For what work was he 
peculiarly fitted? What is his great pro- 
duction ? 

. Give the history of Thomas Aquinas, 
Are his writings valuable ? 

7. When and where was Roger Bacon 
born ? What happened to him on account 
of his great attainments? Give some par- 
ticulars respecting his knowledge.] 

PERIOD VII. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 
1. On what account is the empire of the 



12 



QUESTIONS Oft 



Turks to be noted 1 When and under 
whom was their empire established ?-[What 
is said of the origin of the Turks ? Where 
did the Seljukide Turks found an empire ? 
When, and by whom was it destroyed ?]- 
How did Othman effect his object ? What 
prevented the Turks from subverting the 
Greek empire at an early period? Who 
were their principal sovereigns during this 
period ?-[What is said of Orehan? Who 
was Tamerlane ? Describe the contest be- 
tween him and Bajazet I. What is said of 
Amurath II. ?] 

2. What were the principal of the States 
of Italy ? When were most of them found- 
ed? 

3. When had Venice become considera- 
ble ? What conquests did the Venetians 
make afterwards? What is said of them 
as merchants? When and how did they 
lose many of their possessions ?-[Relate an 
incident in Venetian history?] 

4. When didFlorence become a republic? 
How long did it maintain its independence ? 
By what was it distinguished ? What is 
said of the family of the Medicis? 

5. What relation did Naples and Sicily 
bear to each other ? Between what powers 
were they the seats of war ? 

6 What was the condition of the Estates 
of the Church during this period? What 
event took place in regard to the popedom, 
in the time of Henry VII. ? By whom, and 
when was the change made ? When and 
by whom was the See removed back to 
Rome? What factions existed in regard 
to the popedom? How were they ended ? 
What has this division been called? 

7. When did Genoa become a republic? 
What afterwards befel the Genoese ?-[ What 
is said of them as a commercial people ?] 

8. Who succeeded Philip on the throne 
of France ? When ? Who was Philip V, 
and how long did he reign ?-[For what was 
Philip V. notorious ?] 

9. Who was his successor ?-[What is said 
of the Salic law?] 

10. When did Philip VI. come to the 
throne ? On what ground did Edward III. 
of England, claim it? What ensued ? What 
was Philip's character ?-[Why is the eldest 
son of the French king styled Dauphin ? 
What is said of a plague at this time ?] 

11. When did John the Good succeed? 
In what respect was he unfortunate ?- 
[What is said of his captivity ?] 

12. Who succeeded? What was achiev- 
ed in his reign ? What is said of him as a 
sovereign ? 

13. When did Charles VI. succeed to the 
kingdom ? Mention some of the events of 
his reign. What was the consequence of 
the battle of Agincourt? What was the 
character of Charles ?-[Describe the fleet 
which was fitted out to invade England.] 

14. When and where was Charles VII. 
crowned ? Where was Henry VI. of Eng- 
land crowned, at the same time? What 
ensued from this competition ? What re- 
markable transaction occurred at the siege 
of Orleans ?-[Tell the story of Joan of Arc.]- 



How was most of the French monaiehy 
placed under Charles's sway ?- [How *ras 
the death of Charles hastened ? What is 
said of the Pragmatic Sanction ?] 

14£. When did Edward II. ascend the 
throne of England? What was his cha- 
racter? What is said of his defeat at the 
battle of Bannockburn ? To whose wick- 
edness did he fall a victim ?-[Describe his 
battle with the Scots. Relate the circum- 
stances of his death.] 

15- Who succeeded him? When? Un- 
der whose regency? Where did he van- 
quish the Scots ? How long did war rage 
between France and England? Describe 
the two famous battles that were fought. 
-[How many of the French fell in the battle 
of Cressy ? In the battle of Poictiers, what 
happened to the French king ? What was 
the result of the battle of Durham, between 
the Scots and English?] 

16. What evils did Edward experience in 
the decline of life ? What was the charac 
ter of the Black Prince? In what year of 
his age and reign did Edward die ? What 
was his character ? 

17. Who was Richard II. ? When did 
he succeed? What was his character? 
What was the condition of his kingdom? 
How was he deprived of his sceptre and 
life ?-[How were the people disaffected to- 
wards the administration ? What number 
of people were headed by Wat Tyler, «fcc. ? 
In what way was Tyler destroyed, and or- 
der restored? What was the ground o! 
controversy between the houses of York 
and Lancaster ?] 

17J. Who was Henry IV. ? What is the 
date of his reign ? What trouble did he ex- 
perience ? Where did he defeat the male- 
contents ?-[Describe the battle.] 

18. What is said of Henry as a persecu- 
tor ? By what was the latter part of his life 
embittered ?-[Repeat an incident here nar- 
rated.]- When did Henry die? What was 
his character ? 

19. When did Henry V. ascend the 
throne ? What is mentioned respecting his 
reformation? With what force and suc- 
cess did he invade France ?-[How was the 
battle of Agincourt gained ?]-With what 
force and success did he invade France 
again? At what age did he die?-[What 
was agreed on at the treaty of Troyes 1 
What was Henry's character'?] 

20. At what age, and year, and under 
whose regency, did Henry VI. succeed his 
father ? At what age was he crowned king 
of France ? By what event was France 
saved? When an adult, what did Henry 

Srove to be ? What is said of his queen 
Targaiet? What insurrection occurred 
during his reign ?-[Relate the story of Jack 
Cade ?]-What encouraged the duke of York 
to assert his claim to the throne ? 

21. In the history of the German empire, 
what important event occurred in 1274? 
Give an account of it. What was the state 
of the empire when RhodolphUs ascended 
the throne 1 What was his character? 
-[What anecdote is related of him?] 



MODERN HISTORY. 



13 



22. Who was the next emperor ? When ? 
When did Albert I. succeed him? What 
resulted from his ill treatment of the Swiss ? 
How many pitched battles did their liberty- 
cost? Who was the instrument in pro- 
ducing this revolution ?-[Relate the story of 
William Tell.] 

23. How many emperors succeeded Al- 
bert during the remainder of this period? 
-[What is said of the infelicity of the coun- 
try in the reign of Henry VIII. What in- 
stance of fanaticism occurred in the reign 
of Louis V.?] 

24. What dynasties of the empire of 
China are included in this period? When 
was the famous canal dug ? What, is said 
of the establishment of Fo's religion ? How 
long did the 21st dynasty last ? How many 
emperors ?-[What is said of Chu? What 
is related of Ching-tsu ?] 

Distinguished Characters. 
Who were the distinguished characters 
of this period, and for what were they cele- 
brated ?-[l. What are the incidents in 
Dante's life? What is said of his literary 
works ? 

2. For what is Petrarch deservedly cele- 
brated? What is said of his genius and 
writings ? What was a very singular event 
of his life ? 

3. What is mentioned in the life of Boc- 
cace ? What was the character of his poet- 
ry and prose ? 

4. What exposed Wickliffe to the jealousy 
of the monks? Did they displace him? 
What ensued ? When tried as a heretic, to 
what circumstance did he owe his safety ? 
What work did he leave in print ? 

5. What was Froissart as a historian? 
Of what was he fond? 

6. Give an account of Gower. 

7. What is the character of Chaucer's 
poetry? How did he spend the latter part 
of his life?] 

PERIOD vm. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 

1. By what is the history of the Turkish 
empire signalized at this era? Who was 
the last emperor of the East? What was 
the state of his dominions ? Who was the 
leader on this occasion? Was it a difficult 
conquest ? How long had the Eastern em- 
pire subsisted? What countries were af- 
terwards subdued? By what means did 
Italy escape ?-[What was Mahomet's age at 
this time? What his force? How did the 
Greeks behave themselves ?]- What is said 
of Mahomet as a patron of arts ? Who were 
his successors during this period ?-[What 
is said of Baiazet II. ? Of Selim I. ? Of So- 
lymanl.? Of Selim II.? Of Amurath III. ? 
Of Mahomet III.?] 

2. In what respect chiefly are the events 
in Italian history important? What was 
the condition of Florence during this pe- 
riod? What family held sway there ? How 
long? What was included under the title 
of the Republic of Florence ?-[Wb«.t is said 



of Cosmo de Medici, as a man of wealthy 
taste, &c. ? What is said of Lorenzo ? Of 
Cosmo, the second of that name ? Relate 
the story respecting himself and his sons.] 

3. What was the condition of the Pope's 
dominions during this period? What was 
now the power of the papacy ? What was 
the conduct of Pope Alexander VI. relative 
to Charles VIII. ? How did Charles lose his 
conquest ?-[What lesson did Europe learn 
from the effect of this confederacy ? Re- 
late an anecdote illustrating the crimes and 
the punishment of Alexander and Csesar 
Borgia.] 

4. Who began to reign in France in 1461 ? 
What course did he pursue? What was 
his character? What good regulations did 
he leave? From his time, what was the 
French king styled ?-[What instance of bar- 
barity can be mentioned?] 

5. When and under whose regency did 
Charles VIII. succeed? How long did he 
reign ?-[What was his character ?] 

6. Who was Louis XR ? When did he 
ascend the throne ? How was he regarded 
by the French ? How did he lose his Italian 
possessions ?-[What did he say in justifying 
himself for the pardon of his enemies? 
Also in vindication of his economy?] 

7. Who was Francis I. ? When was he 
called to the throne ? State the cause and 
the consequences of the enmity between 
Francis and Charles V.-[In what particu- 
larly had Charles the superiority ? Which 
party was defeated in the battle of Biagras- 
sa ? What is related of the battle of Pavia ? 
What was the occasion of a league against 
Charles ? What was his success in invading 
Fx-ance ? What occasioned a renewed con- 
test? What saved France from ruin?] 

8. When did Francis die ? What is his 
reputation? What is said of the French 
court ?-[What does Millot say of his good 
and bad qualities?] 

9. When did Henry II. succeed his father? 
What was his character ? Did he continue 
the war in which his father engaged ? What 
was the event most glorious to his reign? 
Whence may the origin of the civil wars in 
France be dated ?-[By what accident was 
Henry deprived of life?] 

10. When was Francis II. raised to the 
throne? Whose husband was he? Give 
an account of the only important event in 
this reign ?-[What had the Protestants re- 
solved to do ? By whom were they secret- 
ly abetted?] 

11. Under whose regency did Charles IX. 
succeed his brother? When? What is 
said of the difficulties between the Catho- 
lics and Protestants ? From what cause did 
they go at length to war ?-[ What is said of 
the extent of the Protestant religion under 
Francis I. ? Of its persecution under Hen- 
ry H. ? Of the conference at Poissy? What 
did the Protestants obtain by the war ? 
Give an account of the massacre of St. Bar- 
tholomew. What was the effect of this on 
Calvinism?] 

12. Who was the successor of Charles 
IX. ? What was his character ? What did 



j.4 



QUESTIONS ON 



the Catholics do against the Huguenots in 
His reign ?-[Of what weak policy was the 
king guilty? How did he meet with his 
death?] 

13. To what house did the sceptre now 
pass 1 . As king of France, by what name 
was Henry III. of Navarre known ? What 
particulars are mentioned concerning him 
during the present period? 

14. By what means was Henry VI. of 
.England at length hurled from his throne ? 
On which side was justice? What were 
the symbols of the parties into which the 
English people were divided? When did 
hostilities commence ?-[Mention the princi- 
pal battles that were fought previous to the 
accession of Edward IV.] 

15. When did Edward IV. fully consider 
himself as king ? Who was he ? In what 
battle did he finally triumph over the Lan- 
casterians? What became of King Henry 
and the Prince of Wales ?-[Relate the story 
of the young prince. ]-What was the charac- 
ter of Edward, when secure on the throne ? 
How and at what age did he die ? 

16. When, and under whose protection, 
did Edward V. succeed his father? What 
soon became of him and his brother ? Who 
caused himself to be proclaimed at the same 
time ?-[Relate the story of the two young 
princes.] 

17. Who avenged the crimes of Richard ? 
When was the battle of Bosworth fought ? 
What did it terminate ?-[What is said of the 
person of Richard?] 

18. What title did the Earl of Richmond 
assume? When? How did he unite the 
rights of the two houses ? Of what house 
was he the first king ? By what means did 
Henry produce a degree of discontent 
among his people ? Was the general tran- 
quillity of his reign sometimes disturbed? 
-[What is related of certain impostors ?]- 
What was characteristic of all the Tudor 
sovereigns ? How was Henry useful to the 
nation ? What was the greatest stain in his 
character ? 

19. Who succeeded to the throne? 
When? What were his prospects? Were 
the hopes entertained respecting him, ful- 
filled? What did he prove to be? What 
influence had Wolsey over him ? 

20. What is said of Henry's war with 
Louis XII. of France ? What was the issue 
of the battle of Flodden Field? In what 
other wars was Henry engaged? From 
what did the most important events in Hen- 
ry's reign proceed ? What was one of those 
events? Give an account of it?-[What be- 
came of Wolsey ? At what age did Henry 
die?] 

20£. Who was Edward VI. ? When did 
he ascend the throne ? Under whose re- 
gency ? What is said of his character and 
death? What was the religious state of 
the people? From what circumstance did 
a war with the Scots ensue ?-[Relate what 
is said of his tender and benevolent turn of 
mind.] 

21. Who succeeded him? Why is she 
Called " bloody Mary 1" What was her die- 



position ? What object had she in view 1 
-[What was the effect of her cruelties, in 
putting some of the most eminent reform- 
ers to death ?] By what was the beginning 
of Mary's reign stained ? Who was Mary's 
husband? Had he any share in the admi- 
nistration ? What occasioned her death ? 
-[Relate the story of Jane Grey. In what 
estimation was she held ?] 

22. When did Elizabeth succeed to the 
throne ? How did the English people view 
this event? What proceeded from her wise 
counsels and administration ? Did she ever 
employ questionable means ? What dispo- 
sition did she often manifest ? How is her 
fame affected by her treatment of Mary, 
queen of Scots ?-[Give an account of the 
defeat of the Invincible Armada. Relate 
the story of Queen Mary. For what was 
she celebrated ? How has her lot in life 
been viewed by mankind ? Who was Eliza- 
beth's favourite, in the early part of her life ? 
Who after Leicester's death ? How did 
Essex incur the resentment of Elizabeth ? 
What became of him ? How did his fate 
affect the queen?] 

23. What were the moral and intellectual 
traits of Elizabeth? 

24. Who ruled Germany, at the com- 
mencement of this period ? What did he 
do relative to Austria, and his own family ? 
How long was his reign ? 

25. Who succeeded him? When? What 
is said of his qualities ? What did ho 
achieve for Germany ?-[What is said re- 
specting his memory ?] 

26. Who succeeded him ? When ? 
-[Whose son was Charles ?]-Mention some 
of the acts of his administration. What 
was the most extraordinary event pertain- 
ing to him ? In what place did he end hra 
days ?-[What was the power of Charles as 
a sovereign? For what reasons could he 
not attain to universal empire ? Relate the 
account of his resignation.] 

27. Who were the successors of Charles, 
during the remainder of this period ? What 
part did they act in the religious disputes 
that prevailed ?-[Whatis said of Ferdinand 
and Maximilian ? Of Rodolph ?] 

28. What is the most important event of 
this neriod, in the history of Germany ? In 
what country, and when, did that event com- 
mence ? Who was the instrument, under 
God, of this revolution ? What was the oc- 
casion of it? What opened Luther's eyea 
to the enormity of the whole system of in- 
dulgences ? What encouragement did Lu- 
ther receive ? What was the effect of per- 
secution on him ? How did Luther appear 
at the imperial diet ? When he left the diet 
and arrived at Saxony, how did he find 
things there ? To what decree did the spirit 
of reformation soon extend 1 What was the 
effect of persecutions by the papists ? 

29. In Spain, what province alone re- 
mained to the Moors, at the close of the 15th 
century ? Upon what occasion did all the 
Christian principalities of Spain find them- 
selves under one sceptre? When and by 
whom was the conquest of Grenada effect- 



MODERN HISTORY. 



15 



ed ? What became of the Moors ?-[Of what 
institution in Spain were Ferdinand and 
Isabella the authors ?] 

30. Who succeeded Isabella in Castile ? 
When and upon what occasion didCharles V. 
ascend the throne of Spain?-[By what means 
were the Spanish dominions extended ?] 

31. Who succeeded in 1556? By what 
nations was the balance of power now sus- 
tained 1 Of what countries was Philip the 
sovereign ?-[What was the result of a plan 
projected by Pope Paul IV. to deprive the 
Spaniards of Milan and the Sicilies?] 

32. When did Holland become a republic ? 
On what account did the States combine ? 
How many of them came into the measure ? 
How were the remaining provinces situa- 
ted ?-[What number of provinces does Hol- 
land include ? What number Flanders ? 
How much of the Netherlands was annexed 
to the German empire, in 1477 ? To what 
power were they afterwards resigned? 
What is said of the history of the Holland- 
ers, preceding this event ? What was the 
occasion of their revolt against Philip II. ? 
Who was their leader ? When was he pro- 
claimed stadtholder ? What prevented the 
whole 17 provinces from forming one re- 
public ? What did the Spaniards do, to re- 
cover the 17 provinces 1 By what means 
did the Hollanders succeed ? What was 
the character of Maurice ?] 

33. Till what time was America unknown? 
Who then discovered it? What was his ob- 
ject?-!^ what accounts was the discovery 
of America an important event ? Is the 
theory that America was known to the an- 
cients, well grounded ? What led Columbus 
to conceive the existence of a new conti- 
nent 7 Did he readily obtain assistance in his 
project to discover it ? Who first afforded 
him assistance ? What great motive in- 
fluenced him in his undertaking ? Give an 
account of his voyage.] 

34. What place was first discovered? 
What places next ? Why did he call the re- 
gions West. Indies ? What was the result 
of a second voyage? What of a third? When 
did Joho Cabot find the continent of North 
America ? In whose behalf did he take pos- 
session 1 Of what were the Spaniards guilty, 
m their settlement of the New World? 
When, and by whom was the coast of Brazil 
discovered 7- [How and when was the New 
World proved to be not a part of Asia? 
Tell the story of Fernando Cortez. Of 
Francis Pizarro. When was Las Casas 
sent as viceroy from Spain What was the 
effect of his administration? Describe the 
inhabitants of America. What means did 
the Spaniards employ to convert these 
people to Christianity? What object did 
the Spaniards have in view, more than their 
conversion ? Before the late revolution, to 
whom did the Spanish acquisitions in Ame- 
rica belong? How governed?] 

Distinguished Characters. 
Who were the distinguished characters 
in this period, and for what were they distin- 
guished ?-[!. When and where was Colum- 



bus born ? What fitted him for the part he 
was to act in the world ? What effect had 
his discovery on Spain and Europe ? What 
happened to Columbus through the influ- 
ence of his enemies ? When and how did 
he die ? 

2. When and where was Raphael born 1 
In what arts was he eminent ? What place 
has been assigned to him as a painter ? 

3. What was Angelo Buonaroti? In what 
has he surpassed all the moderns ? What 
is his style ? How long did he live ? 

4. What was Erasmus as to learning? 
In what estimation is he held by his coun- 
trymen ? On what side was he in the ques- 
tion of Protestantism and popery ? 

5. What is related of the life of Coperni- 
cus? Of his great discovery? In what 
manner did he die ? 

6. Where and when was Luther born 1 
By what incident were his views directed 
to the church ? What station did he occupy 
in the university at Wittemberg ? Where 
did he learn more particularly the igno- 
rance, &c. of the church dignitaries ? What 
was the occasion of commencing a reform- 
ation ? When and where did he die ? In 
what respects was he qualified for the ser- 
vice he performed ? 

7. Give an account of Calvin's life. On 
what account did he attract the attention of 
the world ? What is said of him as a man 
of piety and talents? 

8. What work did Camoens write ? What 
did he meet with in life ? 

9. What is said respecting the life of Bu- 
chanan ? What was he as a writer? 

10. Give an account of Montaigne. 

11. What great work was written by 
Tasso ? What period of life did he live 1 
What was there peculiar in his death ? 

12. What was the character of Spenser, 
as a poet ? How was his life concluded?] 

PERIOD IX. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 

1. Who was now on the throne of France 1 
What act of justice did Henry do to the 
Calvinists ? How did he repair the desola- 
tions of a long civil war ? What is said of 
his talents, &c. ? What was the manner of 
his death ?-[State the circumstances of it. 
What project had he in view about the time 
of his death?] 

2. When, and under whose regency did 
Louis XIII. come to the throne? How did 
Richelieu arrest that decline of affairs which 
had begun to take place ? What were the 
principal events of the reign of Louis ?-[Did 
the Protestants attempt to throw off their 
allegiance 1 For what reason ? What was 
their head quarters? How long did they 
endure the miseries of a siege ? What was 
the result ? How did Richelieu endeavour 
to humble the Austrian greatness ? Were 
his plans attended with success ? Was this 
minister a patron of learning ? At what 
age did Louis die?] 

3. When and under whose regency did 
Louis XIV. ascend the throne ? What haa 



16 



QUESTIONS ON 



given a deep interest to his reign ? Name 
the most conspicuous events of his reign. 
-[What battles did the duke of Enghein gain 
in the war with the Spaniards ? Give an ac- 
count of the commotions of the Fronde. 
What did Louis do upon the death of Maza- 
rine ? What great generals had he in the 
war with Holland ? By whom were the 
Hollanders assisted"? What battles were 
gained'? Was England gained to the alli- 
ance ? What nevertheless was the success 
of Louis'? Give an account of the revocation 
of the edict of Nantes. Who brought about 
the league of Augsburg ? What victories 
were obtained by Louis in this war? What 
nations were engaged in the war of the 
succession? What was the object of it? 
On whose side was the advantage now? 
What battles did the duke of Marlborough 
gain ?1 

4. What was the age of Louis, and the 
length of his reign ? What constitutes his 
chief claim to the admiration of posterity? 
What was the result of it ? In what was 
Louis's sagacity peculiarly manifest? Give 
an account of some of his generals and mi- 
nisters. What were his accomplishments 
and character ? 

5. By whom was the throne of England 
ascended in 1603? To what house did the 
sceptre now pass? What is said of this 
event ?-[How did Elizabeth point out her 
successor ? In the history of Scotland what 
is said of David Bruce ? Of Robert II. ? Of 
Robert III. ? Who was James I. ? What 
were his qualities ? What did he accom- 
plish for his people ? What is said of 
James II. ? Of James III. ? Of James IV.? 
What was the character of the reign of 
James VI. ? What occasioned his death? 
By whom was he succeeded?] 

6. What conspiracy soon tended to dis- 
turb James's reign? What baser project 
followed?- [Relate the story concerning' the 
plot.] 

7. What expectation had the puritans 
formed at the accession of James? What 
evils drove many of them to the new world ? 
What policy did James pursue ? Why was 
he prejudiced against the puritans ? What 
change were the minds of Englishmen un- 
dergoing ? How long did James reign over 
England ? How long over Scotland ? What 
is said of his character, disposition, and 
reign ?-[What incident shows his love of 
flattery ? Was he not on the whole a va- 
luable prince ?] 

8. When did Charles I. ascend the throne? 
What was there in the state of the English 
people which demanded a more liberal ad- 
ministration than had before been observ- 
ed? Did Charles regard this state of feel- 
ing ? What led Charles to certain tyrannical 
measures ?-[How began the quarrel be- 
tween Charles and his parliament? What 
acts were passed by a new parliament de- 
termined on reformation?] 

9. What class of people were now em- 
barking for America? Why? What pro- 
videntially proved an unhappy affair for 
Charles 7-[What is said of Hampden ? What 



did Laud attempt against public feeling? 
What was the national covenant of the ■ 
Scots? What other evils did the king and 
his party meet with ?] 

10. Was the sword now to decide the 
contest? What did the parliament do? 
What the king? What was the issue of 
several battles ? Who were the supporters 
of Charles ? Who of the parliament ?-[ With 
whom did the parliament enter into a con- 
federacy ? Who directed the measures of 
the army ? Which battles were favourable 
to the royalists ? Which to the Parliament ? 
What was the religious state of Cromwell's 
army? Relate how the king was taken, 
tried, and punished. What was the cha- 
racter of Charles? Did God seem to over- 
rule events in this instance for the advance- 
ment of civil liberty? What is said of 
Charles as an author I] 

11. What look place in England on the 
death of Charles ?-[What religious interest 
began now to prevail ? By whose influence 
alone could the confusions of England be 
settled? What was the state of things in 
Ireland and Scotland ? What did Cromwell 
do to establish his authority in those coun- 
tries ? Relate the story of king Charles II. 
in attempling to escape. How did the re- 
public act at this era? What was its suc- 
cess in a war with Holland? How and 
where did Cromwell annihilate the repub- 
lic? What kind of parliament did he then 
assemble ? What did they finally do ?] 

13. When was Cromwell declared Pro- 
tector ? What was his power ? What was 
the condition of the nation? Why was he 
not popular ? How, at length, did he feel 
in his elevation ? When did he die ?-[WluU 
was his character ?] 

14. Who succeeded in the protectorate ? 
Did he continue long in it? 

15. What took place after the abdication 
of Richard Cromwell ?-[How was the resto- 
ration effected? Who was the instrument 
in it?] 

16. How was Charles regarded by the 
English people? What had he to recom- 
mend himself to them ? Why and when did 
his government become unpopular? In 
what way was he screened from odium? 
What evils became prevalent during his 
reign ? What change was there in the peo- 
ple, by which Charles's tyrannical disposi- 
tion was more submissively borne than it 
had been ? What was the origin of the dis- 
tinguishing epithets of Whig and Tory? 
What do they stand for? To what act did 
the prevalence of tory principles lead? 
-[What events of this reign are recorded ? 
What party became predominant before the 
end of it? How was England now thrown 
into a flame? How did the king act ?] 

17. When did Charles expire ? In what 
year of his age and reign ?-[What things 
are added concerning the character of 
Charles?] 

IS. Who was proclaimed on his death? 
When? What does the history of this 
reign consist of?-[What is said of the capa- 
city and conduct of this prince ?] 



MODERN HISTORY. 



17 



19. What was one of the principal events 
of his reign? What led the king to his 
ruin ? What application was made for re- 
lief from the tyranny of James ?-[On his 
arrival, by whom was William joined ?]- 
Whither did James flee ? What did a con- 
vention-parliament do on this occasion? 
-[What character was given by the duke of 
Buckingham of Charles and James?] 

20. Who now ascended the throne ? 
What is this event often called ? What was 
accomplished by the revolution ?-[Why was 
a revolution indispensable? Who were 
styled non-jurors, &c. ?] 

21. How were the Irish affected towards 
James ? In what battle were they subdued 
by William? What was the principal 
cause of the wars in which this prince en- 
gaged? When did-the peace of Ryswick 
take place ? On what principle did William 
act in his foreign wars?-[State the circum- 
stances of the naval battle of La Hogue. 
What is said of James in the latter part of 
his life ?] 

22. After the death of James, who was 
proclaimed at St. Germains? What effect 
had this act on the British nation? Under 
what circumstances did William die? 
-[What is said of his person, &c. ? What 
two new measures commenced during this 
reign?] 

23. On whom did the crown devolve in 
1702? What was the character of her 
reign? For what was she respected? What 
were the principal events in her reign? 
-[Give an account of the war against France. 
In the treaty at Utrecht, what did Spain and 
England yield? What has been said of 
Marlborough ? In the constitutional union 
of England and Scotland what was stipu- 
lated? What is said of the strife between 
the Whigs and Tories after the peace? 
Who was sacrificed in consequence of these 
dissensions ?] 

24. When did Anne die? What occa- 
sioned her death ?-[Uescdbe her person.] 

25. Who was at the head of the German 
empire in 1612? What did he attempt to 
do ? What brought on a civil war? What 
occasioned the death of Matthias? 

26. When did Ferdinand II. become em- 
peror ? What attempts did Austria make 
during his reign? By what were two of 
them frustrated? Has Austria usually held 
the sceptre ?-[What was the character of 
Ferdinand?] 

27. When did Ferdinand III. succeed? 
By whom were the protestants supported 
during the former part of this reign ? What 
is said of the peace of Westphalia?-[What 
followed this peace?] 

2-3. Who was next elected? When? 
Who succeeded him ? In what war were 
both of these emperors engaged? Mention 
its particulars. What happened to Vienna 
in 1683? Who was elected in 1711? What 
occurred during his reign? 

29. On the throne of Spain who succeed- 
ed in 1598? By what causes did Spain de- 
cline in power from the commencement of 
this reign? 



30. When did Philip IV. succeed? What 
is said of his reign ? 

31. When did the revolution in Portugal 
take place? Give an account of it ?-[Men- 
tion the events in the history of Portugal 
previously to the above.] 

32. Who succeeded in 1665 on the throne 
of Spain ? On what account did he leave 
his dominions to Philip, duke of Anjou? 
-[By what was this prince said to have been 
debilitated?] 

-. 33. Who was the first Spanish monarch 
of the house of Bourbon, that ascended the 
throne? When? 

34. Which was the most splendid period 
in the history of Turkey ? What is said of 
it at the present period? How many sul- 
tans reigned through it ? With whom were 
they generally at war ?-[What power proba- 
bly prevented the Turks from overspread- 
ing Europe ? For what reasons were they 
superior for a long time to the Christian 
powers ? What occurred during the reign 
of Achmet I. ? What is said of Othman II. ? 
Of Amurath IV. ? Of Mahomet IV. ? De- 
scribe the siege of Candia. Relate the 
particulars concerning the siege of Vienna. 
What is said of Solyman II. and Mustapha 
II. ? What resulted from the Turkish war 
with Austria?] 

35. What is intended by the British colo- 
nies in America ? During what periods 
were they so known ? To whom did they 
belong ? 

36. What is the date of the grant under 
which English settlements were first made ? 
How long was this from the discovery made 
by Cabot? What is said of the London 
and Plymouth companies? Were there 
any projects before this, to settle the coun- 
try ? Give an account of the settlement of 
Jamestown. 

37. When and by whom was the present, 
island of New York settled? When did 
the English obtain possession of it ? 

38. When and by whom was Plymouth 
in Massachusetts settled ? With what other 
colony was this afterwards united? 

39. Mention the first settlements in New 
Hampshire. 

40. When and by whom were New Jer- 
sey and Delaware settled ? 

41. Whence was the name of Maryland? 
When and by whom was it settled? 

42. When and by whom was Connecti 
cut settled? Which were the earliest 
towns? 

43. When was Rhode Island settled? 
What event occasioned it? 

44. When was the colony of New Haven 
formed ? Under what circumstances ? 

45. When and by whom were North and 
South Carolina founded? Whence the 
name Carolina? 

46. Who first settled in Pennsylvania? 
When did William Penn arrive? Under 
what circumstances? 

47. When and by whom was Georgia 
settled? 

48. Which states have been the most im- 
portant in the confederacy ? 



18 



QUESTIONS ON 



49. What is said of the causes of the set- 
tlement of the American States ? 

50. In which of the states was the free 
toleration of religion recognized? What 
was the state of things in the other colonies 
in this respect? Had the world, however, 
ever seen any states so free before? In 
New England, how did they justify them- 
selves? 

51. What was the character of the first 
settlers of this country? What objects 
engaged their attention in a remarkable de 
gree? 

52. How did the colonists obtain their 
lands ? 

53. Which of the states at first experi- 
enced but little trouble from the Indians ? 
How was it with Connecticut and Virginia, 
in this respect ? Did all the colonies suffer 
sooner or later from this source? What 
may be remarked of the colonists as a body, 
during this period? What may further be 
added respecting the colonists ?-[Tell the 
story of the Pequot war. Describe the 
condition of Virginia.] 

54. What were the principal events rela- 
ting to the colonies as a body, during this 
period ?-[Tell the story of Philip's war. 
What were the oppressive measures under 
the Stuart family, owing to?] 

55. When was Russia brought into no- 
tice with the civilized world? What is 
her rank now ? To whom does the country 
owe its greatness ?-[Give some account of 
the early history of Russia. How did Peter 
become master of the empire?] 

56. What are the principal events of his 
reign?- [Relate the circumstances of Peter's 
visit to Holland and England. In the war 
with Charles XII. of Sweden, how did Peter 
succeed at first ? Where did he overcome 
Charles at last ?]- When did Peter die? 
What is said of him as a sovereign and a 
man ? 

57. When does the history of Sweden be- 
come important ? How many sovereigns fol- 
lowed Gustavus Vasa, to the time of Charles 
XII. ? When was the crown rendered he- 
reditary ? How long were Sweden, Den- 
mark, and Norway, united into one king- 
dom? On what occasion did Gustavus 
Vasa take up arms ? What did he do as a 
king? What is said of Gustavus Adolphus 
and Christiana ?-[What is said of Sweden, 
as to its history, to the time of Vasa? Tell 
the story of Vasa. What is said of Gusta- 
vus Adolphus ? Give an account of Christ- 
iana.] 

58. When did Charles XII. succeed ? 
What is said of his exploits and character? 
What was his success in a war with Russia, 
Poland, and Denmark ? From the battle of 
Pultowa, whither did Charles flee ? What 
was his conduct there ?-[What is said of the 
war with Denmark? What was the result 
of the battle of Narva? What are the cir- 
cumstances of his conquests of Poland? 
Mention the conduct of Charles, in Turkey.] 

Distinguished Characters. 
Who were the distinguished characters 



in period IX., and for what are they emi- 
nent ?-[l. What are the events in the life of 
Tycho Brahe ? What did his learning, &c. 
make him? What are his best works 1 

2. Give an account of the life of Cervantes. 
What is he as a humorist? 

3. Detail the events in Shakspeare's life. 
When did he die? What relics are there 
of him? What has been thought of his in- 
tellectual superiority ? 

4. What evils did Galileo experience 
from the ignorance and intolerance of the 
age? What are some of the discoveries 
that have rendered his name immortal? 
How long did he live, and what happened to 
him at last ? 

5. What has given renown to Raleigh ? 
How was he treated by King James ? 

6. Mention the events in Bacon's life. 
What was he as a genius and author ? Cn 
what account has he been called "the pi. 
oneer of nature," <fcc. ? 

7. Of what school of philosophy was 
Kepler? What did he first Drove concern- 
ing the planets ? 

8. Relate a singular event in the life of 
Grotius. On what subjects did he write ? 

9. Give an account of Des Cartes. 

10. OfGassendi. 

11. Mention a circumstance in the life of 
Paschal. What were his other intellectual 
achievements ? To what did he consecrai e 
all his powers ? 

12. What is said of the writings and ge- 
nius of Milton? What incidents of his life 
are mentioned? What was he as to his 
person, habits, &c. ? 

13. Give an account of Corneille. 

14. To what objects was Boyle devoted? 
How did he show his regard for religion ? 

15. What is said of Dryden, as to his im- 
provement in writing? Was he a volumin- 
ous writer ? What was the character of his 
prose ? How do the Edinburgh reviewers 
consider him? 

16. Give an account of Locke. 

17. Of Leibnitz.] 

PERIOD X. 

What is the name and extent of this pe- 
riod? 

1. When and how did Charles XII. die ? 
What did this event do for Sweden and Eu- 
rope ?-[What made Charles, when in Tur- 
key, at length desirous of returning to his 
own country ? What project did he at- 
tempt, but abandon? What other project 
would he probably have commenced, had 
he lived ? Tell the occasion and manner 
of his death. Describe the predominant 
trait of his character.] 

2. Who succeeded Charles XII. ? To 
whom did she soon resign the throne ? 
When was Adolphus Frederick elected ? 
By what was his reign disturbed ? Upon 
his decease, to whom was the sceptre given? 
Of what violation of his coronation oatli was 
he guilty ? When and how did he perish ? 
-rin what manner did Gustavus effect the 
change in the government ?] 

3. Who succeeded, and under whose ro- 



MODERN HISTORY. 



19 



gency? What dirt he do in 1800, and in 
1815? What provinces did he soon after 
lose ? When was he dethroned? To whom 
was the crown given ?-[On what account 
was Gustavus dethroned ?] 

4. What title did the Duke of Sudermania 
take ? Who, through his influence, was 
declared crown prince ? Has Bernadotte 
been faithful to his adopted country ?- 
[When did the crown prince succeed? 
What kind of sovereign is he ?] 

5. Who raised Prussia to a high degree 
of splendor ? From what year had it exist- 
ed as a kingdom? What was it before 
styled ?-[By whom was this country in- 
habited ? By whom were they conquered ? 
Of what is modern Prussia formed ? What 
hor.se occupies the throne? Who were 
the more distinguished predecessors of the 
great Frederick ? What is said of Frederick 
William, the Elector? Relate some particu- 
lars of Frederick William I.] 

6. When did Frederick II. the Great as- 
cend the throne? What was the number 
and character of his army ? On what were 
his views bent? When, and how did he 
e fleet the conquest of Silesia ? What alarm- 
ed the neighbouring states ? What confede- 
racy was formed against him ?-[Give an ac- 
count of the "seven years' war."]- When, 
and under what circumstances was New 
Prussia added to his dominions ? When 
did he die ? What reputation has he ?- 
[Mention the practical qualities of this 
prince. Relate the story which shows his 
decision of character. What is said of his 
intellectual powers, knowledge, and wri- 
tings ? What was he as to morals and reli- 
gion ?] 

7. By whom was Frederick the Great 
succeeded? When? What is said of him? 
When did Frederick William III. come to 
the throne ? On what occasion did he go 
to war with Napoleon ? When was the 
battle of Jena fought ? What was the re- 
sult ?-[How came Germany to fall under the 
dominion of Napoleon ? Was Prussia wise 
in meeting her enemy as she did ?] 

8. What part did the Prussian monarch 
take in the Russian campaign? What did 
he afterwards do? What is said of his ar- 
my in the battle of Waterloo? What has 
engaged his attention since ?-[What have 
politicians conjectured in regard to Prus- 
sia?] 

9. What are we most concerned with, in 
the history of Germany, during this period ? 
What was the first war of importance in 
this period ?-[Mention the state of things in 
regard to this war.] 

10. When and where was Francis I. 
crowned ? How long did he continue the 
war? What ensued? How had Maria 
Theresa been sustained ?-[Who was Maria 
Theresa? What was her character?] 

11. Who succeeded to the empire, in 1765? 
What did he do? What character did he 
maintain ?-[What is said concerning his fa- 
vouring die liberty of the press ? Describe 
the famine and inundations that took place 
during his reign.] 



12. Who was invested with the empire, 
in 1790 ? What was his conduct in refer- 
ence to the French revolution? Did he 
reign long?-[What was the state of Germa- 
ny after the seven years' war, to the French 
revolution ? What afterwards, to tne res- 
toration of the Bourbons ? How came Ger- 
many thus to suffer? Has Austria had a 
share in nearly all the wars? With what 
success ? What is said of the Archduke 
Charles?] 

13. Who was crowned in 1792? What is 
he as a prince ? What is said of his war 
with the French republic ? 

14. When and where were hostilities re 
newed? Who assisted Austria? By whom 
were the Russian forces commanded 1 
What was achieved? What might have 
been?-[How was the jealousy of Austria 
excited? What was the result to Austria? 
What did Francis do during the peace ?] 

15. What is said of the third coalition 
against France ?-[What imprudences did 
the Austrians commit ?]-In ] 806, what took 
place in regard to several of the German 
states ? What was Francis compelled to 
do ?-[What was the nature and effect of the 
confederacy of the Rhine?] 

16. When did Austria take the field (he 
fourth time ? What is said of the battles of 
Essling and Wagram? What was the re- 
sult of the contest ?-fHow came Austria to 
be overcome, after the wise measures she 
had taken?] 

17. Give an account of the fifth coalition. 
-[Under what circumstances was Napoleon 
attacked this time? After the battle of 
Leipsic was announced to the allied sove- 
reigns, what did they do ?] 

18. What was effected by the last coali- 
tion, in 1815? What was the Germanic 
Confederation? What is to be expected 
from it?-[Were the rights of the Germanic 
body duly regarded by Austria? When, 
and between whom was the Holy Alliance 
formed? On what occasion were the im- 
proper views of this alliance manifest- 
ed?] 

19. When do we first feel much interest 
in the history of Poland 7 Have the Poles 
been a happy people? What has caused 
their sufferings? What are some of their 
characteristics?-! What is Poland called by 
the natives? What does it mean? What 
maxim did Lech V. use to utter? When 
and by whom had the Poles written laws ? 
What was the epitaph of Sigismund I. ? To 
what did he apply himself? Who was 
among the most distinguished of the Polish 
monarchs ? Give an account of him. What 
is said of Frederick Augustus? What of 
Frederick Augustus H. ? Who was the last 
king of Poland?] 

20. What took place in regard to Poland, 
in 1772? What is the character of this act ? 
What encouraged the plunderers to do it ?- 
[Mention the particulars of the dismember- 
ment of Poland.]- What part of Poland did 
each power take ? 

21. In 1791, what took place? How was 
this done? What ensued? When was a 



20 



QUESTIONS ON 



new division agreed on ?-[How did Catha- 
rine and Frederick William view the act of 
the Poles ?] 

22. What effect was produced on the 
Poles? What is said of the capture of 
Warsaw ?-[What was done by the Russians 
after the victory? Give an account of 
Kosciusko.] 

23. What is said of the third and final dis- 
memberment of Poland? What was done 
in regard to a part of Poland, at the con- 
gress at Vienna, in 1815 ? 

24. Who was on the tnrone of Russia, 
near the commencement of this period ? 
How long, and in what manner did she 
reign ?-[Relate some particulars of Catha- 
rine.] 

25. Who succeeded in 1727 ? What was 
the extent and character of his reign ?- 
[What is said of the princes that followed 
Peter the Great through several reigns ?] 

26. When, and under what circumstances 
did Anne, Duchess of Courland, ascend the 
throne ?-[What is the character of her 
reign? What did it comprise ?] 

27. Who was elected emperor, in 1740 ? 
What occurred the next year, and who was 
elected emperess ? What was the charac 
ter of Elizabeth ? How did she act her part 
in the seven years' war ?-[What other par 
ticulars are mentioned of her?] 

28. Who succeeded, in 1762? How did his 
people regard him at length? What be- 
came of him? Who is supposed to have 
been the mover of the conspiracy ?-[By 
whose help did Catharine put her husband 
to death ?] 

29. Who was now proclaimed? What 
was she as a woman and a queen ? What 
was the character of her reign ? From 
what nation did she acquire territory ?- 
[What did one of her wars with Turkey 
cost? Mention some circumstances re- 
specting the capture of Ismail.] 

30. Who succeeded in 1796? Was his 
reign like that of his mother ? What did 
he do in 1799? What in 1801? What be- 
came of him? 

31. When, and at what age was Alexan- 
der I. proclaimed? For what will he be re- 
nowned ? What is said of his reign at first ? 
When did he form a coalition with Austria, 
against Napoleon ? What circumstance 
contributed to his defeat at Ausferlitz ? 
How happened it that Russia was left alone 
to contend with the French emperor ? 
What battle obliged Alexander to sign the 
treaty of Tilsit? What did he do in 1808? 
What in 1811 ? What act of his displeased 
Napoleon? With what force was Russia 
invaded? How did the Russians manage 
this war? What is said of the battle of Bo- 
rodino ? Under what circumstances did the 
French army enter Moscow? What was 
the consequence to the French ?-[Did Alex- 
ander's forces equal those of his enemy in 
number? With what preparation did he 
and his people meet the crisis? What ef- 
fect did the constant retiring of the Rus- 
sians produce ? When was Moscow enter- 
ed by the French? What was Napoleon 



obliged to do, in consequence of the burn- 
ing of Moscow?] 

32. How did the subjugated nations of 
Europe now act ? What power was the 
last to join against the common foe ? What 
is said of the campaign of 1813 ? What 
doesHeeren say of the battle of Leipsic? 
When did the allied sovereigns enter Pa- 
ris? What did they do there ?-[When did 
Alexander die ? What is his character ? 
What is said of the affairs of Russia, of 
late ?] 

33. Who had been proclaimed king of 
England, on the death of Anne ? When ? 
What is said of the accession of George 1. ? 
What had Protestantism to do in regard to 
the house of Brunswick? How was har- 
mony established between the nation and 
the government? How did the tory minis- 
try fall?-[Who was George I. ? Give an ac- 
count of the Pretender.] 

34. In 1720, what did the king recom- 
mend ? To what did this prove a prelude ? 
What was attempted to be done by this 
act? How was the credit of the govern- 
ment preserved ?-[What was the character 
of George I. ? Where and at what age did 
he die ?] 

34£. When did George II. succeed his 
father ? In what respects was he like his 
father? What was his character? What 
is said of his administration? Inwhatwars 
did he engage ?-[What is said of his minis- 
ter, Sir Robert Walpole ?] 

35. What took place during the absence 
of the king on the continent? In what 
battle did young Charles beat? In whai 
was he beaten? What effect did Charles's 
failure have on the Stuart family ? When 
and on what account was war renewed be- 
tween England and France? What was 
its result ? What brave general then per- 
ished ?-[Give some particulars concerning 
him.] 

36. What is said of the arms of Great Bri- 
tain at this period? How long did George 
II. live and reign ? 

37. Who succeeded in 1760? What is 
said of the extent of his reign ? For what 
was it distinguished ? Under what favour- 
able circumstances did George III. com- 
mence his reign ?-[What is said of Chat- 
ham's ministry ?] 

38. How came the American colonies to 
separate from the mother country ? When 
did the war commence ? Who opposed the 
measures of parliament on this occasion? 
When did Great Britain acknowledge the 
independence of the States? What was the 
consequence ?-[What powers took part with 
the American government? What was the 
result to England?] 

39. What was another important feature 
of the present reign ? Give an account of 
the conquests of the East India Company in 
India. 

40. What other important events were 
there? Who were the rebels in Ireland? 
What is said of the Act of Union ?-[What 
countenance did the government of France 
give to the Irish ? When did some parts of 



Modern history. 



n 



Ireland become insurrectionary? What 
was the consequence 1 ?] 

41. What is said of this reign as connect- 
ed with the French revolution ? What was 
the character of that revolution ?-[Wbat 
were the views, the spirit, and the efforts of 
the British nation in this war? What vic- 
tories did they gain on the land and on the 
sea ? When was there an interval of peace ? 
What caused the renewal of the war ? 
What is mentioned of the battle of the 
Nile? Of Trafalgar?] 

42. What other war was Great Britain 
engaged in at this time? What was the 
cause of this war ? When did it com- 
mence and terminate ? What was its cha- 
racter? 

43. What happened to George III. during 
the latter part of his life? Who acted as 
regent in the mean time ?-[ When did the 
old king die? What is supposed to have 
brought on his insanity? What is his cha- 

• racter? Who succeeded him? What is 
said of his reign?] 

43|. Who was the successor of Louis 
XIV\ on the throne of France 1 When did 
he begin to reign ? Who was regent during 
the king's minority ?-[What was the charac- 
ter of the Duke of Orleans ? What ruined 
the credit of the government?] 

44. Who was the minister of Louis after 
he came of age ? What did Henry's ad- 
ministration effect? How long was the 
reign of Louis? What was its character ?- 
[Mention some particulars of his conduct. 
What did his profusion lead him to under- 
take 1 How did his conduct affect his peo- 
ple?] 

45. Who ascended the throne in 1/74? 
What was his situation? Was his temper 
fitted for the evil days on which he was 
fallen ?-[What course did Louis pursue ? 
What led directly to the revolution ? What 
other concurrent causes were there? What 
is this period now called ? What may it be 
hereafter?] 

46. What steps did the king take when 
the government was destitute of supplies ? 
How was the National Assembly constitu- 
ted? When and with what event did the Re- 
volution, properly speaking, begin ?-[What 
did the States General consist of? When 
the National Assembly was called, what be- 
came of the monarchy? What was the 
situation of the king and royal family ? What 
important acts did the Assembly pass ? 
What appeared in 1790 ?] 

47. When was the regal government abol- 
ished ? By what body was this done ? 
What became of the king ? What was his 
character l-[What were some of the charges 
alleged against the king ? Who exerted the 
most influence against him?] 

48. What commenced after the death of 
the king? What did the factions in the 
Convention do ? What act in particular has 
given immortal infamy to that body ? When 
and how did the queen of France perish? 
When did the sister of the king ?-[Who was 
the most execrable of the revolutionary 
leaders ? Who were his accomplices ? 

4* 



What is said of the death of the Duke of Or- 
leans ? What of Robespierre ?] 

49. After the. fall of Robespierre, what 
took place? What is said of the suffering 
caused by the Convention? When were 
the Directory and the two Councils esta- 
blished? 

60. What is said of the external relations 
of France at this time ? Why did Austria 
and Prussia take the part of Louis ? What 
is said of the emigrants ? What was the 
republic able to do ? How many fighting 
men had it at command in 1794 ? 

51. How long did the government of the 
Directory continue? In what was the ex- 
ecutive power then vested? Whatwasthe 
design of the consulate ? What were the 
coalitions against France ? How many were 
there? What does the first of these coali- 
tions include ?-[Who was the founder of 
these combinations ? What effect was pro- 
duced on France ? Were the French suc- 
cessful? What held the coalition together 
after the retirement of some of the powers ? 
Against what nation was the war most vigo- 
rously carried on ? Through what country 
chiefly ? To whom was the army of Italy 
entrusted in 1796 ? What did he soon 
achieve ? What is said of the invasion of 
Egypt?] 

52. When and by whose means was the 
second coalition carried on ? Was it more 
extensive than the other ? From what 
cause was the allies victorious ?-[Give a 
brief account of Switzerland.]- When was 
it a critical period with France ? Upon his 
return from Egypt, what did Bonaparte ef- 
fect? What was soon the state of things? 
What led the way to the peace of Amiens? 
What is said of Bonaparte at this time? 
When was he proclaimed emperor?- [Why 
was the peace of Amiens enjoyed only for 
a short time ? When and by what means 
was Egypt restored to the Porte ? What 
was the condition of France at this time ? 
What project had Napoleon formed? 
What resources had he for accomplishing 
it?] 

53. When and by whom was the third 
coalition formed ? What was the plan ? 
How long had England been already at war 
with France ? What happened to the coa- 
lition ?-[What brought on the war between 
France and England? What was the first 
royal family dethroned by Napoleon's proc- 
lamation? What was the condition of Prus- 
sia in this war ? What step did she at length 
take ?] 

54. When and by whom was a fourth 
coalition matured? What was the result 
to Prussia? What battles were fought with 
the Russians ? What did Russia and Prus- 
sia agree to?-[Why and how did the British 
secure the fleet of Denmark ? What two 
consequences flowed from this act? Give 
an account of the various decrees by which 
France and England destroyed the com- 
merce of neutrals. What was the conse- 
quence to Europe ?] 

55. Relate Napoleon's schemes for ag- 
grandizing his family. How did his design 



22 



ClUESTiONS ON 



on Spain become the first fatal step in his 
downfall? Who were called to the aid of 
Spain ? How long was the war carried on ? 
Were the French driven out of Spain? 

56. While the war continued in Spain, 
what other war did the conqueror project ? 
What did this war do ? 

57. What did Napoleon do after his de- 
feat ? Why was the fifth coalition formed ? 
Of what powers was it formed? When did 
Paris capitulate ? 

58. What were the results of these suc- 
cesses ?-[Give an account of Napoleon's ab- 
dication. Whither was he afterwards con- 
veyed, and under what circumstances ? 
Where had Louis XVIII. spent his time? 
What other kings were restored at this 
time ?] 

59. For what purpose was a general con- 
gress assembled at Vienna? When was 
this? What extraordinary event occurred 
during the session ? Did it occasion ano- 
ther coalition ? Was the nation with Bona- 
parte at this time ? What event defeated 
his hopes for ever?-[What became of the 
French king upon Bonaparte's return ? 
Relate particulars of his return ? What did 
the congress of Vienna do on this occasion ? 
What army was now assembled against 
him ? Relate what is said of the meeting of 
Napoleon and his foes. What became of 
him after his defeat ? When did his death 
happen? Was he the author of several 
valuable institutions ? What evil, never- 
theless, did he do? What indemnity did 
the allies require of France ? What sort of 
monarch was Louis XVIII. ? Who suc- 
ceeded him?] 

60. What is said of the history of Italy in 
modern times ? How was Italy divided at 
the congress of Vienna? 

61. To what year did Philip of Spain 
reign? From what causes did the nation 
degenerate ? 

62. Who succeeded Philip? When? 
What was his character ? How long did 
Charles III. reign? What was his charac- 
ter? What were the principal events of his 
reign ?-[Describe the siege of Gibraltar.] 

63. Who possessed the crown in 1788? 
Give his character. What did he do in 
1792? What was the condition of Spain after 
the treaty of Amiens was broken ? To whom 
did Charles and his son make an appeal? 
What ensued ?-[In what respects has Spain 
been unfortunate since the peace ? What 
also has been the condition of Portugal? 
Are the Portuguese rich in colonies ?] 

64. What was the most important portion 
of the Low Countries or Netherlands? 
What is said of the commerce, &c of Hol- 
land before the French revolution ? When 
and how did the Dutch begin to degenerate ? 
How has Belgium usually been divided 
since its freedom from the Spanish yoke? 

65. What was the condition of the United 
Netherlands after they were overrun by the 
French? How was Holland affected. as to 
her colonies? When and under what cir- 
cumstances did the prince of Orange as- 
sume the title of king of the Netherlands? 



-[Why was it necessary for the congresaat 
Vienna to unite Holland and Belgium?] 

66. In the history of Turkey, what do we 
perceive about this time ? What changes, 
however, have been lately effected? How 
has Turkey generally retired from its con- 
flicts with Russia ? Who was sultan at the 
commencement of this period ? When was 
he* deposed ? How many sultanehave there 
been since ?-[What occurred under Musta- 
phalll. ? What under Achmet IV., Selim 
III. j &c. ? How far did the Porte escape 
from the convulsions of the French revolu- 
tion ? What has happened to Turkey since 
1821 ? What have the inhabitants of Greece 
effected within a few years ? When did the 
spirit of insurrection first show itself? 
What was accomplished at the end of the 
year 1821 ?] 

67. Who now occupied the throne of Chi* 
na ? What two of the Tartar dynasty had 
preceded him ? What is the date of the 
present dynasty ?-[ What occurred in the 
reign of Yong-Tching? Relate the particu- 
lars concerning Kien Long. What is said 
of the famous Russian mission in the reign 
of KiaKhing'i] 

68. Who was the sovereign of Persia 
near the beginning of the present period? 
What had Kouli Khan been before ? What 
did he do in 1739 ? What was the state of 
Persia after his death till 1794?-[Givean ac 
count of the origin of the Sophis. What is 
peculiar to Persia in respect to its form of 
government, &c. ?] 

69. What figure does India make in his- 
tory ? Why cannot historians easily give a 
regular account of it ? Does it much deserve 
our attention till modern times ? What are 
the people as to civilization, arts, character, 
&c.?-[What is said of India in ancient times ? 
What occurred in 710 1 What in 1155 ? What 
after this till 1660? Who then conquered 
Bengal ? What was the state of his empire 
at his death ? What did it become in 50 
years ? What took place in 1739 ? Give an 
account of the British possessions.] 

70. What event took place in regard to 
the United States during this period ? In 
what war were the colonies involved in the 
year 1744? What was its result? Where 
were the troops mostly obtained ?-[In what 
condition were the fortifications at Louis- 
burg? Why was it deemed essential to 
take this place?] 

71. What became of a powerful French 
armament sent against America in 1746 ? 
How long did the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 
last ? When did tae French and Indian war 
begin and end? What was the issue of it? 
Who first came into notice during these con- 
tentions ?-[What is further said of the 
French armament ? What was the effect 
of the return of peace ? What was the occa- 
sion of the French and Indian war ? What 
service was entrusted to George Washing- 
ton? What is said of the result? How many 
and what expeditions were planned against 
the French in 1775? Give the details of 
each one. When was war formally decla- 
red? What ensued in the early and what 



MODERN HISTORY. 



23 



i pc 
-[What is further said of the port bill, and 



in the latter part of the year 1758 ? What 
Was the object and what the result of the 
campaign of 1759? What occurred at 
Quebec?] 

72. What were among the causes of the 
struggle after independence ? 

73. Mention what is said concerning the 
origin of the dispute ? 

74. When did the dispute arise ? What 
Was its immediate occasion ? What was 
the character of the stamp act? What con- 
sequence followed it ? What is said of the 
repeal ?-[What took place in Boston and 
Portsmouth ? Were similar manifestations 
made elsewhere ?] 

75. What did the British ministry now do ? 
On what were duties laid in 1767? What re- 
sulted from the opposition made to these 
duties? Could tea be sold in America? 
What was done with a cargo of it in Boston 
harbour? 

76. To what acts did England now resort ? 
When was the Boston port bill passed? 
-[What is fu 
other bills?] 

77. When and where was there a congress 
opened ? What did it resolve to do ? What 
alternative did England choose ?-[What is 
further said of this congress ?] 

78. When and where did hostilities begin ? 
What did theBritish hope in the commence- 
ment of this contest ?-[Give an account of 
the battle of Lexington?] 

79. By Avhat was the war soon signalized ? 
What was the fate of an expedition against 
Canada ? What was the character of the 
war ? Who only seemed to be capable of 
waging it?-[What is said of the battle of 
Bunker's Hill ? Who was chosen leader of 
the American forces ? What did Washing- 
ton do on his arrival at Cambridge ? What 
is said of the northern expedition ? What 
befel Norfolk in Virginia? When and why 
did the British evacuate Boston? What at- 
tempt did they make on Sullivan's Island?] 

80. When was the Independence of Ame- 
rica declared ? When was Burgoyne taken ? 
By what was this event preceded? Upon 
the capture of Burgoyne, what did the 
French court do ? W'ho were allies of 
France ?-[When and by whom was the mo- 
tion made to declare the states independ- 
ent? What were the character and effects 
of this measure ? Describe the depressed 
condition of American affairs? What did 
many of the Americans do in the neighbour- 
hood of New- York ? What fort was taken 
at this time ? What was the force under 
Washington on the 22d of November? What 
in the early part of December? How did 
congress appear at this time ? When were 
the articles of confederation adopted ? How 
did the people feel? What force did Con- 
gress determine to raise? What achieve- 
ment did Washington make at Trenton? 
What at Princeton ? How large was the 
American army in 1777 ? When was the 
battle of Brandy wine fought? With what 
result ? What is said of the battle of Ger- 
rnantown ? Give an account of the capture 
of Burgoyne?] 



81. How was America affected by the al- 
liance of France? Who, nevertheless, has 
the glory of having struck the decisive 
blow? When did Cornwallis capitulate 1 ? 
By what had this event been preceded? 
What was now the financial state of the 
country ? When was the independence of 
the United States acknowledged by Great 
Britain ? When did a definitive peace take 
place ?-[Where did the British resolve to 
concentrate their force ? Give an account 
of the battle of Monmouth. What part of 
the country before the close of 1778 became 
the principal theatre of war? What state 
fell under the power of the British ? What 
depredations did the British make in 1779 ? 
Were there any important expeditions made 
by the Americans? To what causes was 
the deficiency of exertion owing? De- 
scribe the second cause at large? What 
events took place in South Carolina in 1780 ? 
At this time what was doing at the north ? 
Describe the battle of Cowpens: also that 
of Guilford Court House. Where was La 
Fayette called to oppose Cornwallis ? Give 
an account of the battle of Yorktown. When 
was the American army disbanded ?] 

82. What was the character of the first 
constitution ? What was effected by the 
constitution of 1789. Who was the first 
president? By what perhaps must the 
union be preserved? Describe the com- 
mercial prosperity of the United States.- 
[What was the danger of the country at 
first? Under the old confederation why 
was the nation unable to pay its debts? 
When was the Federal Constitution pre- 
sented to Congress ? How many states at 
first adopted it? When was Washington 
chosen president ? How did he conduct 
the government? Did he meet with any 
opposition? Was he chosen the second 
time? What were among the important 
events during his administration ?] 

83. Who succeeded Washington? When? 
How long did John Adams retain the presi- 
dency ?■ What is said of the political strife 
at this time? When was Mr. Jefferson 
chosen president? What occurred under 
Adams's administration ? Was Jefferson 
chosen the second time ? What was the 
state of the country at this time? Did 
difficulties at length occur with the bellige- 
rents of Europe ? What did congress do on 
December 22d, 1807? What on the 1st of 
March, 1808? How long did the restrictive 
plan continue in respect to France ? How 
long in respect to Great Britain ? When did 
the United States declare war against Great 
Britain? What did the navy do? What 
the army? When did peace take place? 
Under whose presidency did this war oc- 
cur ? When was Mr. Madison elected, and 
how long did he continue ? What were the 
principal events that marked the adminis- 
tration of Jefferson and Madison ?-[What 
were the principal grounds of the war? 
Was there an agreement in Congress and 
among the people on the subject ? How did 
the war commence ? Give an account of 
the battle of Queenstown When was th« 



24 



QUESTIONS ON 



frigate Guerriere captured ? What other 
naval victories were obtained during the 
year? What is said of the battle of the 
fiver Raisin? Give an account of the naval 
operations during the year 1813. What is 
said of the battle of York? What did the 
British do on the seaboard ? What events 
occured during the remainder of the year? 
When was the battle of New Orleans 
fought ?] 

84. What did the war with England ef- 
fect? How long did the presidency of Mon- 
roe continue ? How many States were added 
to the Union during his administration? 
What is said of party spirit? When were 
John Q,uincy Adams and Andrew Jackson 
elected? What may be remarked general- 
ly ?-[Soon after the conclusion of the war, to 
what was the attention of congress turned? 
Was this easily accomplished? When did 
the bill receive the signature of President 
Madison? To what sum was the capital of 
the bank fixed? What is said of the efforts 
that have lately been made to obtain a re- 
charter of the bank? What did President 
Madison do soon after his accession ? What 
did his tour serve to effect? What was 
done early in the presidency of Monroe? 
Under whose authority did the adventurers 
claim to be acting ? Where had they form- 
ed an establishment ? Why did the United 
States deem themselves authorized to take 
possession of Amelia island? Under whose 
command was a naval force despatched? 
When was Amelia island surrendered? 
What followed soon after ? What States 
were admitted into the Union during the 
administration of Monroe? When was 
Mississippi received? How long did the 
French claim the country ? To whom did 
they cede their possessions east of the river? 
When did Illinois adopt a State convention ? 
When was it admitted into the Union ? What 
became of the first settlements made by 
the French in Illinois? What took place in 
1762? What happened after the war of the 
revolution ? When was Alabama admitted 
into the Union? How long did this country 
continue the hunting ground of savages? 
What event occurred in 1817 ? When was 
Maine admitted as an independent Slate into 
the Union? What had it formerly been? 
When was a separation accomplished ? 
When was Missouri declared to be a mem- 
ber of the Federal Union ? What is said 
of its previous condition ? What occasion- 
ed the difficulty in the admission of Missou- 
ri? Describe the circumstances respecting 
the Seminole war, and the conduct of Gen. 
Jackson. When was there a convention 
concluded between Great Britain and the 
United States? What is said respecting the 
cession of Florida to the United States ? 
Where were the territorial governments 
formed for Arkansas and Florida? What 
is said of the suppression of piracy in the 
West Indies ? Describe the visit of La Fay- 
ctte to this country. What is said of the 
presidency of John Q.. Adams ? What was 
the situation of the country at. the time of 
Jackson's entrance on the presidency? 



What is said of his cabinet? Describe the 
Indian controversy in respect to the remo- 
val of the tribes. Mention the acts of Con- 
gress in 1831. Describe the South Carolina 
difficulties.] 

85. What was the condition of the pro- 
vinces of South America till the time of the 
French revolution? What have they be- 
come' within the present century ? What 
is Brazil styled ? How many and wliat are 
the names of the free States ?-[ln what did 
their struggle for freedom originate ? Give 
a further account of it.] 

Distinguished Characters. 

Who were the distinguished characters of 
this period, and for what were they distin- 
guished ?-[l. Mention particulars in Addi- 
son's life? What is said of his writings, 
their style, &c. ? 

j 2. What was the time of Newton's life 
I and death? What is said of his early 
studies ? What was his greatest discovery ? 
When was his "Principia published? How 
did he endure the sickness preceding his 
death? What was his character? What 
has a celebrated writer said of him? 

3. Give an account of Boerhaave. 

4. Where was Pope born? Give an ac- 
count of his different productions. What 
was he in person, disposition, and man- 
ners ? 

5. Mention some particulars in the life of 
Swift. What is said of his writings ? How 
was the eccentricity of his character 
shown ? 

6. Give an account of Montesquieu. 

7. Mention events in the life of Edwards. 
What is said of his character and writings? 

8. What particulars are mentioned in the 
life of Hume ? What is said of him as a 
writer ? 

9. What influence had the writings of 
Voltaire in regard to the revolution ? Give 
the particulars of his life and writings. How 
did he die? What is said of his'person, 
&c? 

10. Give the life of Linnaeus. In what is 
science indebted to his sagacity ? What is 
said of his knowledge and industry? 

11. Where was Rousseau born ? Did he 
enjoy much happiness in life ? Where and 
in what manner did he end his days ? What 
is said of his genius and works? 

12. Give the particulars of Pitt's life. 
What was he as an orator and statesman! 

13. Give an account of the life and wri- 
tings of Metastasio. 

14. What is related in the life of Euler? 
Describe his mental powers. How did he 
appear in society ? 

15. Give the history of Johnson's life, 
and of his works. In what manner did he 
approach death? How are his Works cha- 
racterized? 

16. Tell the circumstances of Franklin's 
life. 

17. Why was not Gibbon at first distin- 
guished as a scholar? When did he pay 
special attention to classical literature? 



MODERN HISTORY. 



25 



What is said of his Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire ? What is further said of 
his writings ? What were the characteris- 
tics of his intellect, as he describes them ? 

18. Give an account of Burns. 

19. Relate the particulars of Burke's life. 
What was he as an author ? 

20. Where was Washington born 1 ? In 
what situation did he first show his talents ? 
What was he as a military captain ? What 
was his public life after the revolution? 
What was his character generally 1 

21. Give the particulars of the life and 
writings of Cowper. What is said of his 
Task? 

22. Relate the circumstances of Klop- 
stock's life. By what is he characterized 
as a writer ? 

23. Relate the history of Heyne. 

24. What is said of Madame de Stael? 

25. What are the particulars in the life of 
Dwight? How was his death regarded? 
How have his works been received since 
his death? 

26. Give an account of Bonaparte's life. 
How will mankind continue to regard him?] 

GENERAL VIEWS. 

The Feudal System. 

1. What was the peculiar state of society 
among the ancestors of modern Europe 
called? What does the Feudal system 
mean ?-fDetail the plan on which the feudal 
policy was arranged ?] 

2. By some writers to whom has the ori- 
gin of the Feudal system been attributed? 
What is its real source ?-[What is said of 
the subordination of the members of a tribe 
to their chief among the Gauls? What 
was the practice when in peace ? What in 
war ?]-Among what other nations did such 
a relation subsist ?-[When the Frank's over- 
ran Gaul what was the condition of the 
country in this respect? Were the fiefs at 
first revocable ? When did they become 
otherwise ? What was a consequence of a 
fief becoming hereditary ?] 

3. What was the principle on which this 
establishment was founded? Mention the 
effects produced by the feudal system? 
-[What was the state of Europe through 
the feuds of the barons? What was the 
condition of England in this respect in the 
reign of Stephen ? Which was the unhap- 
piest period in the annals of Europe? 
What causes operated to produce a better 
state of things ? What monarch first adopt- 
ed the measure of having a standing army? 
Who followed his example ?] 

Chivalry. 

1. What was chivalry or knighthood? 
Was some such institution necessary, if a 
better could not be found ? Of what was it 
designed as a corrective ? What did it aim 
to do?-[What is said concerning the source 
of the term chivalry ? With what is chival- 
ry not to be confounded ?]-In what had 



chivalry its origin? From what practice 
did it grow into the form it afterwards as- 
sumed ? Can we tell the exact time of this ? 
When was religion united with chivalry? 
-[Were religious rites used in the days of 
Charlemagne ? What do we read concern- 
ing Edward the Elder? What does the 
story of Hereward show us ? Was knight- 
hood a personal distinction only? What 
was every person of noble birth required 
to do at 12 years ?]-In what countries did 
chivalry flourish most? 

2. How many and what were the degrees 
of chivalry ? Who could be classed" with 
the knights bannerets ?-[What is said of 
the privileges of a knight banneret?]- What 
was the second class of chivalric heroes ? 
What was a general qualification for knight- 
hood ?-[Was it a costly dignity? Was it 
always a reward of merit?]- What was the 
last class of chivalry ? 

3. When did the education of a knight 
generally commence? At what place? 
Mention the particulars. What was the 
youth called during the first 7 years'? 
-[What was taught during this period ?]- 
What took place at 14 years? When was 
his education completed?- [Mention some 
of the duties of esquires. How did they 
strengthen their bodies ?] 

4. At what age was knighthood confer- 
red? What was the preparation for it? 
What was the place of inauguration ? 
When did the candidate take his oaths of 
chivalry ?-[What did he swear to do?> 
What followed in the ceremony? What 
concluded it?- [What exemptions were there 
from these rites ?] 

5. What is said of the cavalier's horse 1 
Mention his offensive weapons — his defen- 
sive ?-[How was his defensive armour some- 
times carried ? Was it easy to kill a knight 
in full armour? How could it be done? 
Was his horse defended?] 

6. Mention the virtues in the chivalric 
character?- [What was the strongest tie 
of chivalry ? What is said of a thirst for 
renown ? Of a knight's humility ? Of his 
clemency ? Towards whom, nevertheless, 
was he ruthless ? What is said of his fideli- 
ty? Of his courtesy?] 

7. Give an account of his every-day life. 
-[What did the minstrels do? What was 
there peculiar in the entertainments of 
knights ?] 

8. How was the knight's lady educated? 
-[What tasks were imposed on her intel- 
lect? What is said of the influence of 
love in chivalry ?]-What consideration was 
there of woman in chivalry ?-[Relate a piece 
of history on this point.] 

9. In what amusements did knights and 
ladies most delight? What were tourna- 
ments ?- [Mention the manner in which they 
were got up. When might a knight tour- 
ney ?]-Describe the place of combat. Who 
were the judges ? What were the rewards ? 
-[Give an account of the combat.]-How 
many kinds of jousts were there ? Describe 
the joust of utterance. What absurd prac- 
tice grew out it? Describe the joust of 



26 



QUESTIONS ON 



peace. Were jousts more martial than 
tournaments ?-[How long did these pastimes 
last?] 

10. How many orders of chivalry remain 
to the present time ? What is said of most 
of the present orders of knighthood? Of 
what general description were they ? Over 
what countries did they extend? What 
were some of the religious orders? What 
is said of the military orders ? 

11. How is chivalry related to the age in 
which it arose ? What did the good it in- 
cluded spring from ? Were its theory and 
practice so good as they should have been ? 
-[What is said of the gayety and imagination 
of the early ages of Europe? Mention the 
beneficial effects of chivalry in regard to 
civilization, &c. What opposite tendencies 
had it? Were not these mostly excep 
tions ?]-When did the light of chivalry go 
out? By what causes in particular did its 
power cease? 

Romances. 

What were romances ? Why so called ? 
When did they first appear ? What their 
origin ?-[ What were the subjects of the 
early romances? Mention some of the ce- 
lebrated ones. What progeny sprung from 
these ? What new order arose afterwards ? 
What was the last form of the Romance ? 
What has an author observed concerning 
these books ? What is said of them as re- 
spects Italy and England?] 

Pilgrimages. 

What were pilgrimages ? In what light 
were they considered ? At what time did 
they prevail? What places were most 
visited ?-[What is said of Jerusalem as a 
resort? What of Compostella? In what 
countries have pilgrimages been common ?] 

Manners and Character of the Gothic Na- 
tions. 
f 

[Why are the manners, &c. of these 
tribes curious objects of inquiry ?]-Who 
were the Gothic or Scandinavian nation ? 
What were the other barbarous tribes from 
northern Europe or Asia? (1) Were some 
characteristics common to them all ? What 
did their habits and education form them 
for? Why could the Roman world but fall 
before them ?-[What reasons are there to 
believe that the Scandinavian and Scythian 
nations had the same origin ? How was 
the theology of the Scandinavians an index 
of their manners ? Mention the names and 
attributes of their divinities. What joys 
did they expect hereafter? Was there a 
similarity between their manners and those 
of the Germans ? Whence were the Ger- 
mans derived ? What was the religious 
system of the Celtse? When did the Goths 
nominally embrace Christianity ?]-(2) What 
is said of the diversities of character that 
existed?-[Mention some particulars respect- 
ing the Goths properly so called. When 



they were divided into Ostrogoths and Visi- 
goths, in what respects did their policy 
vary ? Mention some particulars from the 
Visigoths' code of laws. Give an account 
of the Heruli. Of the Huns.] 

Learning and the Arts. 

1. Why are these topics to be treated ac- 
cording to certain eras? Describe the three 
eras included in this sketch.-[Did the Au- 
gustan age extend a little into this period ?] 

2. What is to be noticed in the first era? 
What style of writing soon prevailed ? 
Were the writers, however, inferior in ge- 
nius to their predecessors? Was there a 
decline in science and philosophy ?-[Men- 
tion some particulars of the poets on this 
subject. What is said concerning several 
other authors in science, philosophy, &c. ?] 

3. Were the successors of Augustus ene- 
mies to literature? Why then was genius 
cramped ?-[In what state was learning, &c. 
towards the conclusion of this era? What 
is said of the poets? Between the age of 
Constantine and the destruction of the em- 
pire, were there any very distinguished 
names in philosophy, &c. ?] 

4. What is said of the seminaries of 
learning in Rome and Italy ? Which school 
was next to that at Rome ? What schools 
flourished in Greece ? What is said of 
Constantinople as a seat of literature ? 
What is said of the schools in Judea? 
What were taught, in the schools of Egypt? 
-[What prepared the way for the depres- 
sion of the intellect ? From what cause did 
the arts decline?] 

5. What is included in the second era? 
What was presented during a thousand 
years? What intervals of light were there? 
Which was the darkest period ? When 
did the classic authors and the spoken 
Latin tongue cease? Did the northern in- 
vaders originate the catastrophe? What 
was their influence on learning ? What 
causes must of necessity have produced a 
state of darkness ?-rWhat does Gibbon say 
on this subject ? What bright side is there 
to this picture ? How did false Christianity 
operate to the depression of learning? By 
what was the number of manuscripts re- 
duced? After the sixth century, what was 
the state of things as to learning? What is 
said of the clergy ? What was the effect of 
the exertions of Charlemagne and Alfred to 
dispel the darkness ? By what was the 
singular dearth of learning evinced? To 
what class of people was learning confined? 
What can be said to their honour ? What 
influence had Cassiodorus on this subject? 
Describe the intellectual condition of the 
Arabians. Of the Moors of Cordova. What 
is said of the arts in this era? When was 
the dawn of literature in England ? De- 
scribe the influences which soon triumph- 
ed over it.] 

6. Can we easily fix the period when the 
darkness ended and the light began ? What 
is said of Roger Bacon in the thirteenth cen- 
tury? What is said of some learned Ita- 



MODERN HISTORY. 



$7 



iians ia the fourteenth century'? At the 
same period, who flourished in England and 
Scotland 1 What is said of Spain ? Why, 
on the whole, do we fix on the fifteenth 
rather than the fourteenth century as the 
era of the revival of learning - ? What cir- 
cumstances favoured the development of 
the mind a century after Petrarch? What 
first felt the influence of these causes ? 
When were philosophy and science advan- 
ced'? What it said of improvements since'? 
-[Of what is the following account designed 
as a sketch ? What resulted from the fall 
of Constantinople ? In the restoration of 
learning, what was the most important step ? 
Who were engaged in looking up manu- 
scripts ? What pope was distinguished for 
encouragement of learning'? 

What was one great cause of the restora- 
tion of learning? What people led in this 
restoration 1 What other nations soon felt 
the influence'? Who is considered as the 
father of French poetry ? What is said of 
English scholars 1 Give an account of the 
progress made in literature in Europe ? 
What is said of the progress of philosophy '? 

Give some details concerning the fine arts 
at this period. When did the human mind 
put forth its greatest efforts? For what was 
that period distinguished ? Who taught the 
true method of philosophizing? Was the 
progress of philosophy rapid at first? Who 
at length dispelled the darkness that rested 
on philosophy ? What is said of Locke? 

Give an account of the philosophers on 
the continent before the time of Bacon. 
What is said of Kepler, Tycho Brahe, and 
Huygens ? Mention the instruments that 
were invented, connected with the advance- 
ment of knowledge. What learned socie- 
ties were established in the seventeenth 
century? What is said of the useful and 
mechanic arts in this century ? What was 
the progress of literature in the middle por- 
tion of this era? Give the names of some 
fine writers in England and France. What 
was the culture of the fine arts at this pe- 
riod ? 

What is said of the last portion of the 
present era? What sciences during this 
period have been fixed on a new and firm 
basis ? What is here said of astronomical 
science? Have the eighteenth and nine- 
teenth centuries been distinguished in po- 
lite learning? When is the Augustan age 
of English literature said by some to have 
begun? Mention some names. What is 
here said of poetry ? What is said of litera- 
ture in the United States ? What of peri, 
odical literature? 

Give an account of the fine arts in this pe- 
riod. What is the character of the inven- 
tions of these times ? Mention some disco- 
veries and inventions. On what does the 
further improvement of mankind in know- 
ledge, depend ? What societies are there 
for this object in England and France? 
Where else are there literary associations? 
What is said of the power of association? 
What is effected by newspapers? Give a 
further account of them. 



In what did the ancients excel 1 But 
what was reserved for the moderns in in- 
vention? In what branches of knowledge 
did the ancients fail ?] 

Discoveries and Inventions. 

[2. What account can you give of corn 
mills ? 

3. What did the ancients know concern- 
ing clocks of mechanical structure ? How 
old is the invention of clocks ? When is 
the first mention made of watches ? What 
other particulars can you mention? 

4. What is said of linen, used as clothing? 

5. Give an account of glass windows. 

6. Of glass mirrors. 

7. When was the mariner's compass in- 
vented ? Who was its author or improver 1 
What are we to think of the Chinese pre- 
tensions to the discovery ? What has re- 
sulted from this invention ? 

8. What is said concerning the knowledge 
of gunpowder? 

9. What particulars can you mention con- 
cerning fire-arms ? 

10. Mention the various substances on 
which letters were written, previously to 
the invention of paper from cotton or linen 
rags. When was cotton paper first made ? 
When was its use general ? When was it 
superseded by paper from linen ? 

11. Were wooden types ever used for 
printing ?• Who discovered the art of print- 
ing with moveable metal types ? When ? 
What circumstances prove Guthenberg as 
the inventor? What was the state of the 
art at first? Who probably invented the 
art of casting characters in metal ? How 
was the art spread throughout Europe? 
What facts show that Holland is entitled to 
the merit of inventing stereotype printing? 

12. Relate the history of the steam en- 
gine? What people first applied them to 
navigation? Mention further particulars.] 

Incidents and Curious Particulars. 

[1. What matter is here included ? 2. What 
is said of the library founded by Trajan? 
3. What is said concerning schools in Eu- 
rope? 4. Mention what we learn from 
Seneca, of the journeys of the Romans. 
5. What is said of the use of breeches or 
trowsers? 6. What was the state of agri- 
culture in Italy, after the age of Tiberius? 
7. Describe the habitations of our English 
ancestors in early times. 8. What is said 
of an inundation in 1100? 9. Mention some 
instances of the wild magnificence or bar- 
barity of the middle ages. 10. Give the 
history of banking institutions. 11. How 
was Arabian magic introduced into Europe ? 
12. What is said of the building of Windsor 
castle ? 13. Give a history of the lighting 
of London by night. 14. Relate what is 
said of the warders, in the times of feudal 
strife. 15. What happened to Germany, 
between the years 1312 and 1315 ? 15. What 
is said of the introduction of potatoes into 
Europe ? 17. What is said of a plague in 



28 



QUESTIONS ON MODERN HISTORY. 



England, in 1500 ? 18. Relate some instan- 
ces, showing the slow progress of improve- 
ment. 19. What is said of the fixing of the 
interest of money by law? 20. What two 
awful calamities befel London, between 
1660 and 1670 ? 21. What took place among 
the Indians, a few years before the landing 
of the puritans at Plymouth ? 22. How 
many acres of waste lands are there in 
Great Britain and Ireland? 23. What is 
said of American shipping, &c. ? 24. How 
many volumes were there in the public li- 
braries of Europe, in 1829 ? 25. Detail the 
expenses of Great Britain, in war. since 
1688 ?] 

Present state of several nations, in respect 
to Agriculture, lioads, fyc. 

[2. Give an account of agriculture. 3. What 
■was the condition of the roads in the dark 
ages ? In what country, in modern times, 
were they generally improved? What is 
the state of the roads and bridges in Eng- 
land? What improvement has recently 
been made throughout Europe, in this re- 
spect? Mention the new roads that have 
been constructed. State what has been 
done in the United States, in respect to 
roads and bridges. 4. Relate what is said 
of canals in various countries. What is 
said of the employment of steam vessels ? 
5. Give an account of travelling in modern 
times. 6. What is said of the increase of 
education ? As knowledge extends, has it 
become more profound? 7. Mention the 
points of improvement in external condi- 
tion. What is said of the alteration in Eng- 
land? 8. What has caused the increase 
of population of late ? Mention the places 
that are increasing. What is said of Eng- 
land, in this respect? What of the United 
States? 9. What is said of the approxima- 
tion of the lower classes to the higher, es- 
pecially in European society? 10. Give an 
account of the various trades and manufac- 
tures that have sprung up of late, in conti- 
nental Europe. What is said, also, of the 
present manufacturing industry of Great 
Britain ? What, of the United States ? 
11. Give an account of governmental re- 
forms. 12. Relate what is doing in the way 
of religious enterprises.] s\ p**' <r> 

The Christian Churlfh. C O 

1. Mention the three distinct heads under 
which the affairs of the church are to be 
considered 



2. Describe the state of the church in 
the first era. What leading events are to 
be noticed in this period ?-[What is said of 
the appearance of Jesus Christ on earth? 
Describe the general success of the Gospel, 
under the preaching of the apostles and 
others. What is said of the ten great per- 
secutions of the church ? Give an account 
of each. Under these persecutions, how 
was religion exemplified by christians ?] 

3. At the commencement of the second 
era, what was the external condition of the 
church? When did evils begin to arise 
from within 1 What did worldly prosperity 
produce? In what particulars were the 
disorders of the Church, &c. manifested? 

4. At the commencement of the third 
era, why was the Reformation of religion 
needed ? What proportion of the Christian 
body adhered to the papacy ? How did the 
Protestant religion spread at first ? How is 
it now spreading ? What is the date of the 
Reformation? Who was the instrument 
employed in it? What was the immediate 
occasion of it?-[Who were among Luther's 
fellow labourers and patrons ? Into what 
countries did the new opinions extend ? 
When was the Reformation established in 
Germany ?] 

5. What countries soon become Protest- 
ant? What countries adhered to Rome? 
Was the Greek Church affected by the re- 
volution in the West? What countries are 
the seat of this religion? In 1589, what did 
the Russian church do?-[What is the cha- 
racter of the Russian and Greek church 1 
What their numbers ? In what countries 
are they scattered? What means did the 
Roman church use to regain their lost pow- 
er? What causes have contributed to 
weaken her power, <&c. ? What are the 
temporal dominions of the pope? What 
the number of his ecclesiastical subjects? 
Which are papal countries wholly? Which 
chiefly ? In what other countries are pa- 
pists found ? What is a general division of 
the Protestants? 

1. Relate the history of the Lutheran 
church. What is said in regard to the sta- 
tistics of this church ? 

2. Give an account of the Reformed 
churches. Which are they principally ? 

1. What can you say of the Calvinists ? 

2. Describe the Church of England. 3. What 
is said o the Presbyterian Church of Scot- 
land ? 4- What of the Moravians? 5. Give 
an account of the Congregationalists of New 
England? 6. Describe the Prcsbyteiian 
church of the United States.] 



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